Teaching Every Student
Cluster 13
Modules 35 – 37
Educational Psychology, ALE, 11th Edition
ISBN 0137144547
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Focus Questions
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What are the characteristics of effective teachers?
When and how should teachers use instructional
objectives and themes for planning?
In what situations would each of the following formats be
most appropriate: lecture, seatwork and homework,
questioning, and group discussion?
How does the teacher’s role vary in direct and
constructivist teaching approaches?
What is your position on the “curriculum wars” in reading
and mathematics?
How can teachers’ expectations affect student learning?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Overview of Cluster 13
I. Research on Teaching
II. The First Step: Planning
III. Teaching Approaches
IV. Differentiated Instruction
V. Diversity and Convergences in Teaching
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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What Would You Do?
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Review “What would you do?” on p. 553
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How would you differentiate instruction for these
very dissimilar students?
Do different philosophies of teaching provide
different answers to this question?
How will you grade work if you have successfully
differentiated instruction?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
I. Research on Teaching
Who was the most effective teacher you
ever had? What was it about this
teacher that made her/him effective?
What do teachers need to know to be
effective?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
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Clarity & Organization
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The clearer the presentations/explanations, the
more students learn
Warmth & Enthusiasm
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Teacher enthusiasm correlated with student
achievement
Teacher warmth and understanding associated
with students liking the class (and the teacher)
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
6
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
cont’d
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Teachers’ knowledge
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Complicated relationship between teachers’
content knowledge and student learning
Content knowledge aids in clearer presentations
and organization
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Knowledge for Teaching
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Expert teachers have elaborate systems of
knowledge
7 areas of professional knowledge:
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Content knowledge
General teaching strategies
Curriculum—content and age appropriate
Subjects-specific knowledge
Learner characteristics including cultural background
The learning setting
Goals and purposes of teaching
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
8
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
II. The First Step: Planning
Which of the following maxims about
teacher planning resonates with you,
and why?
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Time is of the essence
Plans are made to be broken
Don’t look back
A little planning goes a long way
You can do it yourself
One size fits all
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Planning
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Planning influences what students will learn
Several layers of planning—year, term, unit, week,
day
Plans reduce uncertainty in teaching
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Over-planning is associated with less learning (Why do you
think that is?)
Experienced teachers collaborate and learn from one
another
Reflection is an important part of planning (Why?)
Planning: A creative problem-solving process (How
so?)
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
10
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Objectives for Learning
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Instructional objectives: Intended learning outcomes
Three parts of behavioral objectives:
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Describe the intended student behavior
List the conditions under which the behavior is to occur
Define the criteria for acceptable performance
Cognitive objectives—starting with the general: Begin
by stating the objective in general terms and then
structure the plan accordingly
What are the pros/cons of each approach?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Flexible and Creative Plans—Using
Taxonomies
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Bloom’s taxonomy: Classification system
of educational objectives
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The Cognitive Domain
The Affective Domain
The Psychomotor Domain
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Cognitive Domain
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Remembering (Knowledge)
Understanding (Comprehension)
Applying
Analyzing
Creating (Synthesis)
Evaluating
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
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ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
The Affective Domain
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Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organization
Characterization by value
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Psychomotor Domain
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Voluntary muscle capabilities
The ability to perform a specific skill
Of relevance to a wide range of
educators: Fine arts, vocationaltechnical education, special education,
etc.
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Planning from a Constructivist
Perspective
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Teacher and students make decisions
together about content, activities,
approaches
Teacher has overarching goals that
guide planning
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
III. Teaching Approaches
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Two teacher-centered approaches:
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Expository Teaching
Direct Instruction
Expository teaching
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Emphasis on meaningful verbal learning
Use of deductive reasoning
Begins with a general advanced organizer
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Comparative
Expository
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Teaching Approaches cont’d
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Steps in expository teaching
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Advance organizer
Present content in terms of similarities and
differences using examples
Elaborate the advance organizer
Direct Instruction
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Best for the teaching of basic skills
Relatively unambiguous tasks
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
18
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Teaching Approaches cont’d
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Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions
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Review and check previous day’s work
Present new material
Provide guided practice
Give feedback and correctives
Provide independent practice
Review weekly and monthly
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
19
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Seatwork and Homework
Seatwork
 Seatwork often overused
 Should follow the lesson and give students
supervised practice
Homework
 Remember that students need to understand the
assignment!

Hold students accountable (i.e. check it!)
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
20
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Questioning and Discussion
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Types of questions:
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Fitting the questions to students
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Convergent—one right answer
Divergent—many possible answers
Different questioning patterns work better for students of
differing ages or ability levels
Respond to student answers in a way that promotes
learning
How should students be selected to answer questions?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
21
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Questioning and Discussion cont’d
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Advantages of group discussion
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Directly involves students
Disadvantages
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Unpredictable
May digress into “exchanges of ignorance”
Making sure students have adequate background info may
require a good deal of preparation
Overly dominant or disengaged students
What are some steps to prevent a few students from
dominating a discussion?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
22
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Teaching Reading, Writing, and
Arithmetic
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Whole-language approach
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Skilled-based approach (phonics)
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“Authentic”
Guess meaning of unfamiliar words from context
Alphabetic coding and awareness of letter sounds
are essential skills
Knowing meaning helps determine context
The best approach is probably in the middle
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Conceptual Change Teaching Science

Six stages of conceptual change in students:
1) initial discomfort with own ideas
2) attempts to explain inconsistencies between their
theories and the evidence
3) attempts to adjust measurements or observations
to fit personal theories
4) doubt
5) vacillation
6) conceptual change
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
24
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Conceptual Change Teaching Science
cont’d

Two central features of conceptual change
teaching:
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Commitment to understanding (rather than
“covering the curriculum”)
Encouraging students to make sense of science
using their current understanding
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
25
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
IV. Differentiated Instruction
Basic idea of differentiated instruction: teachers must
take into account not only the subjects they
are teaching but also the students
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What are the pros and cons of ability grouping?
What are the challenges of having students with
disabilities in your classroom? In what ways is it
beneficial to have students with disabilities in your
classroom?
How can technology improve access for students with
disabilities? How could it create barriers?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
26
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Within-Class and Flexible Grouping
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Within-class ability grouping
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Grouping students by ability within the same classroom
Concern: Ability grouping could lead to ability tracking
Concern: Students in lower-ability groups are less likely to
be asked critical questions or to have choice
Flexible grouping
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Grouping and regrouping based on learning needs
Continuous assessment to assure that students are always
working within the Zone of Proximal Development
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
27
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive
Classrooms
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Students with disabilities need:
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To learn the academic material
To be full participants in the day-to-day life of the
classroom
Students with disabilities benefit from:
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Advanced organizers with emphasis on what they
know and/or clear objectives
INCLUDE strategy
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
28
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
INCLUDE Strategy
(Friend & Bursuck, 2002)
Identify environmental, curricular, and instructional
demands of the classroom
Note students learning strengths/needs
Check for potential areas of student success
Look for potential problem areas
Use info gathered to brainstorm instructional
adaptations
Decide which adaptation to try
Evaluate student progress
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
29
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Teacher Expectations
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Expectations effects
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Self-fulfilling prophesy—groundless expectation
that leads to behavior that confirms the
expectations
Sustaining expectations—initial assessment
remains constant (fails to recognize new
information)
Have you ever felt you were the subject of selffulfilling or sustaining expectations as a
student? How did it feel?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
30
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Teacher Expectations
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cont’d
Sources of expectations
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Intelligence test scores
Gender
Notes from previous teachers
Med/psych reports
Knowledge about siblings
Appearance
Previous achievement
SES
Race & ethnicity
Actual behavior
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Expectations: A Case Study
Vernita Lee is an African American
student. She never knew her father.
She lives with her mother who is on a
very fixed income. Her medical file
details physical and sexual abuse from
relatives and family friends.
What expectations would you have for
this student?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
A Case Study, cont.
Would you be surprised to learn
Vernita Lee was an excellent
student and that her real name is…
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
33
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Oprah Winfrey
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
34
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Teacher-Student Interactions

Teachers with high expectations of students
tend to:
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Ask more questions, and more difficult questions
Allow more time and chances to respond
Provide more cues and prompts
Smile more and show greater warmth
Teachers with low expectations tend to:
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Ask easier questions, and allow less time for answers
More likely to respond with sympathetic acceptance
Praise inadequate answers
Offer less genuine praise
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
35
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Diversity and Convergences in
Teaching
Is it important for teachers to be aware of their
own biases, strengths, and blind spots? If so,
what suggestions do you have for teachers to
discover their biases?
Educational Psychology, ALE. 11th Edition
Anita Woolfolk
ISBN 0135094100
36
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.