GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Gender Comparisons and Classification

Gender Development through the Life Span

Exploring Sexuality

Sexuality through the Life Span
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
GENDER AND SEX


Gender — characteristics of being female or male

Gender role: set of expectations prescribing how
females and males should act, feel, and think

Gender typing: process by which children acquire
thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate
for their gender
Sex — designates the biological aspects of being
female or male
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
Chromosomes — 23rd pair with X and Y
 Hormones


Estrogens


Influences development of female physical sex characteristics
and helps regulate menstrual cycle
Androgens

Testosterone promotes development of male genitals and
secondary sex characteristics
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES

Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex
hormones early in development

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

Androgen-insensitive males

Pelvic field defect

Failed sex reassignment
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
VIEW OF GENDER


Differing roles in reproduction placed different
pressures on males and females
Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and
sexual behaviors

Males — competition, violence, risk-taking

Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
SOCIAL INFLUENCES

Differences due to social experiences

Social role theory: gender differences result from
contrasting roles of men and women

Psychoanalytic theory of gender: claims child
identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6

Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier (even
in absence of same-sex parent)
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
SOCIAL INFLUENCES

Differences due to social experiences

Social cognitive theory of gender — gender
development results from observation and imitation,
use of rewards and punishments for genderappropriate behaviors

Mothers’ socialization strategies

Fathers’ socialization strategies
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
COGNITIVE INFLUENCES

Cognitive development theory of gender

Children’s gender typing occurs after they think of
themselves as boys and girls; gender constancy must be
achieved first

Once consistently conceived as male or female, children
prefer activities, objects, and attitudes consistent with
this label
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
COGNITIVE INFLUENCES

Gender schema theory

Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of
what is culturally gender-appropriate and
inappropriate

Gender-typed behavior can occur before children
develop gender constancy
Schema: cognitive structure
 Gender schema: organizes world in terms of male and
female

Gender Comparisons and Classification
GENDER STEREOTYPING

Broad categories that reflect our impressions and
beliefs about females and males

Traditional masculinity and femininity

Males – instrumental traits

Females - expressive traits

Roles and traits – unequal social status, power

Stereotyping varies with culture

Stereotyping of occupations
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Young Children’s Judgments about
Competency in Stereotyped Occupations
Gender Comparisons and Classification
GENDER SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Physical differences

Females
have longer life expectancy
 less likely to develop mental or physical disorders
 Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels


Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing
faster clotting and higher blood pressure
Gender Comparisons and Classification
GENDER SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Physical differences

Female brains are smaller, have more folds

Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is
larger in men

Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is
larger in males

Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show
more activity in females
Gender Comparisons and Classification
COGNITIVE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Some claim males better at math and
visuospatial skills and females better at
verbal skills

Others claim differences exaggerated

National standardized tests
Boys slightly better at math and science
 Girls better at reading and writing
 Overall, girls superior students to boys

Gender Comparisons and Classification
VISUOSPATIAL SKILLS OF MALES AND
FEMALES
Gender Comparisons and Classification
SOCIOEMOTIONAL SIMILARITIES
AND DIFFERENCES

Aggression
Males more physically aggressive in all cultures
 Females more verbally aggressive; use relational
aggression more than men


Self-Regulation


Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral
problems
Controversies over psychological differences
Gender Comparisons and Classification
SOCIOEMOTIONAL SIMILARITIES
AND DIFFERENCES

Overall meta analysis

Gender differences: small to nonexistent

Physical aggression differences were moderate

Largest difference in motor skills favoring males

Males more sexually active than females
Gender Comparisons and Classification
SOCIOEMOTIONAL SIMILARITIES
AND DIFFERENCES

Gender in context

Gender varies across contexts

Males more likely to help in perceived danger

Females more likely to volunteer to help with child

Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys

Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and
turn anger into aggression

Cultural backgrounds influence socialization
Gender Comparisons and Classification
MASCULINITY, FEMININITY, AND ANDROGYNY

Androgyny — presence of masculine and feminine
characteristics in same individual

Bem Sex-Role Inventory:
Instrumental, expressive traits
 Context influencing gender role is adaptive


Gender-role transcendence — people should be
evaluated as persons, not in terms of femininity,
masculinity, or androgyny
Gender Comparisons and Classification
BEM’S GENDER-ROLE CLASSIFICATION
Gender Development through the Life-Span
GENDER DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD



Children form many ideas about what the
sexes are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age
Boys receive earlier and more intense gender
socialization (e.g.: ‘boy code’)
Children show clear preference for same-sex
peers
Gender Development through the Life-Span
GENDER DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Transition point; changes in puberty

Gender-intensification hypothesis

Psychological and behavioral differences between boys
and girls become greater during early adolescence

Increased socialization pressures to conform to
traditional gender roles

Mixed messages and special problems
Gender Development through the Life-Span
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MEN AND
WOMEN

Rapport talk
Language of conversation, a way to establish
connections and negotiate relationships
 Preferred by women


Report talk
Language designed to give information, including
public speaking
 Preferred by men

Gender Development through the Life-Span
ADULTHOOD AND AGING

Women’s Gender Development


Women often try to actively participate in others’
development

Emotionally

Intellectually

Socially
Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and
self-determination in relationships
Gender Development through the Life-Span
ADULTHOOD AND AGING

Men’s gender development
Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent
 Can cause role-strain in


Health

Male-female relationships

Male-male relationships
Gender Development through the Life-Span
GENDER AND AGING

Parental imperative

Mothers and fathers adopt different gender roles so
they can raise children more effectively

Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and
sexism

Older men become more feminine, less active, and
more sensitive in relationships
Exploring Sexuality
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS


Biological

Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones

Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans
that it is difficult to specify hormonal effects
Sexual motivation also influenced by
cultural factors
Exploring Sexuality
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS

Cultural factors
Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial
 Sexual scripts — stereotyped expectancy patterns for
how people should behave sexually



Traditional religious script — sex is accepted only within
marriage; sex is for reproduction and sometimes affection
Romantic script — sex synonymous with love
Exploring Sexuality
THE 1994 SEX IN AMERICA SURVEY
Noncohabiting
Men
Cohabiting (married)
Men
1%
Never
A few times
a year
Women
Women
3%
A few times
a month
2 to 3 times
a week
4 or more
times a
week
Exploring Sexuality
SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Heterosexual attitudes and behavior

Different categories for frequency of sex

Married couples have sex more often

Most couples enjoy traditional sex

Adultery is exception, not the rule

Men think about sex more than women

Most lead conservative sexual lives
Exploring Sexuality
SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay
males

Bisexual: sexually attracted to both sexes

Research on biological and hormonal differences
on sexual preferences unclear

Area of hypothalamus governing sexual
behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males
Exploring Sexuality
THE CONTINUUM OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION
0
1
3
3
4
5
6
Exclusively
heterosexual
behavior
Largely
heterosexual
but
incidental
homosexual
behavior
Largely
heterosexual
but more
than
incidental
homosexual
behavior
Equal
amounts of
heterosexual
and
homosexual
behavior
Largely
homosexual
but more
than
incidental
heterosexual
behavior
Largely
homosexual
but
incidental
heterosexual
behavior
Exclusively
homosexual
behavior
Exploring Sexuality
SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay
males

Gender differences appearing in heterosexual
relationships also occurs in homosexual
relationships

Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in
dominant culture, with bicultural identity
Exploring Sexuality
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
Gonorrhea
 Syphilis
 Chlamydia
 Genital Herpes
 HPV – causes genital warts
 AIDS – sexually-transmitted disease caused
by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Exploring Sexuality
PROTECTING AGAINST STIS
Education and development of effective drug
treatments
 Only safe behavior is abstinence
 Know your and your partner’s risk status
 Obtain screening tests for STIs
 Have protected, not unprotected, sex
 Don’t have sex with multiple partners

Exploring Sexuality
FORCIBLE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

Rape

Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal
definitions vary by state

Victims reluctant to report rape; stats vary

5% of rape victims are males

Date or acquaintance rape: coercive sexual activity with
acquaintance or better known, a concern for colleges
Exploring Sexuality
SEXUAL HARASSMENT


Ranging from remarks to physical contact,
blatant propositions to sexual assaults
Most victims are women in educational and
workplace settings

Has serious psychological effects on victim

One person’s manifestation of power over another
Exploring Sexuality
RAPE VICTIM-OFFENDER RELATIONSHIPS
50
Percentage of sample
40
30
20
10
0
Classmate
Friend
Boyfriend/ Acquaintance
ex-boyfriend
Offender
Other
Sexuality through the Life-Span
CHILD SEXUALITY

Majority of children engage in some sex play

Usually with friends or siblings

Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals

Most motivated by curiosity

Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in
elementary school years
Sexuality through the Life-Span
ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY

Adolescence

Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies,
and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity

Most have insatiable curiosity about sex

Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have
times of vulnerability and confusion

Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality
Sexuality through the Life-Span
DEVELOPING A SEXUAL IDENTITY




Multifaceted, lengthy challenge to manage new
feelings, develop identity and self-regulation
Great variety in orientations, interest levels,
anxiety levels, activity, and reasons for choices in
activity
Gay or lesbian identity: coming-out
Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not
continue into adulthood
Sexuality through the Life-Span
ADOLESCENT SEXUAL BEHAVIORS

U.S. survey of sexual behavior
Most have sex after age 15, 80% by age 19
 First voluntary partner for girls is about same age
 Trend: adolescents waiting longer to have sex
 Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to be
safer and not really ‘having sex’

Sexuality through the Life-Span
RISK FACTORS, YOUTH ASSETS, AND
SEXUAL PROBLEMS

Personal risk factors

Ineffective or lack of use of contraceptives

Early maturation linked to early sexual
initiation; varies by ethnic group and SES

Lack of self-regulation
Sexuality through the Life-Span
OTHER RISKS

Sexually transmitted infections
3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually
 Africa: girls infected with HIV by adult men


Adolescent pregnancy
U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of
highest rates in developed world
 Negative consequences for teen mother and child


Cross-cultural studies on sexual active adolescents
Sexuality through the Life-Span
CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS OF
PREGNANCY
80
60
40
20
0
1970
1975
1980
1985
Year
1990
1995
2000
Sexuality through the Life-Span
CONSEQUENCES OF ADOLESCENT
PREGNANCY

Health risks for mother and child


Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality,
neurological problems, childhood illness
Young mothers more likely to
Drop out of school; were low achievers in school
 Have history of conduct problems
 Come from low-income backgrounds
 Live in poverty

Sexuality through the Life-Span
SEXUALITY AND AGING

Emerging adulthood





Time frame for sexual activity and singlehood
Most limit sex partners to 1 or two persons annually
Casual sex more common in ‘hooking up’
The earlier the age of first sex, the more sexual activity
in emerging adulthood
Religious adults have fewer sexual partners
Sexuality through the Life-Span
SEXUALITY AND AGING

Middle adulthood

Climacteric: midlife transition, fertility ends/declines

Women: Menopause late forties or early fifties;
Perimenopausal is transitional time
 Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)



Men — less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile
dysfunction (Viagra)
Ability to function slows little, frequency drops
Sexuality through the Life-Span
SEXUALITY AND AGING

Late adulthood

Men experience more changes than women
Orgasm less frequent
 More direct stimulation needed
 Erection problems more likely after 65


Sexuality can be lifelong

Two-thirds of older adults satisfied