Research Collection
Doctoral Thesis
The efficiency of dietary trivalent chromium on energy and
nitrogen metabolism, growth performance, and carcass
characteristics of growing-finishing pigs under various
nutritional conditions
Author(s):
Lemme, Andreas
Publication Date:
1999
Permanent Link:
https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-003876928
Rights / License:
In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted
This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more
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ETH Library
Diss.ETHNo. 13424
The Efficiency of dietary trivalent Chromium on Energy
and
Nitrogen
Metabolism, Growth Performance,
Carcass Characteristics
of growing-finishing
and
Pigs under
various nutritional conditions
A dissertation submitted to the
SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ZURICH
for the
degree
of
Doctor of Natural Sciences
presented by
Andreas Lemme
Dipl.-Ing.
agr.,
born
Göttingen (Germany)
May 14,
citizen of
accepted
on
1968
Germany
the recommendation of
Prof. Dr. C. Wenk, examiner
Prof. Dr. M. Lindemann, co-examiner
Dr. G.
Bee, co-examiner
Zürich 1999
Danksagung
Die
vorliegende Arbeit
wäre ohne die
praktische
und
geistige Unterstützung
gesamten Kollegiums sicherlich nicht durchführbar gewesen. Deshalb ist
Anliegen,
besonderes
die stets
allen für die immer spontan zugesagte
ausgeglichene Atmosphäre
Caspar Wenk
Prof. Dr.
(und geleistete)
mir ein
Hilfe und
danken.
möchte ich für die
vorliegenden
der
Durchsicht
zu
es
des
Überlassung
des Themas, die
Arbeit und die Übernahme
des
Betreuung und
besonders
Referates
herzlich danken.
Prof.
Merlin Lindemann
Dr.
Kentucky, Lexington, USA,
Department
vom
Science, University of
of Animal
danke ich herzlich für die spontane
Zusage
zur
Übernahme
des 1. Koreferates und den regen Gedankenaustausch via e-mail sowie die Durchsicht
dieser Arbeit.
Dr.
Giuseppe
Übernahme des
Bee möchte ich für die
2.
Koreferates, für seine scheinbar
Geduld bei der Erstdurchsicht dieser Arbeit und seinen dennoch überall
unerschöpfliche
und immer verbreiteten
Optimismus
meinen herzlichsten Dank
aussprechen.
Prof. Dr. Hans Peter Pfirter sage ich herzlichen Dank für die vielen Denkanstösse bei
der
Futterrezepturgestaltung.
Mischfutterwerkes St.
sehr
Desweiteren
Margrethen
speziellen Futtermischungen
Prof. Dr. Peter
Schweinen
ich für die
Walther
Vögeli gebührt
(nahezu jeder
möchte
für ihre Bereitschaft
ich
zur
den
Mitarbeitern
Produktion der
zum
des
Teil
danken.
mein besonderer Dank für die Blutentnahmen bei den
Stich ein
Treffer!). Myrtha
Arnold und
Anthony
Moses danke
jeweils prompt erledigten Plasmaanalysen.
Mathys
Versuchsgutes
und Rolf Bickel sowie Dr. Hans
Chamau möchte ich meinen Dank für die
Schweine und die
Vergnügen
mit Dir
Organisation
gemeinsam
der
Dr. Martin
der Schweine und die
und dem Personal des
zuverlässige Betreuung
Tiertransporte aussprechen. Walter,
Schweine
Bei Dr. Daniel Schwörer und dem
Schlachtung
Leuenberger
zu
es
war
der
ein
zersägen!
gesamten MLP-Team bedanke ich mich für die
gewissenhafte Zerlegung
der
Schlachtkörper.
Scheeder, Meret Gebert, Frau Gutknecht, Frau Braun, Hermann Bossi als
Danksagung
auch Carmen Kunz danke ich für ihre
Der
die
Unterstützung
Eidgenössischen Forschungsanstalt
bei den diversen Laborarbeiten.
für Nutztiere
(RAP)
in Posieux danke ich für
Chrom-, Stärke-, Zucker- sowie Aminosäureanalysen.
Ausserdem möchte ich allen weiteren
angenehme
Arbeitsatmosphäre,
die
Kolleginnen
vielen
und
Kollegen
fachlichen
Diskussionen und die zahlreichen Arbeitseinsätze und
wie
für die
auch
ausgesprochen
nichtfachlichen
Hilfeleistungen
ein herzliches
Dankeschön sagen.
Mein
bester Dank
gilt
Johanna, die mir täglich
meiner Frau Annette und meinen
vor
Augen führ(t)en,
besteht, sondern noch sehr viel mehr anderes
dass das Leben nicht allein
zu
Ganz besonders herzlich danken möchte ich
Susanne Lemme, die
gefördert
von
Beginn
an
meinen
Kindern Alexander und
aus
Doktorat
bieten hat.
an
dieser Stelle auch meiner Mutter
Ausbildungsbildungsweg
befürwortet und
hat.
PS: Zudem möchte ich allen Kaffeetrinkern unter den
Kaffeekonsum
danken,
welcher
Jetonverkäufer eine besonderes
meinem
Amt
Kolleginnen
als
für den reichlichen
Kaffekassenverwalter
verantwortungsvolle Bedeutung verlieh.
und
Table
of
Contents
Summary
1
Zusammenfassung
4
General Introduction
7
Chromium Yeast
Growth Performance
affects
Whole Carcass Composition
Based
on:
A.
of growing-finishing
not
Pigs
11
Lemme, C. Wenk, M. Lindemann and G. Bee,
Annales de Zootechnie, 1999, vol. 48 (6)
(expected)
Abstract
11
Introduction
12
Materials and Methods
12
Results
17
Discussion
19
Conclusion
25
Chromium Yeast
depending on the
on:
Growth Performance
affects
Characteristics
Carcass
Based
but
of
growtng-finishing
Glycemic Index
A. Lemme, C. Wenk, M.
Lindemann,
Archives of Animal Nutrition
G.
but
not
Pigs
26
Bee,
(in print, submitted August 1999)
Abstract
26
Introduction
27
Materials and Methods
27
Results
33
Discussion,
39
Content
Dietary Chromhjm affected
Protein and Fat Accretion
Rate but not Energy Retention in finishing Pigs fed two
dietary
Based
on:
Protein Levels
45
A. Lemme, C. Wenk, G. Bee,, M. Lindemann
Archives of Animal Nutrition
(submitted)
Abstract
45
Introduction
46
Materials and Methods
46
Results
50
Discussion
54
Conclusion
59
General Conclusion
61
References
67
Summary
Since the late fifties trivalent Chromium
which
involved
is
in
insulin
metabolism.
(Cr)
is known
regard
to
pig production, published
probably
inconsistent
because of
data
growing-finishing pigs
relationship.
live
weight)
200
(C200),
under
Ten Swiss
fed
were
affects
Swiss
800
ug/kg
Cr
compared
to treatment
second
fattening.
While
fatty
of
phase
acid
profile,
concentration of
evidence that
dependent
supplemented
experiment
on
vs
on
changes
Cr affected
to be
affected
ad libitum in other
the clearest effect Cr
carbohydrate
reflected in whole
the lean breed and the
average
dose
a
response
kg
with either 0
feeding
urea
Cr
final
(C),
scale basis.
daily gain
composition,
by the
and feed
in the
well
as
as
supply, analysed
N and ketone bodies gave
and fat metabolism. The failure of
body composition
may have been
feeding regime (restricted feeding
reported experiments).
supplemented
characteristics in
experiment, especially
and
be
supplemented
initial to 105.5
restricted
a
measurements
significantly
is
supplemented
C for the total
carcass
carcass
(24.5
to
seems
applied.
if there
improved
plasma insulin, triglycerides, NEFA,
metabolite
plasma
not
were
meal diet
(C800)
the C200 diet showed both
conversion ratio
and
per treatment
barley-wheat-soybean
or
and
brought
mechanisms. With
to examine whether
performance
conditions
Large White pigs
(C400),
400
Pigs receiving
a
Cr-yeast
was
research
from the USA
in material and methods
Therefore, the purpose of the first study
trivalent chromium from
physiological
deriving mostly
variety
a
essential trace element
chromium
Moreover
evidence that chromium takes part also in further
as
scale in this
Since treatment C200 showed
diets of further trials contained 200
|ug/kg
Cr from
Cr yeast.
of
The aim of the second
study
supplemented
glycémie
carbohydrates).
composition,
were
Therefore
and
plasma
investigated
weight),
GI
Cr and
was to
evaluate if there is
traits of four
Large
energy
dietary
and Cr
and
treatments
White barrows
10 animals per treatment. The trial
(high and low)
relationship
between effects
index (GI) of the diet (kind and content of
performance,
in 40 Swiss
a
was
supplementation (0,
protein digestibility,
carcass
(HG0, HG200, LG0, LG200)
(31.7 initial
arranged
200
dietary
ug/kg)
as a
as
-
103.7
kg
2x2 factorial
final live
design
with
the main factors. The data
indicated, that the substitution of dietary carbohydrates through fat and crude fibre (low
-1-
Summary
Gl) resulted
in lower
growth performance
likely by impaired
very
Moreover the strong stimulation of insulin secretion due to the
of
increased
glucagon
carcass
finding
Depending
reduced in
was
Cr
deposition.
concentrations.
daily gain
This
fat
might have
supplementation
also affected
high
on
indicated that the energy
be
a
factor
levels
experiment
influencing
experiment
protein
on
pigs (48.2 kg
was
initial
-
previous
live
kg
as
trial all diets had
digestibility
increasing
on
the
nitrogen
was
dietary
a
by
CP content.
in
proportional
fed the low
CP
Cr
carcass.
which is discussed to
supplementation
allocated to
one
respiration
protein
at two
Sixteen Swiss
as
Cr yeast
Large
White
of four diets
(HPO,
dietary
factors:
1) crude
higher
was
was
improved
to
Despite
high
of total metabolisable energy
low
at
compared
the
dietary
was
finding
is
to
high
losses
CP content
lower and fat
likely
a
CP
as
to
CP
was
well
supply.
improved by
was
higher nitrogen
accretion
This
at
increased energy balance
nitrogen digestibility
However, due
diets.
were
and
(0, 200 ug/kg). With respect
Energy digestibility
whereas
absolute concentrations of
to the HP mixture
synthetic
combined with
contributed to the lower N-retention in
Cr
were
of the
no
clear effect
being
close to
deposition
consequence
was
of
a
lack of the essential amino acids histidine, isoleucine, and valine. The
relatively high
compared
dietary
urine and heat
utilisation could be observed.
pigs
Cr. In accordance to the
equal lysine, threonine, methionine, cystine,
GI.
growth
impaired
of several
one
of this balance and
combination of two main
high
insulin and
to the LGO group.
the GI is
composition
finishing pigs.
weight)
proposed dietary recommendation, protein
higher
dietary
of
objective
by dietary protein. However, utilisation
of metabolisable energy for
Fat
a
as
dietary protein supply
2) Cr supplementation
level but since energy losses
unaffected
the
the effects of
15.5 and 20.5 % with
levels and
tryptophan
the
at
on
and fat accretion in
83.0
plasma
evaluation did not corroborate evidences from the
chromium's effects. The
HP200, LPO, LP200) involving
protein supply
efficacy
modifies the chemical
focused
investigate
to
was
(CP)
carcass
dietary chromium
literature that
The third
experiment
availability
contributed to the
compared
availability expressed
nutritional factors, which determine the
results of the first
and fast
Gl, Cr affected the growth performance where
of the LG200 treatment
pigs
high
GI diets
from the
carbohydrates deriving
digestibility.
energy
pigs
amino acids in the LP-mixture
feeding merely
once a
day might
have also
of the LP treatments.
supplementation improved nitrogen
and fat
-2-
digestibility
at
both
CP
levels,
Summary
whereas energy
N losses
were
improved
compared
was
improved merely
decreased and
N utilisation. Heat
to
those
supplementation
at
CP
accretion
was
was
treatment.
supply. At high
increased
CP
provision urinary
by dietary
Cr
resulting
on
source
of the
and
dietary
pigs
fed the HP200 diet
accretion
was
reduced
Fat
composition
CP
supply
unchanged.
-3-
in
enhanced in
due to
both CP levels. The present data suggest that Cr stimulates
independent
utilisation is
high
production
of the HPO
deposition dependent
accretion
protein
at
of
dietary protein
while
total
energy
Cr
protein
and lowers fat
retention
and
Zusammenfassung
Seit
der
Ende
50er
Jahre
Spurenelement.
Insbesondere dessen
Bedeutung aber
es
ist. In der
eingebunden
USA
den
gibt
das
gilt
Chrom
dreiwertige
Verbesserung
der Insulinwirksamkeit ist hier
auch Hinweise, dass Cr in weitere
physiologische
widersprüchliche
scheinbar
oft
von
Mechanismen
die mehrheitlich
Schweineproduktion zeigen Publikationen,
stammen,
essentielles
als
(Cr)
aus
Grundlegende
Ergebnisse.
Unterschiede in Material und Methoden mögen hier z.T. die Ursache gewesen sein.
Daher
wurde
einer
in
supplementiertes dreiwertiges
Schweinen
wachsenden
Chrom in Form
die
Fütterungsbedingungen
Edelschwein pro Variante (24.5
einer
400
Kastraten
105.5
bis
kg Anfangs-
Anlehnung
oder 800
ppb
schweizerische
an
(C800)
Cr
Endmastphase
Die
und
der
200
Empfehlungen.
günstigere
eine
verglichen
mit der Variante C bessere
insbesondere
Futterverwertung
Schlachtkörperqualität
sowie
die
zu
des
Fettsäurenmuster
den
Fleischansatzvermögen)
Genotyp
sowie dem
Hingegen
(in
extrahierten
Fall
eine
Rasse
mit
bedingt
hohem
Fütterungsregime (restriktiv gegenüber ad libitum),
Ketonkörpern
von
Insulin, Triglyceriden,
im Plasma darauf
hin, dass Cr den
und Fettstoffwechsel beeinflusste.
Da bei Variante C200 die deutlichste
supplementierten Mischungen
der
(Gl, Typ und Menge
an
Wirkung
folgenden
Im zweiten Versuch sollte der
Index
diesem
deuteten die Konzentrationen
freien Fettsäuren, Harnstoff und
Kohlehydrat-
der
Hessen keinen Cr-Einfluss erkennen. Es wurde vermutet, dass eine
verwendeten
verhindert wurde.
in
beobachten
Cr-induzierte Reduktion des Fettansatzes durch die ohnehin mageren Tiere,
durch
(C200),
Fütterung erfolgte restriktiv in
während in den Varianten C400 und C800 kein Cr-Effekt
Schlachtkörperfettes
wurden mit
kg Endgewicht)
(C),
von
Schweizer
Rasse
die entweder 0
beinhaltete. Die
Die Schweine der Variante C200 hatten
Tageszunahmen
Dosis
welcher
in
Schlachtkörperqualität
die
zehn
Je
und
Chromhefe unter schweizerischen
Gersten-Weizen-Sojaschrot Mischung gefüttert,
(C400)
war.
von
und
Mastleistung
beeinflusst.
ob
untersucht,
Studie
ersten
zu
beobachten
Versuche 200
Frage nachgegangen
Kohlenhydraten)
-4-
ppb
Cr
war
aus
enthielten die Cr
Chromhefe.
werden ob der
des Futters die
glykämische
Auswirkungen
einer Cr-
Zusammenfassung
beeinflusst. Deshalb wurde
Zulage
40 Kastraten der Rasse Schweizer Edelschwein
an
(31.7 kg Anfangs- bis 103.7 kg Endgewicht), welche gleichmässig in die
vier Varianten
HGO, HG200, LGO und LG200 aufgeteilt wurden, die Mastleistung, die Energie- und
Schlachtkörperqualität
die
Proteinverdaulichkeit,
einige
sowie
untersucht. Der Versuch wurde mit den Faktoren Gl (hoch und
und 200
Supplementierung (0
Austausch
Der
in
resultierte
der
der
Tiere
möglicherweise
Energieverdaulichkeit
HG-Varianten
wurde
Nahrungs-Faktor
Mastleistung
zu
Reduktion
Untersuchungen
Das dritte
nicht
im
Cr-Zulage
bei
Experiment
bei
einer
Energieverfügbarkeit
Wechselwirkung
niedrigem
wurden
im
Gl
zwischen Cr-
(LG200)
einem
zu
weisen darauf hin, dass der
Cr-Wirkung
nehmen kann.
Literaturangaben,
die
durch
welche eine
Schlachtkörper-
bestätigt.
als
zwei
Nährstoff ans atz
mit
Glukagonkonzentrationen
postulierten,
Cr-Experiment beschäftigte
welcher
ppb)
bestand eine
Fettansatz
weiterer
Gesamtstoffwechsel-Untersuchung
200
besseren
sein scheint, der Einfluss auf die
Uebereinstimmend mit dem ersten
Futters,
der
(niedriger Gl)
stand. Der höhere Fettansatz
Zusammenhang
neben
Rohfaser
wahrscheinlich
sehr
was
Tageszunahmen führte. Diese Beobachtungen
der
Cr-bedingte
und
Fett
ebenfalls die Insulin- und
wobei die
Supplementierung Gl,
Gl ein
Design angelegt.
durch
im
und Cr-
niedrig)
auch durch eine starke Insulinsekretion stimuliert.
Plasma. Hinsichtlich der
Rückgang
2
herabgesetzten Leistung,
Cr-Zulage beeinflusste
Die
x
Kohlenhydraten
von
einer
verschlechterten
im 2
ppb Cr)
Blutparameter
von
war
im
es,
die
wird.
Ziel
dieser
Wirkung einer Cr-Zulage (0
(15.5
RP-Leveln
des
Rohproteingehalt (RP)
diskutiert
Einflussfaktor
verschiedenen
Schweinen
sich mit dem
bzw.
Lebendmassebereich
20.5%)
48.2
bis
bzw.
auf
83.0
den
kg
zu
untersuchen. Dafür wurden 16 Kastraten der Rasse Schweizer Edelschwein auf die vier
Futtervarianten
HPO, HP200, LPO, LP200 verteilt. Im Gegensatz
Versuchen, die sich mit dieser Thematik beschäftigten,
Cystin-,
Analog
Die
Threonin- und
zu
den
Tryptophankonzentrationen
Futtermischungen
Energieverdaulichkeit
aufgrund
höherer Harn und
war
der zweiten Studie
war
-5-
Lysin-, Methionin-,
in allen
Mischungen gleich.
der Gl in allen Diäten hoch.
beim hohen RP-Niveau
Wärme-Energieverluste
anderen Cr-
die
waren
waren
zu
günstiger
als beim tiefen, aber
der Schweine der HP-Varianten
Zusammenfassung
hinsichtlich
konnten
der
Varianten beobachtet werden.
Energie (ME)
als auch die
bei
effizienter
Fettverdaulichkeit
Verwertung
wurde
mit
in
der ME für Wachstum
niedriger
den
höherer Stickstoffverluste kein klarer
Proteingehalt
geringer
zu
den
auf die
Beobachtungen
entsprechenden
reduzierte
während
konnte
die
aufgrund
Stickstoffverwertung
gefüttert wurden, gefunden
Empfehlungen entsprach,
und der Fettansatz der Tiere der
vergleichsweise
Eine
Allerdings
war.
Futterproteineinfluss
des LP-Futters den
den HP-Tieren. Diese
zwischen
beobachtet
HP-Varianten
bei den Schweinen, die mit den HP-Diäten
war
RP-Ver sorgung.
Stickstoffverdaulichkeit bei diesen Tieren verbessert
der
Unterschiede
Dennoch, sowohl die totale Verwertung der umsetzbaren
Tieren
den
klaren
keine
Energiebilanz
war
werden. Obwohl
der Proteinansatz
Varianten höher im
Vergleich
ist wahrscheinlich darauf zurückzuführen, dass
andere essentielle Aminosäuren, wie z.B.
Histidin, Isoleucin und Valin in einem
relativen
unter
Mangel vorlagen.
Insbesondere
Berücksichtigung
kann auch der relativ höhere Anteil
täglichen Fütterung
an
der
synthetischen
einmaligen
Aminosäuren
im LP Futter die N-Retention limitiert haben.
Die
Cr-Zulage
RP-Gehalt
der
Proteinniveau
verbesserte die Stickstoff- und die Fettverdaulichkeit
(HP200) verbessert wurde. Bei hoher RP-Versorgung
Vergleich
ein erhöhter Proteinansatz
Ausdruck kam. Die
Gruppe
Varianten
vom
Ration, wohingegen die Energieverdaulichkeit lediglich bei hohem
Variante HP200 im
der HPO
unabhängig
Variante HPO
festzustellen,
Wärmeproduktion
was
setzten
zur
im
was
war
Zusammenhang
unabhängig
von
geringere
waren
in
der
Harnstickstoff-Verluste und
in einer besseren
Stickstoffverwertung
zum
ebenfalls in der HP200 Variante höher als in
mit dem Proteinansatz steht. Die Tiere der Cr-
der
Proteinversorgung weniger
Fett
an
als
die
jeweiligen Kontrollgruppen. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass
hinsichtlich des Proteinansatzes der Cr-Effekt
der Herkunft des
Energieansatz
war,
Futterproteins abhängt.
und die
Energieverwertung
liegt die Vermutung nahe,
Futterproteins
dass
RP-Gehalt der Ration bzw. auch
vom
Da im
von
Gegensatz
der
Chrom die
nicht verbessert aber die für den Ansatz
-6-
Nährstoffansatz der
Cr-Supplementierung
supplementiertes
umverteilt.
zum
zur
von
unbeeinflusst
Gesamtausnutzung
Verfügung
stehende
des
Energie
General Introduction
Chromium research started
Schwarz
where
(1955),
by
chance with
observed
they
"factor 3 fraction"
an
experiment
prepared
from
brewer's yeast. In
of
they separated
substance from that "factor 3 fraction" which
a
of
glucose
impairment
factor,
GTF) (Schwarz and Mertz, 1957). The
(Cr)
as
the active
essential trace element
still not been
Dietary
action
by
same
potentiate
trivalent chromium is known to
authors
(glucose
tolerance
identified
trivalent
reported
increased
Cr and therefore concluded that Cr
structure of GTF has
(at least
as
completely
plasma
the insulin effects. In addition there
the greater effectiveness of
However, although the mechanism is
observed
improved
not
insulin action and
1991; Anderson, 1992), ruminants (Bunting
(Pagan
et
al, 1995), poultry (Kim
1993; Amoikon
et
other hand
enhanced
an
inhibited
development
accretion due to
supposed
several
structure of
(Mertz, 1998).
investigators
tolerance in humans
al, 1994; Subiyatno
similarities
et
(Anderson
et
al, 1997; Guan
et
al, 1997;
glucose
to
glycogen,
gluconeogenesis
fat and
and
ketogenesis
of muscle and fat tissue
supplemented
Cromwell, 1995, 1997; Grela
Cr
et
was
protein
-7-
the
which
(Kaneko, 1989a).
observed in several
al, 1997; Lien
on
et
have
et
al,
al, 1996), horses
Lien et
one
causes
hand and
finally
et
al,
al, 1998).
of several enzymes in the presence of insulin
activity
conversion of
et
are some
bound Cr
with
loading
its
al, 1996a, 1996b), and pigs (Evock-Clover
al, 1995; Matthews
The alteration of
improved
et
organic
completely clear,
glucose
synthesis
oligopeptide (low-
an
between the determined chemical structure of LMWCr and the
explain
the
membrane. Davis and Vincent
molecular-weight chromium-binding substance, LMWCr) by initiating
GTF which may
receptors due
picolinate) regulates
Cr
that insulin may stimulate the activation of
potentiates
understood. In
of insulin to insulin
binding
and/or insertion of insulin receptors into the
turn
as an
insulin action but the mode of
which Cr is involved in insulin metabolism is not
Cr, which in
study
elucidated.
completely
(1997b) postulated
later
a
to
found to prevent and
was
Mertz, 1959). However the
and
due
of GTF and since then Cr has been known
ingredient
(Schwarz
1992 Evans and Bowman
to
a
removal from the bloodstream in rats
cure an
chromium
tolerance
glucose
improved
supplementation
a
with rats of Mertz and
an
on
the
results in
an
An enhanced
protein
experiments (Mooney
al, 1998; Hossain, 1998).
and
However
General Introduction
the
reported
authors
same
inconsistent with
to be
appeared
that other hormones such
al, 1993;
Clover et
With
regard
Cr
depending
the
on
the Cr responses
have been caused
The
(Page
et
et
1997; Wenk
et
sex
(Guan
et
aspects
two
et
al, 1997b) which
al, 1997; Min
et
were
of main interest:
carcass
et
quality,
endogenous
and
composition
minerals
et
al, 1986;
(Moshtaghie
studies
were
energy
supply
dealing
et
1997),
Seaborn and
to be influenced
stress of the animals
numerous
rages from 10 to 48
endogenous
ug/kg
ug/kg.
In addition trivalent Cr of
(0.4
to 2.0
%)
Although
to
(Striffler
et
for
organically
provided
protein (Mertz
al, 1998), carbohydrates
pig production
i.e.
trace
merely protein
de
Ligt
dietary
et
and
al, 1998).
Cr
and, therefore, the Cr need
can
be
and exogenous factors it should be noted that the
(as
an
appreciation
of bioactive
Cr)
is low and
inorganic
bound Cr
sources
seems to
be
is absorbed at very low levels
more
readily absorbed
and
more
(Mowat, 1997).
many Cr studies have been carried out in recent years it is neither
estimate the Cr
et
whereas the concentration of total Cr ranges from 31 to
408
active
fat
reported
as
was
(Ward
Stoecker, 1989; Anderson, 1993), and
van
natural content of ethanol-soluble Cr
biologically
by genetics
took into account (Lindemann et al, 1995b; Harris et al, 1995;
were
but
might
al, 1993; Mooney and Cromwell, 1994,
with nutritional aspects in
Beside the facts that the effects of
by
which
al, 1992; Ani and Moshtaghie, 1992). However, only few Cr
Ward et al., 1997; Lien et al., 1998;
confounded
traits),
serum
al, 1997a), duration of Cr application
affect Cr response
might
Kim et al,
Roginski, 1969;
(Kozlovsky
also
However
and exogenous factors:
al, 1997). Moreover in experiments with other mammalians, evidence
that the diet
al, 1998;
et
partly inconsistent,
al, 1997) and/or
et
were
development in growing pigs.
growing pigs seemed
al, 1995; Matthews
evidence
some
al, 1995a, 1995b; Savoini
experiments
al, 1995), form of Cr (Page
et
al, 1995; Min
pigs,
and tissue
in different
Cr response in
a
al, 1992),
(Boleman
in
interactions between Cr and
by
of
magnitude
et
investigated parameters (performance,
reported
which
deposition.
supplementation
2) performance
and
supplemented animals,
involved in Cr metabolism (Evock-
are
al, 1994; Amoikon
1) Fertility and reproduction (Lindemann
Campbell, 1998)
in Cr
insulin action. There is
hormone
for decreased fat
dietary
to
deposition
improved
an
growth
as
Ono et
responsible
could be
decreased fat
requirement
nor
to
give
-8-
a
recommendation for Cr
possible
supply (NRC,
General Introduction
1998). Several dose-response experiments in pigs
inconsistent
the
on
hand and
one
due to differences in the
1993; Lindemann
and
experimental procedures
Cromwell, 1997; Min
Because of the poor
Special
in the
interest
composition,
metabolism
we
Previous
first
a
as
for
experiment
fed diets
were
with
acid pattern of the whole
carcass
physiological
as
insulin level
insulin resistance is affected
index'
(GI)
depends
of
on
by
This
source,
form,
any
interacts with
study
was
fat.
for Cr
(Kozlovsky
velocity
of
or
solubility,
and
which
affects
dietary
Cr
the
200
and chemical
experimental
was
2x2
a
as
ppb
was
Cr
as
and
the content
carbohydrate, protein
and fat
dietary supplementation.
carbohydrates
retention and excretion
or
the
even
absorption (Higgins
concentration of
et
development
as
of
al, 1996) which
glucose
diets had
a
adequate)
was
or
'glycémie
(0
the
and insulin
metabolism
to carry out the second
experiment.
factorial
or
Thus
design including
the
factors
ppb
Cr had the
low). The experimental methods
was
focused
on
Cr
energy and
were
nitrogen
of the loin muscle.
partly
Cr
carbohydrates.
carbohydrate
trigger
(high
high glycémie
dietary
of
amount
Cr yeast since the amount of 200
composition
experiment
to establish whether
(high
and
measurements
By determining
absorption,
identical with those of trial 1 but additional interest
The third
common
al, 1986; Seaborn and Stoecker, 1989;
et
prandial plasma
response in trial 1) and GI
digestibility
was
Cr from Cr yeast.
that source, form and amount of
factor
arranged
supplementation (0
highest
the post
ppb
carcass
responses due to Cr
reported
the
barrows
or
foodstuff, respectively (Foster-Powell and Brand Miller, 1995). The GI
consideration that
potentially
by
800
or
metabolites and hormones involved in
experiments demonstrated
be described
al,
et
under Swiss
growing-finishing
Anderson, 1993) Furthermore, the insulin metabolism
can
partly
al, 1997; Mooney
(grower and finisher, restrictive,
fatty
plasma
et
pigs, particularly
growth performance,
on
interact with the Cr metabolism
well
Cr responses in
on
focused
evaluated
composition (Page
al, 1997; Kwan Kwun
was
and
are
entirely comparable
not
were
and the diet
diet) containing either 0, 200, 400,
plasma
of several
knowledge
pigs
et
they
but results
al, 1997a).
et
conditions
conducted in which
ingredients
the other hand
al, 1995b; Grela
et
European feeding
on
performed
were
the
product of
the
second
study
index. The aim of this 2x2 factorial
or
200
ppb
affect nutrient and energy
-9-
Cr
as
Cr
yeast)
digestibility
as
or
well
since
all
design study
protein (CP) supply
as
nitrogen, carbon,
General Introduction
and energy balance and
earlier
protein
experiments (Lindemann
Lien et
et
deposition
in
al, 1995b; Harris
finishing pigs.
et
al, 1995;
In contrast to the
Ward et
al, 1997;
al, 1998) the diets contained balanced concentrations of the first five limiting
amino acids
whether
and fat
a
lysine,
Cr effect
methionine and
depends
on
cystine, threonine,
the content of
content of non essential amino acids
or
and the determination of the gaseous
four consecutive
days
and
limiting
tryptophan
amino acids
to
or
demonstrate
rather
on
the
total CP level. The collection of faeces and urine
exchange
were
carried out
each in metabolism crates and two
-10-
during
respiration
three
periods
chambers.
of
Chromium Yeast affects metabolism in
pigs
Chromium Yeast affects Growth Performance
not
Whole Carcass Composition
but
of growing-finishing
Pigs
Based
Andreas Lemme,
on:
Merlin Lindemann,
Caspar Wenk,
Annales de Zootechnie 48
(1999)
457
-
Giuseppe
Bee
468
Abstract
An
to
experiment
investigate
yeast
on
pigs (24.5
with 40
supplemented
the effects of
growth performance,
were
supplemented
receiving
restricted
(C),
compared
were
not
While
significantly
supplemented
on
Cr affected
changes
the genotype
scale
in
this
to
(lean
affected
by
urea
experiment)
vs
ad
the Cr
(Cr) from chromium
profile
of the
feeding.
or
800
average
ppb
fat,
carcass
Ten
barley-wheat-soybean
improved
total
conducted
was
pigs
per
meal diet
(C800). Pigs
Cr
daily gain
and feed
experiment (P<.06), especially
composition,
as
supply, analysed
well
as
fatty
in
acid
concentration of
N and ketone bodies gave evidence that
and fat metabolism. The failure of
be reflected in whole
experiment
a
measurements and
carbohydrate
in this
acid
(C200), 400 (C400),
plasma insulin, triglycerides, NEFA,
metabolite
scale
to treatment C for the
carcass
weight)
and 2 h after
fasting period
feeding
200
final live
trivalent chromium
the C200 treatment showed both
finishing period.
profile,
a
with either 0
conversion ratio
the
fed at
24 h
a
kg
composition, fatty
carcass
and blood parameters both after
treatment
initial -105.5
body composition
and the
libitum
manner
in
of
other
may have been
plasma
dependent
feeding (restricted feeding
reported
experiments).
Chromium in various doses
Introduction
Trivalent chromium
hormone,
metabolism
influence
affect
to
affect feed
surprising
that
dietary
intake, daily gain and feed efficiency
1993; Boleman
on
interact with
to
el
Cr research in
al, 1995; Lindemann
pig
nutrition since
body
and decrease percentage of
functions
involved in
be
thyroid
of the
carbohydrate
(Mertz, 1998). Since these metabolic pathways
the insulin action
it is not
growth
thought
acid metabolism and to
nucleic
by altering
is
(Cr)
et
Cr
supplementation
has been shown to
growing-finishing pigs (Page
in
et
al,
al, 1995b). Special interest has been focused
dietary
fat content
Cr
reported
was
( Page
et
to increase
lean
body
mass
al, 1993; Mooney and Cromwell,
1995, 1997).
The content of total Cr in foods is low and often below 100
1992) especially with respect
small
a
supplementation
Cr
(and probably
several known
interact with
cereals
(Mordenti
1997). Moreover, only
and Piva,
of total Cr is bio-available and hence utilisable
proportion
implying
to
dietary
parameters due
by humans
be necessary (Mordenti and Piva,
also
resulting
Cr
Cr
to
to
ppb (Kumpulainen,
unknown)
in
animals
or
1997). However,
individual and environmental factors
apparently
supplementation (Page
a
et
inconsistent responses
al, 1993; Boleman
various
on
al,
et
1995;
Lindemann étal, 1995b; Wenk et al, 1995; Min étal, 1991a).
Therefore,
an
conditions (i. e.
at
restricted
use
of lean
interest
lipids. Analysis
of
the effects of Cr
on
growing-finishing pigs
pig breed, feeding
increasing
was
with
diets based
was
levels of Cr
directed to
plasma
carcass
supplemented
composition
and
metabolites and hormones
carbohydrate, fat,
and
as
published data)
Cr yeast
fatty
were
under Swiss
performed
wheat-barley-soybean
on
which is in contrast to most of the
feeding level,
the response of
Special
experiment
acid
also
on
profile
to
meal
examine
performance.
of the
performed
to
carcass
elucidate
protein metabolism.
Materials and Methods
Animals and Diets
Forty
(final)
castrated male Swiss
live
weight (LW)
LW into four
dietary
were
Large
White
randomly
pigs averaging
allocated from
treatments at two dates
(interval
-12-
24.5
105.4
kg
blocks based
on
(initial)
experimental
of 7 weeks / 20
pigs
to
per date /
a
Chromium in various doses
total of 10
concrete
floors
husbandry
illness
pigs
per
treatment). The barrows
housed in individual pens with
were
(with litter) in environmentally controlled buildings
conditions. One
pig
of the first allocation block
was
under normal
because of
replaced
(diarrhoea).
Ingredient composition
Table 1.1:
of the
experimental
diets
(g/kg)
Grower
Finisher
Barley
359.5
455.0
Wheat
290.0
290.0
145.5
55.0
Wheat starch
50.0
50.0
Middlings
50.0
50.0
Sunflower meal
50.0
50.0
Bonefat
20.0
20.0
Calciumcarbonate
15.5
13.5
5.0
2.0
Lysine-HCl
4.0
4.0
DL-Methionine
0.6
0.3
0.9
0.8
Salt
4.2
4.2
Premix]
5.0
5.0
Ingredients
Soybean meal
Monocalcium
L
1
-
44%
phosphate
Threonine 98%
per kilogram of diet: 10,000 IU of vitamin A, 1,000 IU of vitamin D3, 40IU of
vitamin E, 4 mg of vitamin B2, 4 mg of vitamin B6, 0.015 mg of vitamin B12, 1 mg of
vitamin K3, 15 mg of pantothenic acid, 20 mg of niacin, 0.2 mg of folic acid, 60 mg Fe as
supplied
FeS04, 1 mg I as Ca(I03)2, 0.3 mg Se
40 mg Mn as Mn02
The basal diet for the
LW) consisted
of
growing (25
barley, wheat,
Na2Se
as
-
57
,
15 mg Cu
kg LW)
wheat starch,
and
for 20
-
60
kg growing
and
(C),
200
provided
(C200),
as
a
(C400),
400
or
800
chromium yeast extract
day according
to
a
were
ppb (C800)
was
-
split
of
Zn02,
105
kg
sunflower
calculated to meet the
et
al,
into four treatments with either
supplemented
chromium. Cr
was
(20,000 ppm Cr, Alltech Biotechnology Center,
Nicholasville, Kentucky, USA). The diets
once a
finishing period (57
as
60-100kg finishing pigs (Boltshauser
1993). The basal growing and finishing diets
0
CuS04, 100 mg Zn
middlings, soybean meal,
meal, and bonefat (Table 1.1). The level of nutrients
requirement
as
were
offered
weight-based feeding scale,
-13-
as
pellets.
The animals
whereas water
was
were
fed
available ad
Chromium in various doses
libitum. The
Blood
daily
LW). After
from the
samples
adapted weekly
immediately
frozen
Table 1.2:
in
at
and stored
Analysed
(ppb
of 24 h, blood
pigs
were
after
nutrient
pig
samples
allowed to
2 h after the initiation of
centrifuged
were
collected from each
Thereafter
vena cava.
they
were
fasting period
a
again exactly
until
were
the animals.
weighing
samples
Two blood
bled
feed rations
feeding.
at
experimental day
obtained
were
consume
The blood
the
by
daily
samples
vena
until
(g/kg DM),
(87.4 kg
puncture
ration and
were
1500 g for 15 min at 4 °C. The collected
(-25 °C)
88
kept
were
on
plasma
ice
was
analysis.
and chromium content
(MJ/kg DM),
energy
DM) of the experimental diets
Grower
Finisher
C
C200
C400
C800
C
C200
C400
C800
876
876
877
877
875
874
875
875
65
66
64
63
57
56
56
55
191
198
195
196
163
163
162
161
Crude fat
36
36
37
37
38
37
38
38
Crude fibre
65
58
59
60
59
58
61
63
644
643
644
644
684
687
683
684
18.55
18.54
18.37
18.55
18.42
18.48
18.51
18.58
14.13
14.39
14.40
14.37
14.48
14.51
14.38
14.35
13.52
13.76
13.54
13.64
11.26
11.23
11.27
11.22
415
678
772
1010
376
515
672
1000
Dry
matter
Ash
Crude
protein
Nitrogen
free
extracts
Gross energy
Digestible
Ratio CP
:
Chromium
energy
l
2
DE
(ppb)
calculated from the
analysed nutrient content according to the formula: DE (MJ/kg)
protein (g/g DM) + 33.472*crude fat (g/g DM) 21.216*crude fibre (g/g DM)
+ 16.61 Pnitrogen free extracts (g/g DM)
ratio crude protein : digestible energy
=
18.974*crude
9
-
Carcass Data
When
After
a
pigs
exceeded
fasting period
exsanguination
at the
a
weight
of 24 h the
of 97
pigs
kg they
Pig
and dissection
-
slaughtered
in the
following
week.
slaughtered by electric stunning followed by
were
abattoir of the Swiss
Sempach, Switzerland. Slaughter
were
14-
Performance
procedures
Testing
were
Station
carried out
(MLP),
according
Chromium in various doses
methods
to MLP
(Rebsamen
The saw-method
head
was
sawn
to
under
It
was
of
(Naumann
et
of feed
were
al, 1997). The
323
analysed
(CF),
were
carcass
side
was
freeze-dried and minced
side of the
Analyses
of the
carcass
Total DM
carcass
had the
same
at 104 °C. SF was
Fatty acid profiles
methyl
esters
(1978):
added
through folded
carcass
The
as
an
paper filters
prepared by
both in methanol
determined
of the
700
PC/ZL)
using
a
gas
and soxleth
of VDLUFA
analysed using
was
an
at
was
determined
using
an
for Cr
the
by graphite
laboratory
furnace atomic
of the Swiss Federal
(Posieux, Switzerland).
were
both moisture lost
lipids
were
carried out
as
the feed
during freeze-drying
and
prior HCl-hydrolyis.
were
determined
extracted
internal standard.
by
:
a
by
gas
chromatography
of
modified method of Hara and
triundecanine
isopropanol (3:2)
Subsequently
the extract
was
filtered
(Schleicher & Schuell 595V2 Faltenfilter, 0 150 mm). The
transesterification
according
6.25),
to the methods
(DM, ash, CP, SF)
lipids
x
T, IKA Analysentechnik GmbH,
Prior to the cold extraction with hexane
was
were
dust
N
(Metrohm Ltd., Herisau, Switzerland).
analysed
were
PE/5100
saw
C
determined without
(FAME).
according
=
(Büchi Laboratory-Techniques Ltd., Flawil,
(System
computed by
was
protein (CP
ether extract and gross energy
Research Station for Animal Production
FAMEs
without
carcass
dust could be collected from each
Kjeldahl nitrogen
of
content
calorimeter
absorption spectrometry (AS
(C 11:0)
each frozen
saw
dust
right
crude
carried out
Heitersheim, Germany). The diets
Radin
saw
saw
and 678 Processor
petroleum
as
bomb
anisothermic
the
kg
of the
distillation unit
Switzerland), 665 Dosimat,
drying
electrical
assumed that the
crude fibre
(DM), ash,
automated Büchi
analysis.
an
half of the
analysis
matter
was
right
evaluate the chemical
to
the left side.
as
(SF) analysis
SF
means
applied
was
°C for 24 h the
40 slices and 2.1 to 2.8
liquid nitrogen.
Dry
By
at 0
(1993)
analyses, samples
side. Prior to
Chemical
Bee
to
chilling
frozen at -30 °C.
composition
fat
After
approximately
carcass
al, 1995).
according
composition.
carcass
et
to the method
by
sodium
hydroxide
of Metcalfe and Smith
Chromatograph (HP
-15-
5860 A
and boron trifluoride
(1961). FAMEs
GC), equipped
with
a
were
flame
Chromium in various doses
ionisation detector. The FAMEs
10 fused-silica
temperature
20
separated
on a
30
*
m
0.32
mm
to 230 °C with 4
250 °C. FAMEs
at
The
TM
oven
follows: Initial temperature 160 °C for 1 min; raised to 190 °C with
was as
°C/min; 230 °C held for 16 min, raised
with 20 °C/min; 250 °C held for 8 min. The detection temperature
split
Supelcowax
(Supelco Inc., Beliefonte, PA, USA).
column
capillary
°C/min; raised
were
quantified by
were
CI 1:0
as
270 °C and
at
was
to 250 °C
internal standard and calculated
as
triglycerides.
Insulin
Insulin RIA 100 Pharmacia AB,
(Pharmacia
(Double Antibody DPC,
DPC, Los Angeles, USA))
Roche
protein,
total
glucose,
Angeles, USA))
Los
T3 and T4
as
using standard
measured
were
well
as
and
Uppsala, Sweden)
glucagon
(Coat-A-Count
RIA methods
whereas
N, cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides (Hoffmann-La
urea
Ltd., Basel, Switzerland), non-esterified fatty acids, (NEFA; Wako Chemicals,
Neuss, Germany), and ß-hydroxy-butyrate (BHB; Sigma Diagnostics, St. Louis, MO,
USA)
were
analysed by
means
of
an
Cobas Mira
Analyser (Hoffmann-La
Roche
Ltd.,
Basel, Switzerland) using standard enzymatic methods.
Statistical
Data
Linear
analysis
were
and
submitted to
quadratic
dietary
chromium. The
used to calculate the
the PROC IML
Cr. In
C200
an
contrasts
sums
used to
were
levels of Cr
were not
The basal diet
dose
evaluate
dependent
was
(1998)).
effects
included
as
the 0
of
the coefficients
contrasts were calculated
polynomial
ppb
by
level of added
addition, nonorthogonal single degree of freedom comparisons between C and
as
well
as
C and C400
performed.
were
The model included terms for the
allocation date and blocked initial LW. Individual
pig
values served
unit for all response parameters. Results of the chemical
were
of SAS
equally spaced; therefore,
of squares for the
(SAS, 1998).
(GLM procedures
of variance
analysis
adjusted
for hot
analysed using lipid
carcass
weight by
content
LSMEANS and the SEM, calculated
than 0.10
were
considered
non
composition
covariance. Values of the
of the DM of the
as
root
carcass
MSE/Vn,
significant.
-16-
as
are
as
a
fatty
experimental
of the
acid
carcass
profile
were
covariate. In the tables
shown and P-values greater
Chromium in various doses
Results
Diet
The basal diets
finishing pigs according
that all
requirements
to the
compared
an
increasing
formulated to meet nutrient
were
Boltshauser
to
met
were
al. (1993). The results of the
et
although
the values of CP
The
requirements (Table 1.2).
analysed
:
concentration of the grower and finisher C diet
was
ppb
analysis
were
and
verified
slightly higher
clearly
The total Cr
treatment.
415 and 376
added Cr
containing
DE ratio
growing
Cr contents demonstrate
chromium level from the C to the 800
Cr concentration in all of the diets
for
requirements
ppb, respectively.
The
close to the calculated
were
levels.
Growth
Performance
In the
finishing period
daily weight gain (P
(Table 1.3).
5.9 %
pigs
<
For the overall
higher
response in
daily feed
6.1 %
treatment
(P
to
<
the
intake
(FCR)
0.05)
effect of Cr observed for the average
quadratic
a
fed the C200 diet showed the
experimental period
pigs
of Cr
amounts
feed conversion ratio
period
was
0.10) where pigs
higher compared
fed
there
of treatment C
<
0.06),
whereas
similar to treatment C. There
was
in the
(P<0.10)
7.4 %
was
(P
of the C200
daily gain
the
highest daily gain
lower due to
(P
growing period.
<
supplementation
daily gain
was
of 200
overall
ppb
a
was
of the
quadratic
finishing period
In the
0.06) and in the
pigs
Cr
experimental
compared
to
C, but impaired with further incremental Cr supplementation.
Carcass Measurements
Compared
(P
<
to treatment
C
0.09), but higher dietary
addition there
was
a
dressing percentage
Cr
linear increase in
(Table 1.5). Otherwise dietary
composition and fatty
supplementation
acid
Cr
had
palmitoleic
did not
of the C200 group
no
further effects
acid in the
affect
dissection
carcass
was
impaired
(Table 1.4).
lipid (P
parameters,
<
In
0.04)
chemical
profile.
Plasma Metabolites and Hormones
Increasing
linearly
in
amounts
plasma
of added
after 24 h
Cr
reduced
fasting (tO),
triglyceride
concentrations
(P
<
0.03)
whereas the concentration of NEFA increased
-17-
Chromium in various doses
linearly (P<0.08) (Table 1.6).
addition, there
In
concentration at tO with incremental amounts of
Table 1.3: Effect
of chromium
growing-finishing pigs
from
was
dietary
numerical increase in
a
Cr
urea
N
(Table 1.7).
chromium yeast
growth performance
on
of
l
Treatment2
Item
C
C200
C400
C800
SEM
688
695
661
679
14.8
783
855
807
786
21.5
741
785
742
736
15.8
1.55
1.53
1.53
1.54
.012
Finisher
2.40
2.43
2.41
2.43
.023
Total trial
2.03
2.04
2.02
2.03
.013
Grower
2.26
2.19
2.31
2.27
.051
Finisher
3.11
2.88
3.01
3.11
.081
2.78
2.61
2.73
2.75
.058
Daily gain,
g
Grower
3'4
Finisher
Total trial
Daily
feed intake,
Grower
5
kg
3
Feed conversion ratio,
trial6
Total
Mean
body weight
at
the trial termination
Data
means
of ten
finisher
<
.03
vs
C200, P
<
.06
of freedom contrast of treatment C
vs
C200,
feeding (t2)
showed the
the Cr effect
highest
(-11.4 mmol/L)
in
and
positive
(-0.8 mmol/L) and
linear
pigs
C400
on
value.
(P
<
BHB
In
0.09)
was
addition
and
quadratic (P
the
negative
of treatment C800 (+7.2
change
in
The
added
in
the BHB
of treatment C
pigs
mmol/L). Pigs
pigs
were
reduced at t2
compared with
chromium
did
not
significantly
of treatment
glucagon
insulin to
supplemented
seemed to be lower when Cr
-
18-
was
the group C
not differ from
affect
concentrations but the insulin values and the insulin to
glucose ratios
0.04), where
<
(+0.7 mmol/L) showed intermediate values. Plasma
of the C200 and C800
C.
and at
P < .05
0.06), but the triglyceride concentrations of the C400 pigs did
treatment
phase,
MSEA/n
C200, P
was
<
root
=
vs
concentration from tO to t2
(P
SEM
of freedom contrast of treatment C
group
triglycerides
pigs,
of freedom contrast of treatment C
Two hours post
C200
at the initiation of the
24.5, 57.4, and 105.4 kg, respectively
P<. 10
Single degree
Single degree
Single degree
C400
the initiation of the trial,
was
least square
are
Quadratic,
the
kg/kg
ratios
the
as
hormone
well
as
the
Chromium in various doses
Table 1.4:: Effect of chromium from chromium yeast
chemical
composition
of the
of
carcass
on
carcass
and
measurements
pigs
Treatmentl
Item2
C
C200
C400
C800
83.0
83.7
83.9
83.1
79.28
78.05
79.42
79.75
.491
Lean cuts
54.59
55.08
54.16
53.58
.738
Fat cuts
13.87
13.88
13.96
14.41
.477
1.63
1.49
1.51
1.70
.135
SEM
Dissection parameters (% of carcass)
Hot
carcass
weight
kg
percentage3
Dressing
Abdominal fat
Fat thickness
.58
17.9
18.8
17.7
18.6
.48
41.30
41.21
40.89
41.39
.820
7.55
7.54
7.64
7.22
.233
Protein
41.69
41.51
42.15
39.29
1.459
Fat
49.67
50.28
49.49
52.48
1.528
Chemical
Dry
mm
composition (%
of DM)4
%
matter
Ash
Data
are
least square
of ten
means
SEM
pigs,
=
root
MSE/Vn
shoulder, back, and ham without fat layers; Fat cuts: fat layers above shoulder,
ham; Fat thickness: Thinnest part in the middle of the back between two whirls
Lean cuts:
back, and
3
Single degree
Hot
carcass
of freedom contrast of treatment C
weight
was
used
as a
vs
C200, P
<
.09
covariate
Discussion
Diets
CP
:
DE ratio in the diets
11.3 g CP / MJ DE for
(Table 1.2) (Boltshauser
were
provided
with
diets, analysed by
means
feed
et
content of 35
al, 1993; NRC, 1998). Thus
levels of
of atomic
protein.
that the
The chromium content of the
were
(12.6
to
finishing pigs)
we can assume
absorption spectrometry,
higher
as
pigs
pelleted
expected.
concentration, contamination with inorganic complexed Cr
and
(Kumpulainen, 1992).
% due to
to recommendations
and 11.3 to 9.9 g CP / MI DE for
processing (milling, mixing,
of total chromium
not
slightly higher compared
growing
adequate
Beside the feedstuff Cr
during
was
pelleting
pelleting) probably
Wenk et al.
influenced the amount
(1995) reported
an
increased Cr
processes. The authors concluded that the increase did
affect the amount of bio-available Cr. However, content of bio-available Cr is far
-19-
Chromium in various doses
lower
Growth
Cr
to the total Cr content of the feedstuff
compared
Performance
requirement depends
comparisons
feed intake
growing period
and Ward et al.
was
could be
g/d (Table 1.3).
quadratic
response. To
effect
daily gain
on
higher daily gain
compared
pigs
to
no
our
those
no
knowledge
fed 0
provided
on
growing pigs
or
400
growth
daily gain
the present
in
best effects under
our
ppb.
200
ppb Cr)
conversion
(Mooney
et
response
Mooney
et
al.
study reported
Cr
as
Page
published
have been
It should be noted that
on
one
the restricted
an
CrP
daily feed
compared
(1993) reported
due to Cr.
other
ppb dietary
particularly
level of Cr
except for
data refer to ad libitum trials
prevented by
such
a
feed intake
lower
ppb
et al.
in the
a
CrP level (0,
(1997)
could
Nevertheless, in
daily gain,
nutritional
leading
feeding
-20-
one
to Cr
level
Cr
provided
and
applied
on
all with
feed intake and feed
non-nutritional
factors
al, 1995b; Ward
study (Boleman
effects
the
finishing period.
supplementation (nearly
and Cromwell, 1995; Boleman et al, 1995; Lindemann et
al, 1997).
daily
increasing dietary
indicated that 200
conditions
only
partly dependent
the feed
picolinate (CrP)
Cr
with 200
performance
10
(1997) reported
al. (1995b) and Grela et al
on
by
only
since it tended to follow
(1997a) observed
In contrast
demonstrated also variable results in
rate
mirrored
and Cromwell
ppb
were
of 5.9 % and feed conversion ratio of 6.1 % in
to treatment C
out with
phenomenon
finishing pigs supplied
experimental
However, studies carried
inversely
were
and feed intake with
dependent
compared
Min
rate.
study improved daily gain
treatment C200
between treatments
received 200
100, 200, 400, 800 ppb CrP). Lindemann
determine any dose
Cr effect in the
CrP but found in addition increased
ppb
daily gain
slight
neither dose response
with 0, 100, and 400
linear decline in both
not
this
to
and feed conversion ratio.
when
effect
daily gain
explanation
example
Cr effects.
on
ignored because differences
which abolished the benefit of
intake but
supply
on
For
(1995) and Mooney and Cromwell (1997)
similar in all treatments since the
The effects
carefully.
(1997) observed interactions between dietary
level. Boleman et al.
conversion ratio. We have
to
many individual and environmental factors and therefore,
influence of duration of Cr
Daily
to 20
(1995b)
dietary lysine
reported
on
of results from different Cr studies have to be used
Lindemann et al.
Cr and
(Mordenti and Piva, 1997).
et
al, 1995)
et
the
feed intake which may
in this present
study.
We
Chromium in various doses
that Cr effects
assume
lysine (Lindemann
et
on
growth performance
al, 1995b; Ward
et
among other
dietary
factors such
as
al, 1997) might be also affected by feeding
regime.
Carcass Measurements
Although pigs
97
kg
slaughtered
weight, differences
live
weights
were
The
weights
similar manner,
a
inversely
were
of the viscera
seven
(data
not
mirrored
shown) did
suggest that different residual fillings of the gastro-intestinal
differences in
they exceeded
after
days
body weight occurred.
in the final
similar, the final weights
were
(Table 1.4).
in
Since hot
carcass
by dressing percentage
not differ and thus we
tract
may have caused the
dressing percentage.
Table 1.5: Effect of chromium from chromium yeast
extracted fat of the
carcass
of
pigs
the
on
acid
fatty
profile
of the
l
Treatment
'
Item
c
C200
C400
C800
SEM
SFA
41.89
41.64
41.17
41.26
.499
C 16:0
23.78
23.82
23.62
23.84
.203
C18:0
15.88
15.61
15.35
15.15
.357
46.76
47.06
47.42
47.56
.484
2.45
2.53
2.53
2.68
.070
42.85
43.13
43.44
43.51
.435
11.36
11.30
11.42
11.18
.142
C 18:2
9.68
9.67
9.73
9.70
.127
C 18:3
0.75
0.76
0.75
0.73
.017
MUFA
C16:l'
C18:l
PUFA
In % of the extracted fat of the carcass; Fat content of the DM of the
carcass
was
used
as
covariate
Data
SFA
are
least square
saturated
=
polyunsaturated fatty
4
linear, P
<
Although
means
fatty
of ten
acids,
MUFA
=
root
MSEA/n
monounsaturated
=
acids,
fatty
PUFA
=
acids
.04
several
Cr demonstrated
a
experiments
which
were
performed
with
varying
decrease in backfat thickness and fat accretion rate
Lindemann et al, 1995b; Grela
or
pigs, SEM
muscle percentage
(Page
et
et
al, 1997; Min
et
al, 1997a) and
al, 1993; Lindemann
-21-
et
levels of
(Page
an
al, 1995b),
et
dietary
al, 1993;
increase in lean
no
clear dose-
Chromium in various doses
could be established between Cr
relationship
response
which is in
good agreement
those of treatment C which
lean
breed
pig
of
carcasses
scale
usually
on
have
probably
rather than
nutrient
deposition
could most
to the restricted
higher
also
compared
fat and reduced
lean cuts (Wood, 1984; Bee,
diet
increasing
1993).
prevented
in this
mm
reducing
excessive fat
supplementation except
content
of
polyunsaturated fatty
yeast). However,
by
deriving
from de
deposition.
fat
as
proper
higher
likely
fed
on
well
as
protein
compared
effect
mm
deposition is
a
fat
known, that
restricted
feeding
lower percentage of
to
energy ratio in the
compared
to
studies,
a mean
prerequisite
a
on
to
be attributed to the
In most of the cited
than 25
we
for
a
of
fat
supplementation.
In contrast to the present data
reduced
was
pigs
content
a
decreasing
scale since it is well
those of
protein
study suggesting that high
effect of Cr
decreased
to
In addition
backfat thickness of the control groups
18.3
feeding
deposition,
previous studies,
of fat cuts in treatment C800
an
fed ad libitum
pigs
proportion
implies
weak effect
used, and/or
and nutrient
with the present results. In contrast to
observed elevated fat content and
(Table 1.4). The
dosage
this
for
demonstrating
palmitoleic
saturated
acids
was
(PUFA)
an
effect
no
acid (Table
fatty
acids
fatty
acid
and
in back fat due to Cr
indirect Cr effect
as
fatty
1.5) Grela
(SFA)
Cr and PUFA in back fat of the control
novo
on
et
profile
al.
due to Cr
(1997) reported
enhanced
were
deposition
of
content
(0, 200, 500 ppb
also fat
pigs
acid
on
Cr
as
back
Cr
was
probably diluted by SFA
synthesis (Wood, 1984; Bee, 1993).
Plasma Metabolites and Hormones
Plasma
profile
of metabolites and hormones of
present study reflect merely the physiological
bleeding
and therefore results should be
data may
give
a
single
state
blood collection
of the
animals
at the
as
in the
time of
interpreted carefully. However, present plasma
evidence for alterations due to the
-22-
dietary
Cr
(Table
1.6 and
1.7).
Chromium in various doses
Table 1.6: Effect of chromium from chromium yeast
after 24 h
fasting
and 2h postprandial at
plasma
on
metabolites of
experimental day
88
pigs
both
(87.4 kg LW)
Treatment1
Item2
After 24 h
Total
C
C200
C400
C800
SEM
71.2
71.0
71.6
69.3
1.22
fasting (tO)
protein
g/L
UreaN
Triglycerides
3
NEFA4
mmol/L
3.27
3.50
3.51
3.74
mmol/L
0.571
0.554
0.490
0.480
.0310
mmol/L
0.148
0.187
0.184
0.243
.0359
ß-hydroxy-butyrate
umol/L
62.9
67.0
42.7
7.22
Cholesterol
mmol/L
2.81
2.91
2.61
2.80
.099
HDL-cholesterol
mmol/L
1.22
1.30
1.15
1.23
.048
Glucose
mmol/L
5.19
5.27
5.13
5.12
.152
2 h
post feeding (t2)
Total
protein
g/L
71.8
70.7
72.4
1.26
71.1
UreaN
mmol/L
4.44
4.63
4.65
4.92
Triglycerides
mmol/L
0.522
0.422
0.483
0.421
.0358
NEFA5
mmol/L
0.038
0.036
0.050
0.040
.0051
ß-hydroxy-butyrate
umol/L
'
51.5
55.8
66.3
49.9
.259
5.31
Cholesterol
mmol/L
2.79
2.78
2.61
2.79
.085
HDL-cholesterol
mmol/L
1.22
1.25
1.18
1.26
.051
Glucose
mmol/L
5.35
5.28
5.23
5.07
.184
high density lipoproteins
cholesterol
Data
are
NEFA
=
least square
means
Nonesterified
Linear, P
<
.03
Linear, P
<
.08
Single degree
Quadratic,
P
of ten
pigs,
fatty acids;
HDL
SEM
=
of freedom contrast of treatment C
pigs demonstrated
(Evans and Bowman, 1992; Evock-Clover
al, 1997; Guan
et
an
MSE/Vn
vs
C400, P
<
.10
vs
C400, P
<
.06
et
involvement of Cr in insulin metabolism
al, 1993; Amoikon
al, 1997). Moreover,
recent
mechanism in which Cr is involved to
Vincent, 1997a). The slightly, but
plasma
root
.04
Several studies with
probable
=
of freedom contrast of treatment C
<
Single degree
et
55.0
.215
of Cr treated
pigs
at t2
may
not
explained by
-23-
the
al, 1995; Matthews
investigation
improve
significant,
et
demonstrated the
insulin action
(Davis and
lower insulin concentrations in
postulated hypothesis by McCarty
Chromium in various doses
(1996)
that
improved
an
effectiveness of insulin
by dietary
Cr must result
in
a
compensatory down-regulation of insulin secretion. On the other hand glucagon
secretion should increase due to Cr treatment
glucagon
levels at t2, and insulin
of both hormones
glucagon
relationship
glucagon ratios, respectively, indicating
(Seitz and Tarnowski, 1980),
concentration in
treatment C.
:
(McCarty, 1996) but, however,
plasma
Plasma insulin and
of
did not confirm this
fed diet C400
pigs
glucagon
was
levels after 24 h
the
plasma
the net effect
hypothesis
lower than in
since
pigs
also showed
fasting
of
no
dosage.
to Cr
Table 1.7: Effect of chromium from chromium yeast
after 24 h
fasting
and
2hpostprandial
at
on
plasma
hormones of
experimental day
88
pigs
both
(87.4 kg LW)
Treatment
Item2
C
After 24 h
C200
C400
C800
SEM
fastinjI (tO)
Insulin
uU/mL
Glucagon
8.45
pg/mL
8.95
76.3
7.20
90.5
9.90
72.1
92.6
1.109
4.71
Ratio insulin
::
glucagon
5.11
5.01
4.64
4.98
.819
Ratio insulin
::
glucose
1.17
1.21
1.02
1.37
.148
0.93
1.04
0.94
1.06
.083
T3
nmol/L
T4
nmol/L
52.0
56.8
53.7
52.8
uU/mL
35.50
30.00
30.40
28.45
2 h
2.26
post feeding (t2)
Insulin
Glucagon
pg/mL
Ratio insulin
:
glucagon
Ratio insulin
:
glucose
T3
nmol/L
T4
nmol/L
Data
are
least square
:
103.2
123.4
11.10
13.17
10.22
2.81
4.70
4.46
4.32
3.98
.953
1.21
1.32
1.36
1.37
.084
60.5
means
of ten
63.2
64.3
pigs,
SEM
=
62.9
3.39
root
:
=
suggested
Ratio
=
an
elevated
catabolic
supplementation (Kaneko, 1989a).
urea
7.33
16.62
However, the linear decline in plasma triglycerides
NEFA
128.0
MSEA/n
glucagon (pg/mL : pg/mL), insulin pg/mL
jaU/mL * 45 pg /|aU;
*
glucose ((mol/L : mol/L) 10"8), insulin pmol/L |nU/mL * 7.175 pmol/|aU
Ratio insulin
insulin
115.9
5.899
N concentrations with
state
well
during fasting
The numerical but
increasing
as
non
as
the linear increase
with
significant
incremental
elevated
Cr
plasma
Cr levels at tO and t2 is consistent with this
-24-
Chromium in various doses
hypothesis. Moreover,
expected
negative
was
the
in
change
pigs
diets C200 and C400, and
hypothesis
of
plasma BHB
fed diet C
positive
we
level from tO to t2, which
(Bruss, 1989), but
pigs
in
altered metabolism.
an
gluconeogenesis (Bruss, 1989)
in
pigs
fed
of treatment C800 further support the
Since
assume
unchanged
was
normally
as
ketogenesis
enhanced
an
is
usually
connected with
gluconeogenesis
rate
due to
supplementation.
Cr
increasing
in
Conclusion
The
present data suggest that supplementation of 200 ppb Cr fed
favorable
impact
explanation
growth performance
on
for the
finding
that
protein
rather
elevated fat accretion due to Cr
an
deposition
is
studies had
a
decreased fat
prerequisite
for
comparatively high
metabolites suggest
an
altered
deposition by
dietary
fat
of 400 and 800
Cr. On the
deposition.
Low effects
and
on
our
assume
that
pigs
plasma
were as
implicate
a
high fat
used in other
hormones and
hypothesised, the
characteristics and
study
the
impact
plasma
of Cr
traits
between Cr
factors.
-25-
supplementation
responses
were
rather
supplementation
performance of animals. Therefore, further experiments
investigate possible interactions
data
due to Cr.
on carcass
weak and further research is needed to
physiology
We
Cr to lower fat accretion since
physiology
supplementation especially
no
Cr did not affect
ppb
contrary
supplementation.
While the direction of many observed responses
of Cr
have
we
a
support results of other studies which reported
not
enhanced
or
Cr yeast had
and feed conversion rate, but
supplementation
performance. Carcass evaluation did
as
are
planned
on
to
and other nutritional
Chromium and
Glycémie
Index
Chromium Yeast affects Growth Performance but
Carcass Characteristics of growing-finishing
not
Pigs depending on the Glycemic Index
Based
Andreas Lemme,
Caspar Wenk,
on:
Merlin Lindemann,
Archives of Animal Nutrition
Giuseppe
Bee
(in print)
Abstract
Forty
were
Swiss
equally
involving
a
(high
index
digestibility,
The data
fibre
Large White pigs (barrows with
and
(H)
GI
or
of
and
in
lower
carbohydrates
Chromium
Growth
some
plasma traits
in
(final))
(HO, H200, L0, L200)
200
performance,
growth performance
were
ug/kg)
energy
and
glycemic
and
protein
investigated.
due
to
impaired
finding
several nutritional
was
on
also affected
glycemic
reduced in
pigs
indicated that the energy
index,
plasma
chromium
of the L200 treatment
availability expressed
the
compared
as
and
carcass
glucagon
insulin and
affected
energy
high
of the diets HO and H200 caused increased
supplementation
Depending
performance. Daily gain
growth
to the L0
the GI is
one
of
factors, which determine the efficacy of dietary chromium. We could
corroborate evidences that
the whole carcass, but
was
(L)).
or
BW
Moreover the strong stimulation of insulin secretion due to the
deposition.
muscle
supplementation (0
kg
103.7
to
indicated, that the substitution of dietary carbohydrates with fat and crude
concentrations.
not
Gl
composition,
carcass
rapid availability
group. This
low
(initial)
to one of four treatments
combination of chromium
(low GI) resulted
digestibility.
fat
randomly assigned
31.7
affected.
dietary chromium
depending
on
modifies the chemical
composition
of
GI, chemical composition of the longissimus
Chromium and
Glycemic
Index
Introduction
At the
of chromium research trivalent chromium
beginning
ingredient
of the
glucose
(Cr)
tolerance factor, which seemed to
was
regulate
identified
as an
homeostasis of
blood sugar (Schwarz and Mertz, 1959). Recent studies confirmed evidence, that Cr
affects insulin metabolism
either
by
elevating synthesis
and/or insertion of insulin
receptors into the plasma membrane (Evans and Bowman, 1992),
insulin
action
by modifying
(Davis and Vincent, 1997b),
The
glycemic
index
(GI),
perhaps
concentration
compared
1995). Feeding diets high
et
et
in
to
widely
simple
on
a
substance
all in combination.
term
a
nutrition studies, ranks food based
glucose
by potentionating
low-molecular-weight chromium-binding
a
or
or
the
used in diabetes research
dietary postprandial
effect
and human
on
the blood
reference diet (Foster-Powell and Brand Miller,
sugars
(high GI)
increases Cr excretion
(Kozlovsky
al, 1986; Anderson, 1993) and further the development of insulin resistance (Higgins
al, 1996). Therefore
glycemic
index could be
Because several Cr
greater effect of Cr supplementation in diets with high
a
expected.
deficiency symptoms (Mowat, 1997)
symptoms, in the present study the GI
was
applied
diets, which should stimulate insulin secretion in
experiment
yeast,
on
either
a
was
investigate
to
growth performance,
diet with
a
crude fibre content
high
the effect of 200
carcass
a
to
are
similar to diabetes
characterise two
different way. The
pg/kg
trivalent
experimental
objective
Cr, supplemented
characteristics and blood metabolites in
sugar and starch content
(high GI)
of the
or a
diet with
as
Cr
pigs fed
high
fat and
(low GI).
Materials and Methods
Animals and feeding
Forty
(final)
dietary
and
castrated male Swiss
BW
were
randomly
Large
White
allocated from
treatments at two dates
(interval of
pigs averaging
experimental
8 weeks / 20
31.7
(initial)
blocks based
pigs
on
per date / 5
to
103.7
kg
BW into four
pigs
per date
treatment).
The
experiment
was
arranged
as a
2
x
2 factorial
-27-
design
with the GI
(high (H)
or
low
Chromium and
(L))
and Cr
with
a
high
supplementation (0
Gl
soybean meal,
(HO, H200)
(Table 2.1).
digestible
Because the
energy, CP
DE
:
each
pigs
et
one
mixture
a
middlings,
low Gl
(L0,
straw
meal, and beef tallow
during
the whole
experimental
requirements (crude protein,
to recommendations for
al, 1993; NRC, 1998).
performance
While water
a
was
in
a
a
was
Cr
growing-finishing
provided
was
previous study
meal
The barrows
at
according
were
chosen because dose
supplementation
our
available ad libitum the
single daily
weighed weekly.
feedstuff
Cr/kg
demonstrated that
impact
with
fed
ratio) according
amount of 200 pg
Cr/kg
manner
were
alkali treated
formulated to meet nutrient
were
to 800 pg
on
(Table 2.2). The diets
chromium
as
(20 g/kg Cr, Alltech Biotechnology Center, Nicholasville, Kentucky,
extract
USA). The
the main factors
as
consisted of wheat, wheat starch, flaked potatoes,
pigs (70 kg BW) (Boltshauser
yeast
pg/kg)
barley, middlings,
the basal diets
period
200
Index
beef tallow, dextrose, and molasses whereas the diets with
consisted of
L200)
or
Glycemic
of 200 pg
food
et
al., 1999a).
offered in
was
weight-based feeding
up
had the clearest
Cr/kg
laboratory (Lemme
pelleted
comparisons
a
scale.
restricted
Pigs
were
housed in individual pens with concrete floors
(with
to a
litter) in environmentally controlled buildings under
common
husbandry conditions.
Digestibility
Faeces
mean
collected
BW). The samples
analyses.
means
et
were
The apparent
of the indicator
al, 1975). Diamol,
on
experimental day
were
37
(51.0 kg
mean
freeze-dried, milled (0.5 mm), and stored
digestibility
of crude
protein
and energy
method, using 4 N-HCl insoluble ash
a
BW) and
nutritionally
inert substance,
was
as
(77.7 kg
at -25 °C
until
determined
the indicator
added to the diets
the level of 4 N-HCl insoluble ash and to reduce variation in the
-28-
was
84
by
(Prabucki
to
increase
analyses (Table 2.1).
Chromium and
Table 2.1 :
Glycemic
Composition
of the
Glycemic
experimental
index
Ingredients
Index
diets
High
Low
[g/kg]
[g/kg]
Barley
555.6
Wheat
209.9
Wheat starch
177.8
Middlings
148.2
Flaked potatoes
197.5
Soybean
133.3
meal 44%
197.5
98.8
Alkali treated straw
41.5
Molasses
24.7
Dextrose
49.4
Beef tallow
9.9
59.3
12.8
12.8
7.4
6.9
HCl
3.5
3.5
Methionine
1.5
0.4
L-Threonine 98%
0.9
0.8
DL
0.2
Carbonated limestone
Monocalcium
Lysine
DL
-
-
-
phosphate
Tryptophan
Salt
3.0
3.0
Vitamine-mineral-premix
4.9
4.9
15.2
15.0
Diamol
1
Supplied per kilogram
of diet: 10,000 IU of vitamin A, 1,000 IU of vitamin D3, 40 IU of
E, 4 mg of vitamin B2, 4 mg of vitamin B6, 0.015 mg of vitamin Bi2, 1 mg of
vitamin
vitamin K3, 15 mg of pantothenic acid, 20 mg of niacin, 0.2
mg of folic acid, 60 mg Fe
FeS04, 1 mg I as Ca(I03)2, 0.3 mg Se as Na2Se, 15 mg Cu as CuS04, 100 mg Zn as Zn02,
40 mg Mn as Mn02
Diamol is
a
nutritionally
inert substance and
was
added
as
indicator for
measurements to increase the level of 4 N-HCl insoluble ash and reduce
digestibility
variability in the
analyses
Blood
sample
Two blood
mean
samples
BW). After
Thereafter
24 h
collected from each
fasting,
blood
were
allowed to
ingest
feeding.
The blood
samples
pigs
initiation of
were
samples
the
daily
were
pig
were
experimental day
obtained from the
ration and
kept
-29-
at
on
were
ice until
bled
they
again
were
82
(76.0 kg
vena
cava.
2 h after the
centrifuged
at
Chromium and
1500 g for 15 min at 4 °C. The collected
Glycemic
plasma
was
Index
frozen
and stored
immediately
(-25
°C) until analyses.
Carcass and Longissimus Muscle Data
When
pigs
animals
exceeded 95
fasted
were
exsanguination)
Sempach,
24
Switzerland.
h
of the
composition
of both
From each left
°C. Prior to
and
carcass
by
Pig
Performance
procedures
Bee
(1993)
after
chilling
week. The
following
stunned
followed
by
Testing Station (MLP),
were
one
sides
applied
was
the
carried out
according
of
means
an
saw
liquid nitrogen.
It
carcass was sawn
kg
saw
saw
dust
that
the
and 2.3 to 2.9
was
and
carcasses were
analyses, samples of the
assumed
equal.
side the cutlet of the 11th rib
were
(including kidney
side of the
right
electrical
side. Prior to further
were
evaluate the chemical
carried out. Each frozen
was
under
to
carcasses
for 24 h at 0 °C, the
(3 cm) by
the cutlets
analyses
in the
al, 1995).
minced
carcass
slaughtered
slaughter (electrically
saw-procedure
40 slices
freeze-dried
et
head)
dust could be collected from
were
were
and dissection
Briefly,
carcass.
frozen at -30 °C until the
approximately
to
described
as
abdominal fat but without
to
prior
Slaughter
(Rebsamen
The saw-method
composition
they
the abattoir of the Swiss
at
to MLP methods
BW
kg
thawed and
was
obtained and stored at -25
longissimus
muscle
removed,
was
minced, and freeze-dried.
Chemical
Dry
feed
The
analysis
matter
(DM), crude
carried out
were
nitrogen (N)
using
an
or
Germany).
determined
The EE
using
(CA), crude fibre (CF),
according
crude
automated
ash
protein
nitrogen
was
an
to the methods of VDLUFA
content
elemental
analysed
as
(CP
N
bomb
furnace atomic
of
Swiss
the
Federal
Switzerland). Analyses
Station
of sugar and starch
calorimeter
for
was
(System
were
PE/5100
Animal
to
C
determined
700
analysed
PC/ZL)
Production
of
al, 1997).
et
Leco Instrumente
The diets
according
-30-
(Naumann
ether extract. The gross energy
absorption spectrometry (AS
Research
(EE) analyses
6.25), respectively,
analyser (CN2000
petroleum
anisothermic
=
Analysentechnik GmbH, Heitersheim, Germany).
graphite
and soxleth fat
at the
GmbH,
(GE)
was
T,
IKA
for Cr
by
laboratory
(RAP, Posieux,
the methods of the VDLUFA
Chromium and
(Naumann
al, 1997)
et
Table 2.2:
were
Analysed nutrient,
energy, and chromium content and
index:
Treatment:
analysed
Cr
experimental
[pg/kg]
fatty
0
200
0
200
HO
H200
L0
L200
1371
1592
1327
1452
[g/kg DM]
920
CA
[g/kg DM]
75
75
CP
[g/kg DM]
159
153
EE
[g/kg DM]
20
78
[g/kg DM]
7.89
917
(39.45)
31.03
(39.78)
C16:0
(23.87)
(23.11)
C18:0
(11.41)
(12.58)
C20:0
(0.41)
(0.30)
MUFA
1
[g/kg DM]
6.03
(30.17)
31.35 (40.19)
C16:l
(1.24)
(2.37)
C 18:1
(27.06)
(35.83)
C20:l
(0.86)
(0.92)
PUFA
'
[g/kg DM]
6.07
(30.37)
15.62
(20.03)
C18:2
(27.15)
(17.78)
C18:3
(2.48)
(1.77)
C20:2
(0.17)
(0.14)
C20:3
(0.14)
(0.08)
C20:4
(0.17)
(0.10)
CF
[g/kg DM]
48
83
NFE
[g/kg DM]
699
611
Sugar
[g/kg DM]
103
33
Starch
[g/kg DM]
463
379
[MJ/kg DM]
17.43
19.02
[Ml/kg DM]
14.27
14.02
11.1
10.9
GE
DE
profile
Low
DM
SFA1
acid
diets
High
[pg/kg]
added Cr:
Index
also carried out at the RAP.
of the extracted fat of the
Glycemic
Glycemic
2
Ratio CP
:
SFA
=
sum
of
DE
[g/MJ]
of saturated
fatty acids, MUFA sum of monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA
polyunsaturated fatty acids, parenthetical values are the % of the total extracted fat
sum
=
calculated DE
=
[MJ/kg DM] according to the following formulas: 1) EE content lower
18.974
CP [g/g DM] + 33.472
[g/kg DM]
EE[g/gDM] 21.216 CF[g/gDM] +
16.611
NFE[g/gDM]; 2) EE content between 60 and 90 [g/kg DM]
18.615
CP
[g/g DM] + 35.611 EE[g/g DM] 20.967 CF[g/g DM] + 16.562 NFE[g/g DM]
60
=
•
•
-
•
•
=
•
-
•
-31-
•
•
Chromium and
Analyses
(N, GE)
of faeces
well
as
Glycemic
of the
analyses
as
longissimus muscle samples (DM, CA, CP, EE)
analyses. Total
drying
(1978).
added
folded paper filters
esters
internal standard.
as
(Schleicher
trifluoride both in methanol
fatty acid methyl
with
equipped
30
on a
determined
a
mm
min; raised
oven
gas
the extract
using
by
a
gas
chromatography
of
triundecanine (C
was
filtered
acid
fatty
was as
hydroxide
sodium
through
methyl
capillary
and boron
and Smith (1961). The
Chromatograph (HP
TM 10 fused-silica
temperature
and
Faltenfilter, 0 150 mm). The fatty acid
to the method of Metcalfe
determined
Supelcowax
by
isopropanol (3:2),
:
Subsequently
flame ionisation detector. The
0.32
m
during freeze-drying
modified method of Hara and Radin
a
transesterification
according
esters were
Beliefonte, PA, USA). The
for 1
by
& Schuell 595Vi
prepared by
were
and
carcass
prior HCl-hydrolisation.
were
extracted
were
dust from the
carried out similar to the feed
were
Prior to the cold extraction with hexane
was
methyl
lipids
esters. The
lipids
carcass
saw
both moisture lost
computed by
of the
profiles
acid
methyl
11:0)
was
at 104 °C. EE was determined without
Fatty
the
DM
Index
5860 A
esters were
column
GC),
separated
(Supelco Inc.,
follows: Initial temperature 160 °C
190 °C with 20 °C/min; raised to 230 °C with 4 °C/min; 230 °C held
to
for 16 min, raised to 250 °C with 20 °C/min; 250 °C held for 8 min. The detection
temperature
was
quantified by
Insulin
C 11:0
as
(Pharmacia
Angeles, USA)
protein,
urea
at
250 °C. The
Insulin RIA 100 Pharmacia AB,
Los
were
Angeles, USA)
measured
cholesterol,
N,
split
internal standard and calculated
(Double Antibody DPC,
Los
°C and
at 270
using
HDL
as
well
as
fatty acid methyl
as
esters
were
triglycerides.
Uppsala, Sweden)
T3 and T4
and
glucagon
(Coat-A-Count DPC,
standard RIA methods whereas
glucose, total
cholesterol,
triglycerides
cholesterol,
LDL
(Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA,
Wako Chemicals, Neuss,
and
Germany),
analysed by
ß-hydroxy-butyrate (Sigma Diagnostics,
of
Cobas Mira
Analyser (Hoffmann-La
Louis, MO, USA)
were
Roche Ltd., Basel,
Switzerland) using standard enzymatic methods.
Statistical
an
analysis
Statistical
factorial
means
St.
analyses
experiment
were
performed
with Cr and GI
with the GLM
as
factors
procedures (SAS, 1998)
as a
2
2
(Snedecor and Cochran, 1967). The
model included terms for the allocation date and blocked initial BW. The individual
-32-
x
pig
Chromium and
was
considered
Values of the
carcass
MSE/Vn,
fatty
muscle
were
adjusted
profile
were
analysed using lipid
shown and differences with
are
considered
acid
Index
unit. Results of the chemical
for hot
covariate. In the tables LSMEANS
a
as
experimental
longissimus
and
carcass
the
as
Glycemic
carcass
composition
weight by covariance.
content of
the DM of the
and the SEM, calculated
probability
of the
root
as
values greater than 0.10
were
non-significant.
Results
Diet
analysis
The nutrient concentrations in all of the diets
(Table 2.2).
compared
level in the Cr
to
the L diets. The chromium
supplemented
unsupplemented
diets
supplementation
the
diets
(1371
fatty
acid
(1592 (H200)/
(HO)/
profile
and lower PUFA levels in the L diets
Performance
was
not
highest
in
pigs
1327
of the
fed L diets
(Cr
x
pg/kg (L200))
pg/kg (L0)).
compared
<
to
fats
Due
was
in contrast to the
the
to
sugar and
increased Cr
an
beef
tallow
altered, with higher MUFA
the H diets.
0.003) and feed conversion ratio (P
compared to pigs
affected (Table 2.3). The lowest
FCR
analysis showed
1452
dietary
higher
and Digestibility
Average daily weight gain (P
impaired
close to the calculated levels
The H diets had lower EE, CF, and gross energy and
starch content
Growth
were
GI, P
<
0.070)
daily weight gain (Cr
found for the L200 diet.
were
resulted in reduced apparent energy (P
of the H groups, whereas
<
x
0.003)
<
daily
Gl, P
<
Feeding
0.001) and CP digestibility (P
<
were
feed intake
0.043) and
low GI diets
0.001)
at
day
37 and 84.
Carcass measurements
Carcass measurements and chemical
(Table 2.4).
The
pigs
was
lower
(P
<
<
0.001)
0.028) whereas
than
<
0.002), protein (P
<
pigs
exclusively
carcass
pigs
fed the L diets.
<
<
0.005)
by
Percentage
(P
<
and lower
the GI
0.011) and
of lean
0.012)
fed the L diets exhibited
0.006), and ash (P
-33-
altered
weights (P
the amount of abdominal fat
elevated due to treatment H. Carcasses of
moisture (P
were
fed the H diets had greater hot
higher dressing percentages (P
cuts
composition
a
lipid
was
higher
content
Chromium and
(P
<
0.002) compared
to
pigs
(Cr) supplementation and glycemic index (GI)
growth performance
on
Index
of the H treatments.
Table 2.3: Effect of chromium yeast
the diet
Glycemic
and energy and
of
nitrogen digestibility
in
growing-finishing pigs
Treatment
P-Values
HO
H200
L0
L200
Weight gain [g/d]
701
714
687
Feed intake [kg/d]
2.05
2.05
FCR
2.94
Cr
Gl
653
0.337
2.05
2.04
2.89
3.00
("rxGI
SEM
0.003
0.043
11.2
0.463
0.463
0.387
0.007
3.13
0.372
0.003
0.070
0.046
Performance
2
Digestibility
of
Energy
day
37
0.85
0.84
0.71
0.72
0.829
0.001
0.325
0.006
Energy
day
84
0.83
0.85
0.72
0.72
0.268
0.001
0.159
0.010
Nitrogen
day
37
0.79
0.79
0.69
0.71
0.541
0.001
0.665
0.010
Nitrogen
day
84
0.80
0.82
0.73
0.72
0.400
0.001
0.227
0.010
1
least square means of ten pigs per treatment, SEM = root MSE/Vn, average initial
and final BW were 31.7 kg (SEM 0.52) and 103.7 kg (SEM 0.37), respectively
Data
are
BW at
day of faeces collection
kg at day 84
was
used
as a
covariate, average BW
was
51.0
kg
at
day
37
and 77.7
The GI of the diets influenced the
fatty
acid
profile
of the
percentage of C 16:0 (P< 0.069) and C 18:0 (P< 0.001)
treatments
whereas C 16:1
(P
<
0.017)
and C 18:1
(P
carcass
were
0.020)
<
fat
(Table 2.5). The
higher
were
due to the H
lower
compared
to
the L treatments.
Chromium
mainly
supplementation
no
<
0.022), and
differences
with
a
higher
were
x
(Cr
Gl P
x
<
Gl P
acid
composition
Compared
0.064), C 18:3 (Cr
<
0.045)
was
x
to
the
Gl P
<
(P
<
0.097)
carcass
of C 18:1 (Cr
and C 20:0
lipids
x
(P
<
<
0.049)
and
was
0.003), compared
-34-
carcass
lipids
0.078),
C 20:2
(Cr
x
lowered in treatment L200, whereas
in treatment H200
Gl P
of
respective control,
found for the H200 group. The lower PUFA level
C 16:0
deposition
(Cr
C 20:3
Palmitic acid level of
lower
fatty
in the L diets but not in the H diets.
concentration of C 18:2
GI P
affected the
an
was
compensated
overall SFA
higher,
deposition.
which resulted in
to treatment
HO.
a
Chromium and
Longissimus
muscle
Dependent
content of the
lipid
content
for the
pigs
on
Index
analysis
the GI of the diets, Cr
longissimus
compared
muscel
to the
animals of the HO group. The
groups had intermediate values (Cr
x
Table 2.4: Effect of chromium yeast
on carcass
loin muscle of
supplementation
pigs
Gl, P
<
protein
[kg]
carcass
and
lipid
content
was
highest
supplemented
0.030).
(Cr) supplementation
chemical
measurements and
and
glycemic
composition
index
of the
(GI)
carcass
of
and
growing-finishing pigsl
P-Values
HO
H200
LO
L200
Cr
Gl
78.1
77.8
76.7
76.1
0.439
0.011
Dissection parameters of the left
carcass
side
Cr
Gl
SEM
0.839
0.56
x
[%]
75.5
74.9
73.6
73.7
0.410
0.001
0.323
0.36
Lean cuts
56.2
56.6
57.5
57.9
0.523
0.028
0.975
0.56
Fat cuts
15.3
15.0
14.3
14.5
0.917
0.140
0.672
0.50
Abdominal fat
1.81
1.78
1.62
1.44
0.291
0.012
0.451
0.098
Backfat4
18.6
18.7
18.6
17.6
0.559
0.476
0.476
0.76
Dressing
%
protein
of the LO treatment. The Cr
Treatment
Hot
altered
(Table 2.4). The pigs fed the H200 diets had higher
of the HO and lowest for the
the diet
Glycemic
'
[mm]
Chemical
Moisture
composition
of the
right
carcass
side
[%]
55.9
56.7
58.7
58.2
0.782
0.002
0.199
0.53
Ash
3.1
3.2
3.4
3.3
0.935
0.005
0.202
0.06
Protein
16.4
16.5
17.0
17.2
0.343
0.006
0.936
0.19
Lipids
24.4
23.4
21.0
21.5
0.707
0.002
0.280
0.67
Chemical
Moisture
composition
of loin muscle of the 11
rl"'
rib
[%]
5
73.8
73.9
73.7
73.9
0.372
0.852
0.760
0.16
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.3
0.429
0.097
0.379
0.04
Protein
25.0
24.6
24.4
24.6
0.448
0.042
0.030
0.12
Lipids
0.98
1.43
1.55
1.30
0.365
0.080
0.004
0.108
Ash
Data
are
least square
means
of ten
pigs
per treatment, SEM
Lean cuts: shoulder, back, and ham without fat
Fat cuts: fat
layers
from
=
root
MSE/Vn
layers
shoulder, back, and ham
Backfat: Thinnest part in the middle of the back between two whirls
Hot
carcass
weight
was
used
as a
covariat
-35-
Chromium and
Glycemic
Index
Blood analysis
After
a
24 h
fasting period (tO) plasma
hormones
(Table 2.6). The diets high in sugar and starch
and
(P< 0.019)
concentration
(P
therefore
the
insulin:glucagon
only
were
decreased
content
ratio
affected
(P< 0.020)
insulin
well
as
GI
level
as
T3
(GI)
of
0.063).
<
Table 2.5: Effect of chromium yeast (Cr)
the diet
fatty
on
acid
growing-finishing pigs
supplementation
profile [%
of total
and
glycemic
fatty acids]
of the
index
carcass
fat of
l
Treatment
P-Values
HO
H200
L0
L200
Cr
Gl
43.1
44.2
40.1
42.0
0.110
C16:0
24.8
25.5
23.4
24.4
C18:0
16.3
16.6
14.2
C20:0
0.2
0.3
49.5
C16:l
Gl
SEM
0.030
0.676
0.90
0.097
0.069
0.780
0.51
14.8
0.262
0.001
0.593
0.34
0.2
0.3
0.049
0.733
0.164
0.02
48.2
49.7
51.1
0.898
0.003
0.001
0.35
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
0.523
0.017
0.573
0.06
C 18:1
45.5
44.1
45.4
46.3
0.474
0.020
0.003
0.34
C20:l
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.4
0.057
0.990
0.121
0.12
7.4
7.6
10.3
7.0
0.097
0.328
0.062
0.89
C18:2
6.2
6.4
8.7
5.9
0.101
0.308
0.064
0.76
C18:3
0.5
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.102
0.112
0.078
0.07
C20:2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.078
0.674
0.022
0.03
C20:3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.079
0.895
0.045
0.01
C20:4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.109
0.869
0.209
0.02
SFA2
MUFA2
PUFA2
Data
are
least square
means
the whole
carcass was
SFA:
of saturated
of
had
used
of ten
as
an
feeding (t2)
increased insulin (P
resulted in
<
pigs
per treatment, SEM
=
root
Cr
MSE/Vn,
MUFA:
sum
of monounsaturated
GI affected all evaluated hormones.
0.004)
and reduced
higher insulin:glucagon ratio (P
glucagon
Pigs
level (P
<
in contrast to
groups. Moreover, H treatments reduced the T3 (P<
0.002) and T4
<
0.014) compared
fat content of
fatty acids,
0.001)
a
x
covariate
fatty acids,
polyunsaturated fatty acids
sum
Two hours after
(P
by
to the L treatments.
-36-
<
PUFA:
sum
fed the H diets
0.048), which
pigs
of the L
concentrations
Chromium and
Table 2.6: Effect of chromium yeast
the diet
2h post
on
plasma
Glycemic
Index
(Cr) supplementation and glycemic index (GI)
hormones of
growing-finishing pigs
fasting
and
l
feeding
Treatment
HO
P-Values
LO
H200
L200
After 24 h
Cr
< CrxGI
Gl
SEM
fasting
.
Insulin
after 24 h
of
[pU/ml]
6.2
5.8
6.8
7.5
0.737
0.019
0.223
0.44
Glucagon [pg/ml]
76
73
67
73
0.689
0.319
0.315
4.3
Insulin
3.8
3.6
4.6
4.4
0.791
0.020
0.779
0.35
:
glucagon
T3
[nmol/1]
0.88
0.80
0.95
0.93
0.341
0.063
0.632
0.052
T4
[nmol/1]
61
59
60
65
0.537
0.480
0.106
2.2
2 h
Insulin
[pU/ml]
62.2
45.0
31.4
20.9
0.110
0.004
0.694
8.41
84
91
90
102
0.031
0.048
0.477
4.15
34.6
23.1
15.4
9.1
0.050
0.001
0.556
4.33
Glucagon [pg/ml]
Insulin
:
glucagon
2
post feeding
T3
[nmol/1]
1.15
1.18
1.42
1.56
0.342
0.002
0.560
0.093
T4
[nmol/1]
65
66
69
76
0.175
0.014
0.285
2.7
Data
least square
are
day 82,
mean
Insulin
:
Cr
means
was
76.0
of ten
supplementation
(P
<
pigs
per treatment, SEM
increased
where Insulin
glucagon
diets in contrast to
At tO the
of the H treatment showed
pigs
<
0.001), and NEFA plasma level (P
(P
<
0.001) and HDL-cholesterol levels (P
supplementation
protein concentration (Cr
was
reduced in
contrast
pigs
the
triglycerides (P
pigs
<
MSE/Vn,
blood
=
[pU/ml]
•
sample
at
45
(P< 0.031) and tended
x
<
a
Gl P
<
unsupplemented
higher
(P
<
0.001)
total
reduce
to
<
0.010)
were
plasma
as
well
as
L
<
0.010),
metabolites at tO except for total
to the
pigs fed
increased
In contrast
0.001), NEFA (P< 0.001),
-37-
N
pigs whereas glucose
respective
controls
the L200 diet.
urea
N
(P< 0.001)
greater insulin:glucose ratio (P
of the L treatments.
urea
reduced (Table 2.7). On the
0.088), which compared
displayed
diets.
protein (P
0.001) than the
fed the diet H200 and increased in
concentrations
to
level
did not affect
At t2 the barrows of the H groups
glucose
[pg/ml]
fed the
(P
other hand Cr
root
0.110). Thus insulin:glucagon ratio declined (P< 0.050) in pigs fed
supplemented
pigs
=
kg
glucagon [pg/ml : pg/ml]
insulin level
Cr
BW
<
plasma protein (P
total cholesterol
and
0.002)
<
in
0.062),
(P< 0.001), and HDL-
Chromium and
cholesterol levels (P
<
0.001)
were
higher
Glycemic
in
pigs
Index
of the L
compared
to the
pigs
of the H
treatments.
Table 2.7: Effect of chromium yeast
the diet
on
and 2h post
plasma
feeding
(Cr) supplementation
metabolites of
and
growing-finishing pigs
index
after 24 h
(GI)
of
fasting
l
Treatment
HO
glycemic
H200
L0
i
After 24 h
P-Values
L200
Cr
Gl
Cr
x
Gl
SEM
fasting
Protein
[g/1]
67
66
62
65
0.387
0.010
0.088
1.1
UreaN
[mmol/1]
3.9
4.2
2.6
2.6
0.509
0.001
0.536
0.03
Triglyc.2
[mmol/1]
0.59
0.60
0.53
0.62
0.274
0.617
0.349
0.043
NEFA2
[mmol/1]
0.47
0.42
0.17
0.17
0.597
0.001
0.619
0.055
BHB2
[pmol/1]
112
116
108
107
0.755
0.106
0.588
4.0
[mmol/1]
2.28
2.23
2.24
2.38
0.533
0.439
0.172
0.065
HDL-ch.2 [mmol/1]
0.92
0.89
1.04
1.00
0.525
0.010
0.906
0.042
Glucose
4.29
4.12
5.17
5.11
0.521
0.001
0.751
0.176
1.04
1.02
0.94
1.04
0.503
0.568
0.373
0.064
Cholest.
Insulin
:
2
[mmol/1]
g lucose3
2 h
post feeding
Protein
[g/1]
63
64
64
67
0.094
0.062
0.304
1.0
UreaN
[mmol/1]
4.6
5.6
3.5
3.2
0.264
0.001
0.059
0.33
[mmol/1]
0.43
0.39
0.61
0.69
0.723
0.001
0.188
0.045
[mmol/1]
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.06
0.136
0.001
0.418
0.004
[pmol/1]
121
128
122
113
0.828
0.210
0.154
5.5
[mmol/1]
2.09
2.10
2.33
2.45
0.339
0.001
0.362
0.065
HDL-ch.2 [mmol/1]
0.83
0.83
1.15
1.11
0.609
0.001
0.752
0.045
Glucose
8.12
6.51
5.64
5.38
0.014
0.001
0.068
0.353
5.45
4.83
2.78
2.78
0.634
0.002
0.632
0.630
2
Triglyc.
NEFA2
BHB2
Cholest.
2
[mmol/1]
n
Insulin
:
least square means of ten
82, mean BW was 76.0 kg
Data
day
glucose
are
pigs
per treatment, SEM
=
root
MSE/Vn,
blood
sample
at
Triglyc: Triglyceride, NEFA: non-esterified fatty acids, BHB: ß-hydroxy-butyrate, Cholest:
total cholesterol, HDL-ch.: high density lipoproteins cholesterol
3
Insulin:glucose [mol/1 : mol/1]
Cr
supplementation
caused
•
no
108 where Insulin [mol/1]
distinct effects
except for the concentration of glucose, which
-38-
on
was
=
[uU/ml]
•
7.175
plasma metabolites
reduced
(P
<
•
10"12
2 h post
feeding
0.014). The decrease
Chromium and
significant
was
Index
between the H200 and HO treatment whereas
treatment L200 and LO
significantly
group and
Glycemic
The overall levels
were
(Cr
Gl, P
x
0.068). The
<
urea
only numerically between
level
highest
was
in the H200
different from the animals fed the diet HO (Cr
x
lower in the L groups with
supplementation.
no
effect for the Cr
Gl, P
<
0.059).
Discussion
Diets
The aim of the
supplementation
performance,
differed
level
and
clearly
experiment
plasma
meet
equal
0
200
or
higher
determined
insulin:glucose
digestibility
of energy
dietary
expected. Contamination
the
by
Wenk et al.
35 % due to the
no
amount
were
fat. The
with
(1995).
pelleting
precise technique
feedstuffs
slaughter
growth,
to
a
and low GI
high
expected. Higher plasma glucose
feeding
confirmed the
of crude
fat
much lower in the L diets
was
were
expected
planned
to
and
as
crude
expected. However,
similar in the basal diets.
a
shift toward
analysed
a
The
fibre.
higher
Additionally
the
MUFA and lower
chromium concentrations
were
higher
inorganic complexed Cr during feed processing
(milling, mixing, pelleting) probably
still
indices and
DE content and therefore the lower sugar and starch contents in the L diets
beef tallow content in the L diet led to
described
regard
GI of the H diets in contrast to the L diets. The diets
PUFA percentage in the
as
as
ratio at 2 h after
calculated CP:DE ratios of the diets
higher
with
glycemic
hormones and metabolites. The basal diets of
compensated by increasing
were
Cr
pg/kg
in sugar, starch, EE, and CF,
concentration and
effect of the
of
diets with different
to test two
was
influenced the amount of total chromium
as
The authors concluded that the increased Cr content of
process did not influence the amount of available Cr. There is
available to differentiate between
inorganic
and
organic
Cr in
(Mowat, 1997).
Effects ofGI
Compared
to the
pigs
of treatment L
feed intake, also feed conversion
associated with
Bakker
Table
(1996)
an
was
daily weight gain and,
greater in pigs of the H
increased energy and N
the DE
(calculated according
2.2) especially of the
L diets
because of
might
treatment.
digestibility. With respect
to a formula
equal daily
to
of Boltshauser et
This
findings
of
al, (1993),
have been overestimated. Bakker
-39-
was
(1996)
Chromium and
impaired
observed
polysaccharides
make
a
higher
to a
dietary
unaffected
pigs
were
slaughtered
discrepancy
could have been
content in the diet
The
higher
groups.
similar live
deposition because
acid
Fatty
and the
ingested
deposition
and
affecting
than
Increasing
activity
18:0
in
were
were
although
of
highly
we assume
pigs
in
concentration in
pigs
carcass
lipids
urea
N
The
for this
reason
fed diet L due to the
of
weight
carcass
higher
CF
that
of the H
tissue
body
pigs
compared
by
affected
cuts
were
to the
of the L treatments
et
fat of
novo
diet
ingested
fatty
acid
an
compared
more
more
-40-
a
higher
significant.
rate
PUFA intake
without
and the energy
dietary
energy
as
fat
synthesis (Chilliard, 1993).
increased
to
of the L treatments
consumed 2.5 times
the L
deposition
composition
al, 1998). Therefore higher
pigs
to
deposition
body composition studies,
1993). With regard
(Kabir
not
both the fat
correlated and resulted in lower MUFA
pigs
ratio which in
insulin:glucagon
between both characteristics has been
were
found in the fat of the H groups
these
mainly
plasma
of the H treatment confirm
the GI in the diet should have resulted in
PUFA content in
retention is
nitrogen
the increased hot
carcasses
fat intake. As shown in whole
adipose
urinary nitrogen
relationship.
energy increased the
fed diets H, which affected the de
pigs
respectively.
the
reported
al, 1995). However, the percentage of fat
SFA content (Bee,
digestibility
determined
impairs apparent protein
higher dressing percentage.
positive relationship
a
composition
dietary
mass, which
weight
higher gut fillings
Higher plasma urea N
et
study the
(Low, 1993).
amount of
reported (Coma
crude fibre would
in the diet. The determined
content
increased the overall fat content of the
turn
fat
at
fed the H diets resulted in
pigs
endogenous
formulae
greater faecal nitrogen losses due
causes
indicated this
study
dietary
DM in the H diets and L diets,
decreased and therefore the net effect of
by increased dietary fibre
regression
In the present
On the other hand the author
concentrations in the present
Since
MJ/kg
excretion of bacterial and
usually
are
values calculated from
to
fibre content in the diets
digestibility (Low, 1993).
losses
due to increased levels of non-starch
digestibility impossible.
of energy
14.7 and 13.7
was
Incremental
compared
Index
and concluded that incremental amounts of
prediction
DE content
digestibility coefficients
energy
in the diet
(feedstuff tables)
Glycemic
fatty acid synthase
amounts of C 16:0 and C
the L groups. The average
was
only slightly elevated,
PUFA and had lower total fat content
Chromium and
than
pigs
H groups
lipid
were
content in the
pointed
longissimus
in contrast to results
elevated intramuscular fat content
genetic
Index
of the H treatments.
The elevated
also
Glycemic
out that
synthesis
(IMF)
with increased
of IMF is
feed withdrawal the reduced
pigs
dietary
regulated by
dietary fatty
plasma glucose
of
availability
regulation of
ratios
supply
indicated
peripheral
Two hours post
extent than in the L
by
the
of the H-diets
level of
who fed
Accordingly
corn
glucose
lactating
and
metabolisable energy intake
serum
as
either
in the treatments with
were
high
and
probably
or
corn
feeding
GI
(Kabir
However L
in
et
down-
turned
on
glucose homeostasis.
pigs
provision
for energy
fed H diets.
a
concentrations
to
containing
greater
as
20 % of the
oil demonstrated also
sows
of the
due to
well
glucose
daily
higher
than of the
dietary glucose supply,
al, 1998)
pigs
compared
content
a
rapid
altered. Results of Steele et al.
gluconeogenesis
high
feeding.
cholesterol, and HDL-cholesterol
,
NEFA levels
were
had
higher triglyceride, NEFA,
pigs
of treatments H due to the
fat content in the diets.
Plasma T3 levels
were
increased at tO and t2 in
anabolic effect which results in
reported
well
The
acid
glucagon
with diets
sows
and insulin concentrations post
reduced in all treatments after
higher
ratios
glucose
oil treatment. Because of reduced
especially
in treatments H
level of the H group increased to
the insulin and
and
and therefore lower
caused
fatty
as
concentrations in the
insulin:glucagon
gestating
The authors
physiological
pigs
ratios)
during digestion
tissue may have served
higher NEFA
group.
supply.
the IMF content.
on
treatments.
the
to
who showed
during fasting. Concomitantly gluconeogenesis
feeding plasma glucose
insulin: glucose and
the L
to
fat
levels with the purpose to maintain
glucagon
of fat in
(1985)
compared
insulin secretion
Lipolysis
as
tO
carbohydrates
due to elevated
as
at
compared
(1992)
different
acids
induced lower insulin levels (but similar insulin: glucose
insulin:glucagon
of the L
Madsen et al.
reported by
factors which reduce the influence of
During
muscle of
as
a
N
negative
relationship
positive
correlation between
digestibility
decreased N
a
in
digestibility
pigs.
and
N balance
plasma
pigs
of treatment L. T3 has
an
(Kaneko, 1989b). Hofstetter (1987)
T3 concentration and
protein supply
as
Thus the increased T3 secretion may counteract the
improve
the N-balance. However, there
between T3 concentration and
N-digestibility (data
-41-
not
was no
shown).
significant
Chromium and
Glycemic
Index
Effects of Cr
In contrast to the effects of GI the
FCR is not
explainable by
significant
the apparent energy and
(1997) reported
1.5 % increased N
absorption
good agreement
with the
N
H200 which
had,
at least
day
the HO treatment at
(3.5 %),
and crude fibre
Kornegay
et
al.'s
improved
the
84.
(2.5 %)
(1997) study
protein,
were
N
due to
might explain
the
However, in
on
the GI
a
different effect
might
growth performance.
supplemented
treatments
be
on
insulin secretion
insulin
and
binding
pigs
to
of
not be
utilised
improper
ratio of
daily gain between
N level
urea
an
substance
in Cr treatments.
its
was
not
reported
insulin levels
loading
with
reduced
were
1997b).
Thus
were more
caused
by
and
hypothesis.
evident in
pigs
increase
is characterised
-42-
GI
by
enhanced
tissues
potentiated
was
lower
fed the H diet. An
glucagon output
in
the
antagonistic
the
due to
chromium-
a
concentration
The net effect of the
glucagon (catabolic)
an
peripheral
1996). The analysed glucagon concentrations
confirmed this
probably
turn could have
glucose
supplementation might
x
plasma glucose
may have activated
Cr, which in
Cr
increased insulin secretion.
(McCarty, 1996) possibly
However, the effects
insulin action due to Cr
(anabolic)
turn
increased number of insulin receptors in
by initiating
activity (McCarty,
for the
Feed intake resulted in increased
the effect of insulin (Davis and Vincent,
insulin
in
increased
an
compared
or an
plasma
explanation
(Evans and Bowman, 1992). Additionally insulin
experiment
fat
metabolism due to altered insulin and
further
a
circulating
down-regulated
improved
H200
Cr effect in
concentrations, especially in the H treatments, which in
binding
reflected
nitrogen could
treatment L200
(65.8 %),
of
about 10 %. On the other
was
treatment
merely slight
pigs
to
diets rather than the L diets
lack of need for the additional N
concentrations at t2
interaction in
In Cr
which is in
al, 1993) diets used
et
which
absorbed
more
al.
et
affected.
Depending
glucagon
concentration
acids, in pigs of
completely possibly
a
to the H
and
of the treatment
to calculated NFE
(Boltshauser
comparable
indicated that the
significantly
digestibility especially in pigs
content of the H diets
urea
i.e. amino
treatment HO and H200.
supplementation
due to Cr
content in DM
treatment HO at t2
amino acids. This
daily gain
on
protein digestibility. Kornegay
However, with respect
improved plasma
catabolism of
GI interaction
x
numerical, 2.5 % higher N digestibility compared
apart from the fact that the sugar
hand
Cr
and
present
hormones
insulin:glucagon
ratio
Chromium and
and
(Seitz
Tarnowski, 1980). The present data show that, independent of the Gl, Cr
reduced the
supplementation
pronounced
ratio. However, the effect
insulin:glucagon
high dietary glucose supply.
fell short of
possibly
control
respective
resulting in
a
This
composition.
finding
deposition (Mooney
exclusively
increase both
lipolytic activity
which indicated
With
regard
likely interacted
acid
on
fatty
degree
the
The
or
profile
of the
rather the
dietary
fatty acid profile of
synthesis
(Chilliard, 1993),
of saturation
pigs of
treatment LO
and MUFA content
On the
of
assumption
dietary PUFA,
acid
synthesis
was
that
this effect indicated
rate,
possibly
treatment L200. The increased
in
good agreement with
activity
there
in
adipose
were no
could further
a
pigs
fatty
pigs
the
a
on
fat
fatty
fed diet L200
ingested
acid
by
an
synthesis
of Lien et al
fed Cr
simultaneous
fat
supply
deposition
profile
carcass
since de
to
rising
occurred
was
pigs
the
and
rate.
lipids
deposited
an
among other
ingested fat,
compared
and
most
corresponding fatty
depends
acid
due to Cr
only
reduced
fed diet LO.
same
elevated de
novo
action in
supplementation
amount
fatty
pigs
of
would be
(1998) where higher lipogenic enzyme
supplemented
occurrence
-43-
supplementation
enhanced insulin
differences between the treatments in
indicate
fat
PUFA dilution due to
stimulated
study
tissue of
a
Cr
body
without any effect
of both treatments
pigs
lipids,
the amount of
on
to
al, 1984).
and L200. PUFA content in
increased in
reported
et
increasing dietary
However, except for C 18:1 level, Cr effect
between
insulin action may not
fat content and the
on
protein
increased
al, 1997a) and RNA synthesis
the whole
is decreased with
or
et
carcass
acid pattern of the diet and
fatty
acid
acid
fatty
to
measurements
carcass
since added Cr has been
(Min
tissue
improved
An
lipogenesis
adipose
in
1997).
protein synthesis (Okada
with the GI
composition.
factors
novo
the
to
in increased
increased
an
compared
did not corroborate the results of several other Cr studies,
and Cromwell, 1995,
have resulted
insulimglucagon
or
growth performance.
influence
significantly
not
on
improved
the effect of
fed diet L200
pigs
decreased backfat thickness and fat accretion
reported
which
threshold in
more
growth during
affected
concentration
long-term negative effect
However, Cr supplementation did
and
positively
ratio
glucagon
In contrast
physiological
a
compensated
in the H200 group
supplementation
glucagon. Thus the decreased insulin:glucagon
the
was
in treatment H200 than treatment L200. We suggest that the
insulin action due to Cr
ratio
Index
Glycemic
diets
carcass
of
were
reported. However,
fat content. This
lipolysis
and
finding
lipogenesis,
as
Chromium and
Min et al.
reported by
lipolysis (Groscolas
PUFA content in
(1997a). Moreover
and
pigs
longissimus
a
preferred
carcass
was
composition protein
affected
by
Cr
1980;
longissimus
well
as
was
Kaneko,
muscle due to
observed in
thought.
reported to
pigs
and
depending
expect that with improved insulin action the fat
Tarnowski,
mobilisation of PUFA in
on
content in
that
1989a).
Increased
supplemented dietary
of the present
study
as
observed
by Mooney
explain
diet L200.
performance
have
low
Cr
intramuscular
as
general
content of
one
should
the muscle would increase
reported by
glucagon (Seitz
fat
of
content
and
the
Kuhn et al. (1997)
as
fed the H diets is consistent with this
and Cromwell
hormone and IGF is involved in Cr
which could
we
GI. In
pigs
(1995,
1997)
fed diet L200.
other hormones involved in the mode of action of Cr. There is
growth
ingested
especially lipid
be sensitive to insulin but not to
consistent with the reduced intramuscular fat content in
are
relatively
of
On the other hand reduced fat content of dissected muscle ham tissue due to Cr
supplementation
there
to the
case
of treatment L200.
muscle
since muscle tissue
Index
Raclot, 1998) could also have contributed
In contrast to the whole
the
Glycemic
no
longissimus
the reduced
lipid
dependent
content of the
some
is
rather
Probably
evidence
mechanisms (Mowat, 1997),
longissimus
muscle in
pigs
that
However, this would be inconsistent with the reduced growth
and the determined chemical
explanation
composition
for the observed Cr effect
muscle.
-44-
of the whole
on
chemical
carcass.
All in all
composition
of the
Dietary Chromium and Protein Supply
Dietary Chromium affected Protein and Fat
Accretion Rate but not Energy Retention in finishing
Pigs fed two dietary Protein Levels
Based
Andreas Lemme,
on:
Caspar Wenk, Giuseppe Bee,
Archives of Animal Nutrition
Merlin Lindemann
(submitted)
Abstract
Balance and
dietary
chromium
accretion in
were
crude
respiration experiments
(Cr) supplementation
Sixteen
finishing pigs.
allocated to
were
one
Large
of four diets
protein (CP) supply
at
a
levels
protein
two
White' castrates
involving
combination of two
at 15.5 and 20.5 % with
supplementation improved nitrogen (N) (P
both CP
<
levels, whereas energy digestibility
.001). At high CP provision dietary
increased
Heat
protein
production
accretion
was
accretion
was
(P
was
protein
by
reduced due to Cr
pigs
.001) and
as
fat
Cr
digestibility (P
improved merely
urinary
yeast (0, 200 pg/kg).
at
high
N losses
of
dietary protein
energy retention and utilisation.
<
fed the
supplementation
CP diet
(P
at both CP levels
(P
high
.020)
at
CP
supply (P
<
.092) and
(P
present data suggest that Cr stimulates protein deposition dependent
composition
1)
adequate lysine, methionine, cystine,
Cr decreased
Cr in
and fat
factors:
dietary
.022) resulting in improved N utilisation (P
<
increased
<
on
the effects of
(57.2 kg initial body weight)
threonine, and tryptophan levels and 2) Cr supplementation
Cr
investigate
conducted to
<
<
on
<
.063).
.001). Fat
.090). The
source
and lowers fat accretion with minimal effects
on
and
total
Chromium and Protein
Supply
Introduction
dietary
In recent years
protein and
trivalent chromium
decrease fat
to
deposition
1997b) and insulin
of
glucose
to
appear to be
partly
and fat
insulin action
glucose
and
(Davis
Vincent,
level and to elevate the conversion
(Kaneko, 1989). These characteristic effects of insulin
in contrast to
but lower fat
protein
amplify
to
is known to lower blood
glycogen
mammals, including humans (Anderson,
rate in
1998). Furthermore, Cr has been found
has been shown to increase muscle
(Cr)
deposition
of recent Cr research
findings
and Cromwell, 1995,
(Mooney
rates
suggesting higher
1997; Lindemann
etal, 1995b; Lien etal, 1998).
The
discrepancy
may be
endogenous (genetic,
nutrient intake,
(Lindemann
1998),
the fact that Cr-induced effects
gender, etc.)
age,
and exogenous factors
etc.) (Mowat, 1997). So,
al, 1995b; Ward
other feed
it does not
al, 1997; Lien
et
carbohydrates (Kozlovsky
or
several
et
explained by
et
et
could have
determinant for the effectiveness of Cr. In addition it is of
amount
degree
and kind of
of stimulation of insulin secretion
glucagon
As
dietary carbohydrates
secretion
as
continuation
experiment
was
demonstrated
of
our
designed
available
carbohydrate
balance studies and
likely
and, due
Lemme et al.
previous
studies
protein (CP)
sources on
respiration
nutrient
been
special
to
as
be
to
a
interest that the
by altering
adaptation mechanism,
an
al,
et
well
as
shown
affects Cr action
(Lemme
levels
dietary protein
the
also
(1999a,b).
determine the effects of
to
combined with two crude
by
most
energy and
al, 1999b)
et
both
on
al, 1998), fat (Striffler
al, 1986; Lemme
ingredients (Lukaski, 1999)
(stress,
that
surprise,
depend
et
al,
1999a,b) the present
supplemented
(high
low)
or
deposition by
means
Cr
(0
200
pg/kg)
in diets rich in
highly
or
of nutrient and energy
studies.
Materials and Methods
Animals and Diets
Sixteen castrated male Swiss
(final) body
into four
mass
dietary
treatment).
The
(BM)
were
Large
randomly
treatments
at two
experiment
was
White
pigs averaging
allocated to
dates (8
arranged
-46-
pigs
as
a
57.2
(initial)
experimental blocks
per date /
2x2
a
to 83.0
based
total of 4
factorial
design
kg
on
BM
pigs
per
with
Cr
Supply
Chromium and Protein
supplementation (0,
200
and
pg/kg)
amounts of
equal
Both basal diets consisted of
(Table 3.1).
(high, low)
level
CP
dietary
fraction and
of the
(Lemme
al, 1999b) (Table 3.1). The diets high
amount of
potato protein and
and beef tallow
compared
corn
to the low
(digestible
formulated to be isocaloric
a
feed and
gluten
a
energy
in CP
to
ensure
had
(HO, H200)
high
a
a
higher
lower content of alkali treated straw
(LO, L200).
CP diets
flaked
high glycemic index, respectively
availability
et
factors
soybean meal, wheat,
potatoes, wheat starch, wheat middlings, dextrose, and molasses
carbohydrate
the
as
(DE))
Both basal diets
and to meet nutrient
were
requirements
(DE, lysine (lys), methionine and cysteine (thio), threonine (thr), tryptophan (trp)) for
finishing pigs (70 kg) (NRC, 1998).
and trp
kept
were
constant at
dose-response experiment
(Lemme
as
et
al, 1999a),
Cr yeast extract
to
a
dietary concentrations of lys, thio, thr,
In addition
ratio of 100:60:65:18. Based
establish the most efficacious level of Cr
half of each basal diet
one
(20,000
results of
on
Alltech
Cr/kg,
mg
supplemented
was
a
previous
supplementation
with 200
pg/kg
Cr
Biotechnology Center, Nicholasville,
Kentucky, USA).
previous
As in both
to a
BM-based
1993)
feeding
studies (Lemme et al, 1999a,b) the animals
scale
according
to Swiss
recommendations
were
fed
daily
once
(Boltshauser
al.,
et
with water available ad libitum.
Respiration and Digestibility Measurements
Before
starting
the
experiment
each animal had to pass
adaptation period.
Thereafter measurements
periods.
BM of the
periods
The
was
animals
mean
pigs during
analysed
feed and
during
procedure
three balance
balance and
respiration
58.9, 69.0, and 79.8 kg, respectively. Between each experimental period the
were
kept
for ten
and, but only
measured for each animal
indirect
carried out
were
the three
days
in their individual pens with concrete floor in
environmentally controlled building. During
collected
one
over
by
two
means
each
consecutive
of
a
balance
four-day
period
excreta were
24h-runs, gaseous exchange
dual chamber
was
(each 5.44 m3) open-circuit
respiration calorimetry system (Hadorn, 1994). Oxygen consumption
carbon dioxide
production
were
determined
AG, Dietikon-Fahrweid, Switzerland) and
by
a
means
Binos
of
an
an
1001
Oxymat
3
and
(Siemens-Albis
(Fisher-Rosemount,
Baar-
Walterswil, Switzerland), respectively. Heat expenditure (Q) and thus also energy
-47-
Chromium and Protein
balance and fat accretion rates,
respectively,
(RQ) method (Brouwer, 1965;
McLean and
estimated
by
Table 3.1:
the
nitrogen balance (Protein
Composition
of the
experimental
Treatment:
added
Cr3+ (pg/kg):
Crude
protein
=
was
Supply
calculated
by
the
respiratory quotient
Tobin, 1987). Protein accretion
N
x
6.25).
diets
HPO
HP200
LP0
LP200
0
200
0
200
high
low
g/kg
g/kg
Wheat
200.0
200.0
Wheat starch
180.0
180.0
80.0
80.0
200.0
200.0
50.0
50.0
45.0
40.0
90.0
20.0
Alkali treated straw
22.5
61.0
Molasses
25.0
25.0
Dextrose
50.0
50.0
Beef tallow
10.0
36.9
9.5
9.5
7.5
7.5
2.7
7.3
0.5
2.6
L-Threonine 98%
0.7
3.2
DL
0.5
1.0
3.0
3.0
5.0
5.0
18.1
18.0
content
Ingredients
Wheat
middlings
Flaked potatoes
Soybean
Corn
meal
gluten
Potato
(44 %)
feed
(60 %)
protein
Carbonated limestone
Monocalzium
Lysine
DL
-
-
phosphate
HCl
-
Methionine
Tryptophan
Salt
Premix
Diamol
1
rate was
l
2
per kilogram of diet: lO'OOO IU of vitamin A, l'OOO IU of vitamin D3, 40 IU of
vitamin E, 4 mg of vitamin B2, 4mg of vitamin B6, 0.015 mg of vitamin B12, 1
mg of
vitamin K3, 15 mg of pantothenic acid, 20 mg of niacin, 0.2
of
folic
60
acid,
mg
mg Fe as
supplied
FeS04, 1 mg I as Ca(I03)2, 0.3 mg Se
40 mg Mn as Mn02
Diamol is
a
as
Na2Se, 15
nutritionally inert substance and was
variability in the analyses
insoluble ash and reduce
-48-
mg Cu
as
CuS04, 100
mg Zn
as
Zn02,
added to increase the level of 4 N-HCl
Chromium and Protein
The determination of
energy
digestibility
insoluble ash
substance,
the
nitrogen,
were
(AIA)
carried out
marker
as
fat
Supply
(ether extract), dry matter, organic
by
of the indicator method
means
(Prabucki
et
al, 1975). Diamol,
a
using
4 N-HCl
nutritionally
added to the diets to increase the level of AIA and reduce
was
matter and
inert
variability
in
analyses (Table 3.1).
faeces
Daily
aliquot
was
samples
pig
and
period
dried at 60 °C for 48 h, milled
fresh
remaining
of each
sample
quantitatively collected
also
was
stored
blended, homogenised and
were
(0.5 mm) and stored
at
-25
°C
in containers filled with 15 ml of
until
solution (Richterich and Colombo, 1998) to avoid NH3 losses.
collected and stored at -25 °C until
-25 °C. The
at
Urine
analyses.
10 %
a
an
was
thymol-isopropanol
Daily aliquots
were
analyses.
Blood sample
Each
pig
was
bled twice at
experimental day
(tl), blood samples
were
obtained
the
were
bled
daily
samples
ration and
were
collected
Leco
ether
of
The
an
were
centrifuged
were
Thereafter
24 h
pigs
feeding (t2).
fasting
were
fed
The blood
1500 g for 15 min at 4 °C. The
at
and stored at -25 °C until
calorimeter
crude fibre
carried out
automated
extract.
St.
Gross
(System
=
nitrogen
(CF), organic
according
Nx
6.25))
to the
analyses.
energy
and carbon elemental
(GE)
C 700 T, DCA
were
was
(OM)
and ether extract
(C)
content was
determined
analyser (CN Analyzer
Ether extract
determined
was
using
analysed
an
as
by
FP 2000,
petroleum
anisothermic
bomb
Analysentechnik GmbH, Heitersheim, Germany).
determined at the
Research Station for Animal Production
laboratory
of the Swiss Federal
(RAP, Posieux, Switzerland) according
methods of VDLUFA (Naumann et al,
furnace atomic
matter
methods of VDLUFA (Naumann et
and carbon
loseph, Michigan, USA).
sugar, and amino acids
graphite
punctuation.
2 h after the initiation of
immediately
nitrogen (N; (CP
Corporation,
Starch,
frozen
they
(DM), ash (CA),
of feed
al, 1997).
means
ice until
again
vena cava
(86,2 kg BM). After
analysis
matter
analysis
on
plasma was
Chemical
Dry
kept
by
44
1997). The diets
absorption spectrometry (AS
PE/5100
Nutrient determination of the faeces (N, C in fresh
-49-
were
analysed
PC/ZL) also
samples; AIA,
to the
for Cr
by
at the RAP.
ether extract, DM,
Chromium and Protein
OM, GE in dried samples) and urine (N, C)
GE content of urine
Klein
calculated
was
according
Supply
carried out similar to feed
were
to the formula
proposed by
analyses.
Hoffmann and
(1980).
Insulin
(Pharmacia
Insulin RIA 100 Pharmacia AB,
(Double Antibody DPC,
RIA methods whereas
Germany)
Angeles, California, USA)
glucose,
analysed by
were
were
measured
and
glucagon
using
standard
N, triglycerides (Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel,
urea
nonesterified
and
Switzerland),
Los
Uppsala, Sweden)
acids
fatty
means
of
a
(Wako
(NEFA)
Cobas Mira
Chemicals,
Neuss,
Analyser (Hoffmann-La
Roche
Ltd., Basel, CH) using standard enzymatic methods.
Statistical
analysis
Considering
repeated
measures,
statistical
MIXED
procedures
with Cr
experimental period
the
data
plasma
factorial
pig
analyses
(SAS, 1998; Littell
with Cr and CP
were
factors
as
considered
the
as
with
treated
the first balance
antibiotics
period
one
pig
for
analysis
of
with the PROC
level of the diet, and
al, 1998). Statistical analyses of
procedures (SAS, 1998)
as
2x2
a
(Snedecor and Cochran, 1967). The
experimental
parameters. Differences with probability levels of 0.10
significant. During
performed
were
et
with the GLM
performed
values
of the data
supplementation, dietary protein
factors
as
were
experiment
individual
especially important
the covariance structure, which is
unit for
all
response
considered
non
of the H200 treatment got ill and
was
greater
or
(penicillin, chloramphenicol).
were
Therefore
these
data
were
excluded from statistical calculations.
Results
Diets
The nutrient and energy concentrations of the diets
(Table 3.2). The
diets.
H diets had
Concentrations
of
higher protein
lys, thio, thr,
content
Dry matter, ash, nitrogen
was
and trp
HO, H200, L0 and L200
were
were
were
clear
free extracts, fibre, and
similar in both diets. The
close to the calculated levels
and lower fat content
concentrations of the other listed amino acids
mixture.
were
analysed
compared
slightly higher
higher
whereas the
in the H than in the L
(calculated) digestible
contents of
energy
total chromium in the diets
1499, 1555, 1317, and 1659 pg/kg, respectively.
-50-
to the L
Chromium and Protein
Table 3.2:
Analysed
nutrient
(g/kg DM),
and amino acid
(pg/kg DM)
energy
Supply
(Ml/kg DM),
profile (g/kg
and chromium content
DM and relation to
lysine (%))
of
the basal diets
Crude
protein
Dry
matter
Ash
(CA)
Crude
high
content:
(DM)
protein (CP)
Lysine
low
905
912
73
71
205
155
12.4
(100)
11.8
(100)
7.2
(58)
7.0
(59)
Threonine
8.6
(69)
7.8
(66)
Tryptophan
2.3
(19)
2.1
(18)
Arginine
9.6
(78)
6.7
(57)
Histidine
4.0
(32)
2.8
(24)
Isoleucine
7.9
(63)
5.1
(43)
Leucine
18.4
(148)
12.4
(105)
Phenylalanine
10.3
(83)
6.8
(57)
Tyrosine
7.7
(62)
4.7
(40)
Valine
9.4
(76)
6.2
(52)
Methionine &
Nitrogen
Cystine
free extracts
(NFE)
661
681
Starch
448
459
Sugar
98
96
17
43
44
51
18.01
18.28
14.51
14.60
14.1
10.6
Crude fat
(ether extract)
Crude fibre
(CF)
Gross energy
Digestible
energy
Ratio CP
DE
:
l
Chromium
1499/1555
17/1659
calculated
digestible energy content (DE (MJ/kg DM) if crude fat content is lower 60 g/kg
according to the following formula: 18.974*CP (g/g DM) + 33.472*ether extract
(g/g DM) 21.216*CF(g/g DM) + 16.61 l*NFE(g/g DM) (Boltshauser et al, 1993)
DM
-
Energy and nutrient metabolism
The GE intake
<
generally higher
was
.001) but within the
pigs
which received
digestibility (d(E))
even
amplified
L treatments
no
was
in
Cr
increased in the
x
of the L
pigs provided
supplemental
that effect (Cr
pigs
CP, P
(Cr
x
with Cr yeast
CP, P
high protein
<
compared
<
group
to the H treatments
ingested
less GE than
.075) (Table 3.3). Energy
(P
<
.001) and
.001). However the high dietary
-51-
(P
Cr
supply
CP level
Chromium and Protein
elevated
energy losses
urine
metabolizability
(P
(m(E))
of energy
of the LO and L200 treatments
higher
were
when diets
whereas
(Cr
supplemented
with Cr
of the HO group
m(E)
CP, P
x
if diets contained 20.5 % CP
were
of the H200 treatment had the
.001). Pigs
<
(Cr
x
.001) and
<
CP, P
.083). There
<
and
of metabohzable energy for
maintenance
growth (kg,
P
<
008)
were
differences
were no
utilisation of metabohzable energy
as
to that
pronounced
were even more
ingested
well
equivalent
was
among treatments with respect to the ratio of retained to
including
highest
002). Energy losses by heat expenditure
<
(P
Supply
(n(E)).
energy
growth (k,
improved
P
<
The
016)
as
pigs fed the
in
low CP diets.
Table 3.3: Effect of chromium yeast
(CP) of the diet
(Cr) supplementation and crude protein
energy partition
on
in
Treatments
finishing
content
pigs
l
P-values
CrxCP
SEM
.001
.075
8.78
.001
.001
.001
.0022
0 025
544
.001
374
0010
0.823
0.824
.002
.001
.002
.0028
0 480
0.440
0 441
.053
.001
.083
0051
0 370
0 377
0.384
0.382
.731
208
.610
.0070
k
0 447
0.440
0.466
0 464
563
.016
.702
0072
k,
0 711
0.687
0.726
0.735
439
.008
112
0092
Item
HPO
EÎP200
LP0
LP200
GE intake
1489
1485
1551
0 864
0 891
0 035
Cr
CP
1511
.039
0.847
0 849
0 035
0 024
0.829
0.856
0 458
n(E)
d(E)
Urine energy /EI
m(E)
Heat
Data
production/EI
are
least square
GE intake
in
kJ /
W075
energy intake, n(E)
of ME for
Cr
(d(N),
growth
=
the H diets
CP, P
and
unsupplemented
pattern (Cr
<
compared
treatment H200
x
CP,
d, d(E)
as
MEm
well
<
replicates
digestibility, m(E) energy metabolizability, EI
energy/EI, k overall utilisation of ME, kg utilisation
ME needed for maintenance (458 kJ / W075 was assumed)
=
energy
=
=
high dietary
as
=
=
=
CP level
improved nitrogen digestibility
001) (Table 3 4). Urinary nitrogen losses
to those of the L groups
urme
treatments
P
of four pigs per treatment with three
ratio retained
higher
digested nitrogen (Nd)
higher
*
where
supplementation
Cr and
means
063).
m
(Cr
(P
<
.004).
N losses
in
treatment L200
CP, P
<
092) resulted
x
When the N balance
addition
to
the Cr
x
was
Lower
higher
urme
compared
in
an
pigs fed
N losses
to the
inverse
m
in
respective
N utilisation
related to the amount of apparent
CP interaction
Nd utilisation could be observed for the L treatments
-52-
were
(Cr
(CP,
x
CP, P
P
<
<
.023)
071)
a
clear
Chromium and Protein
digestibility (d(F))
Fat
supplementation (P
(d(OM))
were
was
.020). Dry
<
increased in
further enhanced
by
affected
pigs
fed the H diets
x
CP, P
Table 3.4: Effect of chromium yeast (Cr)
(CP) of the diet
on
both the CP level
(d(DM))
matter
d(DM) and d(OM) (Cr
nutrient
Supply
<
and
(P
.001) and
<
case
supplementation
and
.001) and the Cr
<
organic
.001) in
digestibility
(P
Cr
supplementation
high protein supply.
of
and crude
nitrogen
digestibility
matter
protein
metabolism in
content
finishing
pigs
Treatments
Item
2:
'
P-values
HPO
HP200
LP0
LP200
d(F)
0.482
0.537
0.731
d(DM)
0.852
0.879
d(OM)
0.885
d(N)
CrxCP
SEM
.001
.180
.0126
.001
.001
.001
.0020
0.869
.001
.001
.001
.0017
0.845
0.861
.001
.001
.133
.0044
0.430
0.375
0.401
.946
.004
.092
.0143
0.411
0.470
0.470
0.460
.172
.171
.063
.0162
0.472
0.522
0.556
0.534
.453
.023
.071
.0174
Cr
CP
0.749
.020
0.834
0.834
0.907
0.867
0.870
0.900
0.459
N utilisation
Na utilisation
N / NI
Urinary
Data
are
least square
means
of four
pigs
per treatment with three
replicates
fat digestibility, d(DM)
d(F)
dry matter digestibility, d(OM)
organic matter
NI
utilisation
N
retained
digestibility; d(N)
nitrogen digestibility,
nitrogen intake,
nitrogen/NI, Nd utilisation retained nitrogen/digested NI
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Protein
deposition
rate and
protein
increased whereas fat accretion
(Table 3.5).
(Cr
Cr
amplified
CP, P
<
treatments
(P
<
low crude
protein
x
.012) in
was
the effect
decreased (P
(CP,
P
<
<
due to
.001)
protein deposition (Cr
on
the H200 group. Fat
.090). The overall
level
energy to total retained energy ratio
deposition
energy retention
.035)
(RE)
whereas Cr
x
were
higher CP supply
CP, P
.022)
<
and REP
decreased in both Cr
was
was
(REp)
increased in
supplementation
had
pigs
no
fed the
effects
on
RE.
Plasma
analysis
After
a
24 h
concentrations
fasting period plasma
were
increased in
treatment L0 and L200
also increased
pigs fed
(Table 3.6).
plasma urea
urea
N levels
N
the
high
Two hours post
(P
<
(P
<
.002) and NEFA (P
CP diets in contrast to
feeding pigs
.032)
pigs
of
of the H treatments had
.001) but triglyceride (P
-53-
<
<
.014) and NEFA (P
Chromium and Protein
<
.001) concentrations
showed
no
reduced
were
compared
statistically significant effects
on
Supply
fed the L diets.
pigs
to
plasma
Supplemented
Cr
traits.
Discussion
analysis
Diet
The diet
the diet
preparation
close to the
were
satisfactory
was
between both basal diets
expected
a
work
previous
1999b). The
were
design
lys, thio, thr,
of
compared
amino acids
trp concentrations
higher
were
mentioned amino acids to
requirements
for
close to that of
produce
to
similar concentrations of
synthetic
(Table 3.2).
The difference in fat content
a
diets with
However, the
than recommended but
lysine
were
as
al.,
et
well
as
higher proportion
a
total
regarding
and
feed used
(Lemme
index
high glycemic
and trp caused in the L diet
to the H diets.
Sugar
high glycemic index
distinct stimulation of the insulin secretion
ensuring
treatment
values
due to the aim to maintain both diets isocaloric.
was
starch content of both basal diets
in
since the nutrient and energy concentrations of
lys, thio, thr,
the ratios
and
of the
similar in both basal diets and close to nutrient
growing-finishing pigs (NRC, 1998).
Table 3.5: Effect of chromium yeast (Cr)
(CP) of the diet
retention in
on
supplementation
daily protein
and fat
and crude
deposition
as
protein
well
as
on
content
energy
finishing pigs
Treatments
Item2:
HPO
Nutrient accretion, g /
(kg
0 7S
*
'
l
P-values
HP200
LP0
LP200
Cr
CP
CrxCP
SEM
d)
Protein
6.84
8.08
6.11
5.95
.061
.001
.022
.248
Fat
8.75
8.31
10.35
9.84
.090
.001
.898
.244
552
559
595
579
.754
.035
.368
12.5
0.296
0.343
0.245
0.246
.011
.001
.012
.0073
RE kl /
(W0-75
*
d)
REP
Data
RE
The
=
are
least square
means
total retained energy, REP
Cr
concentrations
concentration of total Cr
Until
of four
now
no
in
gives
=
pigs
per treatment with three
ratio of retained energy
the
no
diets
were
are
replicates
protein to RE
as
information about the
precise analytical techniques
bioactive Cr in feedstuff. As
higher
as
expected, but, however,
proportion
available to separate
reported by Kumpulainen (1992)
-54-
of bioactive Cr.
inorganic-
and Wenk et al.
from
(1995)
Chromium and Protein
feed
processing by
of stainless-steel
means
Supply
equipment heavily
due to contamination. But this form of Cr has been
(Ducros, 1992). However, Cr yeast
was
supposed
supplemented
not
amount of 200
pg/kg
supplemented
and the
2 h
sure
nutritional value
that the
were
only possible
respective non-supplemented
of the diet
on
plasma
(Cr) supplementation
and crude
diet is the
HPO
content
fasting
and
l
post feeding in finishing pigs
3:
protein
metabolites and hormones after 24 h
Treatment2
Item
no
Cr from Cr yeast.
Table 3.6: Effect of chromium yeast
(CP)
of
until the two basal diets
mixed and divided in two parts each afterwards to make
difference between the
increase total Cr content
HP200
LP0
after 24 h
P-values
LP200
Cr
CP
CrxCP
SEM
fasting (tO)
Urea N,
mmol/L
5.66
5.27
4.62
4.32
.137
.002
.834
.213
Triglyc,
mmol/L
0.69
0.65
0.68
0.62
.579
.825
.884
.0747
NEFA,
mmol/L
0.34
0.30
0.16
0.17
.809
.032
.680
.0605
Glucose
mmol/L
4.57
4.45
4.80
4.26
.242
.928
.438
.246
Insulin,
pU/mL
11.8
10.0
12.5
10.5
.360
.755
.951
1.94
pg/mL
110
116
88
89
.859
.168
.882
16.32
Glucagon,
Insulin
:
glucose
1.90
1.63
1.93
1.77
.531
.806
.870
.337
Insulin
:
glucagon
4.9
4.8
6.1
5.4
.558
.225
.664
.71
2 h post
Urea
feeding (t2)
mmol/L
6.73
6.56
5.49
5.34
.454
.001
.949
.206
Triglyc.,
mmol/L
0.50
0.53
0.69
0.81
.336
.014
.579
.0710
NEFA,
mmol/L
0.01
0.02
0.06
0.06
.364
.001
.736
.0086
Glucose
mmol/L
5.53
8.27
6.28
6.89
.106
.738
.280
.868
Insulin,
pU/mL
96
154
136
91
.855
.760
.183
35.66
pg/mL
114
121
114
106
.960
.580
.540
11.96
N,
Glucagon,
Insulin
:
glucose
9.4
12.5
15.1
9.1
.656
.740
.194
3.252
Insulin
:
glucagon
39
58
51
39
.778
.751
.222
11.82
Blood
Data
sample
are
at
experimental day 44,
least square
means
of four
mean
pigs
body weight
was
86.2
per treatment and three
kg
replicates
Triglyc: triglycerides, NEFA: nonesterified fatty acids, Insulimglucose (mol/L : mol/L) *
108 where Insulin mol/L
pU/mL * 7.175 * 10"12, Insulin : glucagon (pg/mL : pg/mL)
where Insulin pg/mL
pU/mL * 4
=
=
-55-
Chromium and Protein
Nutrient and energy
The
diets
higher
were
digestibility
GE intake of
of the L treatments could be
pigs
calculated to be isocaloric
completely ingested
Supply
the DE basis. Since
on
expected because
a
few
daily
the basal
rations
were
not
small differences in energy intake within the basal diet treatments
occurred.
dietary protein
Because
serves
correlation coefficient between
observed for
higher d(E)
the
d(N). Quite
the L diets
reverse
compared
to the same
1997,1998).
and
d(E)
nitrogen
d(N)
was
was
.915 (P
were
found with the
due to lower
addition
lipids
of
d(F) increased
endogenous
supplemented
probably higher digestible
Independent
than
lipids
of
of
which
caused
were
by
higher
findings
higher
the
in
pigs
ingredients
of other
compared
dietary
et
and fat
higher
are
Bakker et
al,
at
pigs
t2
suggesting
an
fed the H diets
and
d(OM)
which is in
on
of 200
increased fat
were
absorption
or
reduced
Beyond
digestibility
this
by
pg/kg
good agreement
al. (1997). However, these effects
for these effects.
neither for the Cr effects
al,
like beef tallow in the L diets
the H diets. It could not be elucidated
responsible
were
et
CP
fat level and in
ingredients (lust, 1982b;
to
fed
be attributed
can
increasing dietary
dietary protein level, supplementation
Kornegay
improved nitrogen
were
mainly
assumed that the
we
certainly
thought.
improved d(E), d(N), d(F), d(DM)
feeding
.001)
and the
source
energy
the amounts of added fat
as
fat losses with
pure fat
fed the L diets
pigs
consistent with the latter
when
as
increases with incremental
d(N)
1995). Higher plasma triglyceride concentration
experiments
d(F)
<
fed the H diets. However, both
It is well known that
Likewise the
in
well
percentage of endogenous N losses decreases (lust, 1982a; Heger
possibly
absorption
as
of the H treatments
situation
to those
principle.
content as the
pigs
both
as
were more
the methods
have
no
clearly
with recent
pronounced
whether
applied
endogenous nitrogen
we
Cr
and fat losses
physiological explanation
coefficients of the nutrients.
Intermediate energy utilisation
Consistent with results of Wenk
the
higher
likely by
CP
provision by
elevated
urinary
(1973),
lust
(1982a),
and Schiemann et al.
the H diets caused increased
N losses
(r: .762,
P
<
.001).
effect because of the interaction between Cr and CP
-56-
But
urinary
(1989),
energy losses most
m(E) exhibited
supply. However,
the
no
clear CP
higher m(E)
Chromium and Protein
compared
in treatment H200
on
d(E)
because energy excretion
higher heat expenditure
The
were
to the other treatments
attributed to increased
closely
related to whole
magnitude
of
protein
pigs
to
in
pigs
of the L treatments
of treatment H200,
confirming
only
increased heat
by increasing
use
higher
in
pigs
as
impact
either
on
or
fat due to
dietary
protein
although
CP
as
study
recommendation (NRC, 1998).
to be
pigs
the
confirmed this
of the H treatments
protein. According
and decreased
that
kg
of the ME
partial efficiency
efficiently
was
(1982a).
as
the
to
kg,
that,
Cr
at least in
respective
compared
a
control.
similar in all treatments but in
to those fed the H
diets
supplementation
In contrast Cr
suggesting
had
redistribution of energy retention
Cr.
deposition
accretion rate estimated for
supply (or
reported
al, 1993). Moreover,
lower in
since the
fed the L diets
those of treatment HO suggest that maximal
L diet
et
was
widely accepted relationship
the
(n(E))
Intermediate nitrogen utilisation and nutrient
The lower
those fed the L diets
to
production
expenditure
the ME
the overall energy retention
protein
Cr.
N retention. However, k values rather indicated
which is consistent with the results of Just
no
were
about 0.5 for
Related to energy intake energy retention
was
kg
protein deposition
of the Cr treatments could
absolute values RE
by
compared
since heat
the values of k and
supplementation additionally
pigs
fed the H diets
protein synthesis
utilisation is about 0.7 for fat but
that
affected
not
was
in fact from the Cr effect
accretion rates and REP values in the present
decreases with incremental
pigs
urine
originated
body protein synthesis (Kita
relationship. Consequently
compared
by
Supply
nitrogen
CP to DE
Although
pigs
of treatment LO
retention
ratio) of the
was
not
L diets
compared
achieved
by
corresponded
to
the
to
in both basal diets the absolute content of the
essential amino acids also met recommendation
a
relative lack, with respect to the
concept of ideal protein, of histidine, isoleucine, and valine (NRC, 1998) might have
limited the maximum
prevented
a
compared
to the H diets
might
protein deposition
response to Cr. The
on
the
higher
one
in
pigs fed
content of
hand and
the low
synthetic
feeding only
CP diets
and hence
amino acids in the L diets
once a
day
on
the other hand
have also contributed to the differences in N retention between CP treatments
(Partridge
surplus
et
al, 1985; Bach Knudsen and Jorgensen, 1993). However,
of energy
was
obviously used
for fat accretion.
-57-
the relative
Chromium and Protein
incremental
Generally
degradation resulting
H diets
compared
but
relationship
higher plasma
in both
plasma
excretion. The increased
urea
N losses showed
urinary
L200 those fed diet H200
the
increased
by
N concentration and
urea
were
amino
clearly
consistent with this well known
pigs
fed diet
able to convert the greater amount of
digested
in lower
urinary
N excretions and hence in enhanced N utilisation for the H200 treatment.
findings
Present
respective
control into
body protein resulting
when
to
in contrast to the
were
N
fed the
pigs
protein
compared
acid
higher urinary
clear Cr effect. In contrast to
no
obviously
were
followed
N concentrations both at tO and t2 in
those fed the L diets
to
is
protein supply
Supply
(Lindemann
of
findings
al, 1995b;
et
Lindemann, 1996) who reported increased protein deposition independent of the protein
but
supply
N
utilisation
(recommended)
CP level. A 20 %
This interaction
was
at
by
high protein
restricted
caused
by
due
improved
was
a
higher
CP
supply
only
Cr
dietary
to
did not affect
in
case
nitrogen
of low
utilisation.
decreased feed intake at low but enhanced feed intake
level. In the present
study
possible
a
effect
on
feed intake
was
avoided
feeding.
However, apart from increased lean percentage and longissimus dorsi muscle
backfat thickness
1995b).
was
Lien et al.
(1998)
dorsi muscle
longissimus
(100, 110,
reduced
area
120 % of CP
clearer
even
partition
(Cr,
model to
P
<
our
lipogenesis (net effect)
Cr also at both
due to added Cr
estimated
.047, data
data
not
subdividing
the
one
et
al, 1999c). Quite
effect could be observed
retention which
et
al.
pigs
(1998)
was
observed
which received
effect
on
an
the
by
protein synthesis
Cr
the carbon
shown).
lipogenesis
et
al.,
of CP content of the diet
Cr at both CP levels. However,
nitrogen
deposition
was
originating
of several
fat
fat
other energy
deriving
dietary
fat
from
on
the
supplemented pigs
dietary
fat to the total fat
digestibility. Although
fat
Lien
enzymes in backfat in
deposition they
on
was
deposition counteracting
lipogenic
stronger than the effect
-58-
from
reduced in Cr
improved
an
into the part
the contribution of the
activity
method this effect
addition, applying
and thus whole fat
indicating higher
was
In
entire fat
the Cr induced
increased
dietary
by
reverse
regarding
caused
(Lindemann
Consistent with these results also in the
hand and the part
other hand gave clear evidence that
(Lemme
CP levels
independent
rates were reduced due to
was
on
dietary
well observed reduced backfat thickness and increased
recommendation).
present study fat accretion
when the energy balance
as
by
area
assumed that the Cr
synthesis resulting
in
Chromium and Protein
decreased fat
This
deposition.
Dietary Cr
might
has been shown to
stimulate nucleic acid
protein
synthesis (Okada
accretion.
dietary
Cr has been assumed
increase
glucagon
analysed
concentrations of
of
insulin action
et
growth
(McCarty, 1996)
secretion
some
plasma
not show the
insulin and
expected
Kornegay
Cr
al. (1997)
et
the
composition
constant in this
good agreement
certain amino acids
with
early
improves
well
as
on
the
one
addition Garlick et al.
on
as
pigs
well
as
al, 1999a,b)
as
rat studies
an
to
the metabolites in the
digestibility
by
the present
as
theory.
shown
study,
the
by
Cr-induced
a
protein synthesis, respectively,
seems
to
of amino acids other than those
than the amount of the
(1998) reported
suggesting
H200 rather than in
higher
supplementation
digested protein.
where Cr affected
This would
incorporation
of
and serine into heart and liver
The involvment of
only
protein
glycine
play
a
and
role
the other hand that not each amino acid is involved. In
insulin secretion combined with
times
synergistic
a
hand that also so-called non-essential amino acids
in the mode of Cr action and
muscle to insulin
uptake
deposition. However,
N
(apparently
glycine, methionine,
as
as
(Mertz and Roginski, 1969; Roginski and Mertz, 1969).
implies
to
explain
may
Cr effect which could confirm this
or source
study) rather
decreased fat
a
glucagon
on
serine
for
evidence
and shown (Lemme et
also
suggesting
be
be in
to increase amino acid
hormone combined with Cr
in intermediate N utilisation and
kept
(Davis and Vincent, 1997b),
al, 1984), and
improvement
dependent
study.
(Evans and Bowman, 1992) which all
Nevertheless, if supplemented
experiments
role in the present
a
al, 1993) which could also explain reduced fat accretion. Finally,
et
present study did
also
Moreover, there is
mechanism between insulin and
(Evock-Clover
played
improve
in cultured skeletal muscle cells
increased
have
Supply
a
a
mediation of
protein synthesis by
leucine-induced increase in the
improvement
in
protein deposition
increased
sensitivity
in
pigs
of the
of treatment
of treatment L200 since leucine content in the H diets
was
1.5
dietary
CP
in the L diets.
Conclusion
The results of the present
study demonstrated,
(and fat) level, supplementation
and
of 200
d(F) in finishing pigs. Whether
nutrient losses
were
pg/kg
'true'
Cr
that
as
independent
Cr yeast
digestibility
was
of the
improved apparent d(N)
improved
or
endogenous
reduced could not be elucidated. Moreover
apparent
-59-
d(DM),
Chromium and Protein
and
d(OM),
provision.
d(E)
was
We have
no
also
improved
explanation
due to Cr
content of the L diets
caused
also
by
too low
methodology,
synthetic
i.e.
Cr
response
supplementation
increased
CP diets. Fat accretion
CP
level.
Since RE
lys)
and
retention
protein
was
was
N
at
low
utilisation and
reduced
by
Cr
unaffected, it
merely
high
CP
(20.5 %)
CP
at
for
finishing pigs mainly
of few essential amino acids but
relatively high supplementation
together probably prevented
on
but
to the H treatments
requirements
least in relation to
single daily feeding
amino acids. All
possible
compared
did not fulfil the
(15.5 %)
supply (at
supplementation
phenomenon.
for this
The present data further suggest that
Supply
maximal N retention
protein
protein
supply.
accretion rate
well
as a
Therefore,
Cr
redistribution of retained energy.
-60-
likely
that
supply
as
merely
supplementation independent
seems
of
of the
at
high
dietary
of Cr caused
a
GENERAL CONCLUSION
In the first
growth
commercial grower (25
200, 400,
requirements
carcass
Cr
kg LW)
Large
White
The results of the diet
.
especially
investigators
also
kg LW)
focused
was
carcass
fat.
which
like
a
(Moonsie-Shageer
and Mowat, 1993; Min et al, 1997a) there is
no
finding.
dissection
some
Neither
composition
of the
carcass
and
parameters
breed, and the nutrient concentration close
deposition.,
fat
A
basically high
fat
looked
carcass
by dietary
affected
were
accretion
be the
prerequisite
In the present
inhibition of fat
was
by
not affected
Cr
(Davis
deposition
for
a
Cr effect
experiment, however,
deposition by
by dietary
and Vincent,
Cr
Cr
fat
we
(Table 1.4).
1997b)
would
et
should result in
must
explanation
feeding,
prevented
a
increase
which
concentrations in the present
an
the lean
excessive
a
.
stimulation rather than
potentiation
rather
al, 1997)
et
carcass
an
fat
of the insulin action
enhanced than reduced fat
an
stimulate de
novo
fatty
acid
synthesis
pigs (Table 1.7)
effectiveness in view of results of Amoikon et al.
an
improved
down-regulation
assumed that
for this
chemical
nor
acid pattern of the
that lower concentration of
secretion
function
al, 1995b; Grela
fatty
(1995), which postulated
they
quadratic
The
improved
Furthermore
Although
a
gave little evidence for
period,
effect.
Reduced concentration of plasma insulin in Cr treated
insulin internalisation. In addition
Cr had the
reported
to
inversely
was
ppb
no
Cr. Restricted
deposition
imply
reported
Due to restricted
reported by other investigators
as
(Table 1.5). However,
since insulin has been
(Kaneko, 1989a).
on
performance,
measurements
to recommendation
(Mooney and Cromwell, 1995, 1997; Lindemann
seems to
with either 0,
on
of 200
had
fed
all nutritional
daily gain
higher supply
were
Daily gain followed
period (Table 1.3).
supplementation
whereas
effects
reported
per treatment,
105
-
similar in all treatments and
was
growth performance
on
ten
analyses verified that
interest
in the finisher
mirrored in feed conversion ratio. However,
highest impact
(57
acid pattern of the whole
fatty
feed intake
pigs,
and finisher diets
(Table 1.2). Special
and
function
feeding daily
57
-
met
were
composition,
quadratic
a
ppb
800
or
trial 40 Swiss
in
insulin action,
insulin reflect increased
particularly
of the insulin secretion
simultaneously
is
circulating
to
improved
good agreement
study. Moreover
-61-
urea
over a
(McCarty, 1996).
insulin action,
with
N and ketone
long
determined
body
glucagon
glucagon
level in
plasma
General Conclusion
of
supplemented diets (Table 1.6) suggested
fed Cr
pigs
probably
due to enhanced
synthesis
rather than fat
glucagon
insulin
affects
supplementation given
barley
we
metabolism
corn
accretion
differ in the
(GI) (Foster-Powell
pigs (32
-
compared
closely
to our first
based
were
was
one)
as
corn
200
as
ppb
could be
where the diet
(Page
et
et
a
main factors
as
was
corresponding
in trial
fatty
increases in
study
with GI
Cr yeast, since 200
resulting in
glycemic
with 40 Swiss
design
one our
interest
was
acid pattern of whole
protein
as
well
as
chemical
focused
carcass
fed the LG diets
differences in
(1996)
daily
energy and
digestible energy had
carcasses
fed the LG diets
the
carbohydrates
of the
pigs
carcass
muscle
of
with
in
Similar
were
energy and
determined.
were
impaired
were
dietary
fat and fibre
no
(LG diets) impaired
impaired performance despite
the fact that
been calculated to be constant in both basal diets.
fed the HG diets contained
(Table 2.4). Basically the higher
synthesis (Table 2.6).
in
In accordance to observations of Bakker
more
amount of
fat than those of
digested
energy
as
pigs
well
strong stimulation of insulin secretion by GI might have been responsible for
increased fat
as
and
composition,
dietary
and feed conversion ratio
(Table 2.3).
and
(high
content were
those fed the HG diets while there
protein digestibility resulting
the content of
However,
to
longissimus
Large
and low GI diets led to
Additionally digestibility
of the
index
had shown
ppb
feeding (Table 2.7).
growth performance,
daily gain
compared
feed intake
substitution of
fat.
composition
With respect to the factor GI
pigs
on
level 2 h post
on
the four treatments HG0,
finishing pigs (Table 2.2). The high
plasma glucose
based
al, 1993; Mooney and
HG200, LG0 and LG200. Diet analyses verified that protein and energy
close to recommendation for
of those
one
al, 1995b). Barley, wheat
2x2 factorial
Cr
Vincent,
decreased fat and
and therefore in the
1995). Therefore
arranged
low) and Cr supplementation (0 and
the clearest effect in trial
on
study,
and
(Davis
Cr
to
responses
experiments reporting
carbohydrates
and Brand Miller,
kg LW)
related to Cr
al, 1995; Lindemann
et
of the
solubility
104
enhanced fat
implies
affect
must
dietary carbohydrates
amount of
Cromwell, 1995, 1997; Boleman
White
consequently
that insulin action is
noticed that
protein
results
from the consideration that any factor
arose
and wheat, most of the diets used in Cr
increased
and
trial
growth
1997b). Especially type and/or
factors since
our
lipolysis.
The idea for the second
which
secretion. All in all
gluconeogenesis
increased
Moreover the
-62-
fatty
acid pattern of the
carcass
as
an
fat of
General Conclusion
fed the HG diets
pigs
compared
acids from de
of saturated
fatty
fat of
fed the LG diets
pigs
composition
Chemical
Madsen et al. (1992)
influenced to
was
rather
a
was
reduced than
acid
according
an
profile
by
by
lipid
carcass
fat.
the GI but
reported by
to data
elevated
of
dietary
the
influenced
slightly
However
higher proportion
a
extent
greater
a
muscle
supplementation.
expected
we
synthesis (Table 2.5). Fatty
novo
longissimus
of the
affected due to Cr
strongly
those fed the LG diets indicated
to
in
content
pigs
fed the LG diets.
In contrast to the GI effect the Cr effect
protein digestibility (Table 2.3).
energy and
ratio
impaired
was
whereas Cr had
trial
plasma
were
no
pigs
in
glucose
increased in Cr treated
Hence
hypothesised
we
fell short of
findings
physiological
a
of trial
Cr
one
2 h after
pigs
supplementation
composition (Table 2.4). However, except
influence
fatty
acid
GI groups. This
synthesis
carcass
composition
suggested
fat content,
lipolysis.
We
composition
simultaneous
a
have
Cr
reported
no
a
with
of
(18:1),
Cr
which
Cr
to the
inexplicable
was
higher
respective
in
a
pigs
reduced
and
supplementation
did
exclusively
The idea for the third trial
lysine supply
arose
could be
a
novo
no
in the low
fatty
was
pigs
acid
differences in
had
effect
no
the Cr
case
fatty
on
GI interaction
x
of
acid
on
the
of treatment HG200 and lower
controls. However, since muscle tissue
glucagon (Seitz
of treatment LG200
lipid deposition
Similar to the
oxidation of PUFA since
should have resulted in elevated fat content
in
ratio at t2
mobilisation of PUFA in
preferred
level
measurements
increased de
by
first
(Table 2.6).
glucagon
growth.
carcass
particular
explanation why dietary
compared
daily gain
have contributed to
or
to
the PUFA content
to be sensitive to insulin but not to
supplementation
The lower
lipolysis
(1998) reported
content of the loin muscle
protein
for oleic acid
PUFA dilution
in treatment HG200. Also
in treatment LG200
was
depression
a
did not affect
particularly
possible
of the GI
due to increased insulin effectiveness and/or, because of
Groscolas and Raclot
lipid
a
-
in
to the
plasma glucagon
LG200, the insulin
resulting
control
respective
Corresponding
reduced and
were
and feed conversion
to the
feeding independent
fed diet
threshold
GI diets.
high
fed the
concentrations
pigs
that in
pigs
compared
explainable by
not
was
daily gain
However
of treatment LG200
clear effect in
insulin and
performance
on
compared
and
Tarnowski, 1980)
independent
of the GI.
to treatment LGO
might
in the loin.
from recent
experiments indicating
further nutritional factor
-63-
interacting
that
with
dietary
dietary
Cr
General Conclusion
(Lindemann, 1995b;
balance
(three 4-d
with 16 Swiss
Cr
design.
(high
and
Ward et
periods including
White
Large
adequate)
were
Sugar
al, 1995b; Ward
focused
nutrient
on
and
3.1
et
cystine, threonine,
of
kg LW)
Cr
as
leading
3.2).
digestibility,
2x2 factorial
a
to
the four treatments HPO, HP200,
and crude
high
was as
et
and
were
kept
protein
in the
as
Cr
previous
al, 1998)
content
high
constant in
nitrogen utilisation,
GI diet
CP studies
x
concentrations of
in the LP
especially
energy and
in
yeast)
al, 1997; Lien
tryptophan
respiration chamber)
a
arranged
was
In contrast to
amino acids
synthetic
respiratory experiment
Cr
and starch content of the diets
(Lindemann
supplementation
ppb
the main factors
study (Tables
methionine and
83.0
-
and 200
in the second
et
balance and
a
two consecutive 24 h runs in
pigs (57.2
supplementation (0
LPO and LP200.
al, 1997). Thus
lysine,
all mixtures
diets.
Interest
and fat and
by
was
protein
retention.
Digestibility
of
nitrogen and
whereas fat
digestibility
caused
altered
by
1982b). However,
whether
was
endogenous
responsible for
digestibility
were
decreased (Tables 3.3 and
was
endogenous nitrogen
Cr
excretion
on
or
the
one
hand
both
or
nutrient
improved by dietary
effects observed in energy
nor
Cr
only
in
retained to
case
of
ingested
were
urine and heat and with respect to the Cr
CP
diets.
Cr
(k)
was
were
as
energy ratio
probably
digestibility
on
supplementation
but
the other hand
well
as
dry
was
matter
to the
CP
influenced
by
provision
the
energy losses via both
via heat
expenditure.
(Just, 1982a; Schiemann
lower in
in CP
provision.
supplementation solely
of the metabohzable energy
CP
Energy
compensated by
However in agreement with results of earlier studies
than those fed the low
and fat
absorption
high
high
respectively (Just, 1982a,
(Table 3.3 and 3.5). With respect
digestibility
fed diets
Both effects
nitrogen
these effects could not be elucidated.
Cr content of the diet
1989) utilisation
3.4).
pigs
fat excretions,
or
supplementation improved
Neither total energy retention
CP
increased in
was
energy
pigs
fed the
high
did not affect k
et
al,
CP diets
or
kgrowth,
respectively.
Protein accretion rate
response in heat
synthesis (Kita
was
retained energy
as
expenditure since generation
et
content and proper
retention
or
protein
were
in accordance with the
of heat is related to whole
body protein
al, 1993). However, despite meeting both adequate dietary CP
ratios among the first five
reduced in
pigs
limiting
fed the LP. This
-64-
amino acids (NRC,
finding implies
an
1998) protein
inadequate protein
or
General Conclusion
amino acid
or more
first
of the
of
amino acids
These
might
most of
have
above
was
requirements (NRC, 1998).
have decreased N retention in
basically
rapidly
are more
absorbed
the tissues with
provided
the time after food intake since in
(Bach Knudsen
and
Jorgensen, 1993).
have increased fat
deposition
increased N retention due to Cr
HP200 which
treatment
area
was
Since cells
synthetic amino
acids
supplementation
kept
nor
as
Lindemann et
to
al, 1995b; Lien
We
mechanisms
of
other
improvement
of insulin action
enzymes
as
Cr
et
assumed
profile
shown
pigs
higher
could
of
only
from intact
were
proteins.
supply during
fed
once a
amino acid
be observed in
increased
dietary
longissimus
CP level
assumed
a
day
profile
pigs
of
muscle
(Lindemann
Cr
described
were
and
(Mooney
prevented
which
might
relationship
especially
fat
al.,
et
between Cr
relationships
(Roginski
was
and
Mertz,
1995,
1997;
decreased
accretion
connected
be
since
Cromwell,
al, 1998) fat deposition
despite
by
Synthetic
of the LP groups. However,
reported
was
studies
that
hormones
metabolite levels in the present
by
supplied
not able to store amino acids
essential amino acids constant,
previous
supplementation.
lipogenic
one
diets used in the latter studies neither contained
and total amino acid
accordance
In
the animals
are
observed in
between certain amino acids and trivalent Cr
1969).
deriving
inadequate dietary
an
independently
al, 1998). Since
et
study
in contrast to
partly
those
unbalanced amino acid
supplementation
and lean percentage due to Cr
1995b; Lien
by
Furthermore the
of the LP treatments:
pigs
as
an
our
exceeding requirement (Moughan, 1993),
might
have been limited
amino acids in the LP than in the HP diet combined with the
synthetic
feeding regime might
deposition might
amino acids since the absolute concentrations of the
remaining
amino acids
limiting
proportion
the LP diets. Protein
provision by
by
with
synergistic
Cr-induced
the fact that it may have stimulated
Lien et al.
experiment
activity
(1998). However, plasma hormone
gave
no
Cr
by
evidence for alterations
of
and
provoked
(Table 3.6).
Concluding
From the
depends
type and
on
remarks
presented
results
conclude that
several nutritional factors such
amount of both
composition
we
were
findings reported
as
a
response to
dosage
dietary carbohydrates
and
of
dietary
one
and two
protein.
-65-
we
supplementation
supplemented
Cr
Since effects
considerable clear in trial three but rather weak
in the literature in trial
Cr
or even
as
well
on
carcass
as
inverse to
suggest that the factor protein
General Conclusion
is
a
factor
major
Furthermore
once
a
day
may also
interacting
with Cr (Lemme et al, 1999d,e; Lemme et al,
feeding regime (restricted
versus
play
a
twice
or even
libitum),
libitum), feeding frequency (feeding
and fat
gain potential (high
versus
and two, gave little evidence that Cr is involved in insulin
metabolism which is the best elucidated field of Cr research. Moreover,
glucagon
responses to Cr
(Lemme, 2000).
An involvement
proposed (Evock-Clover
et
of
al, 1993;
methods
about the fact that
contamination
as
With
respect
respectively,
physiological
seems
feed
Wenk et al.
by
carcass
inorganic
during
shown
knowledge
proposed. Among
Cr
to
further
development
organic
extremely
plasma
sensitive
insulin may be affected
in this context
was
by
Cr
already
etal, 1995).
dietary
other
Cr demonstrated the
important problems
bound Cr
can
insufficiency
Cr research should
still not be
separated.
the amount of total Cr could be
processing
clearly
of
care
Due to
influenced
(1995).
requirement
investigations
mechanisms
about all
and
solely
growth hormone
Amoikon
Determined concentrations of total
analytical
indicated that due to the
supplementation
hormonal system, other hormones than
regulatory
low)
role in Cr metabolism.
at least trial one
However,
ad
ad
versus
2000).
seems
to
or
are
recommendations
necessary.
be
an
physiological relationships
and nutrient
deposition
important
may
due to
to be inconsistent.
-66-
In
for
Cr
particular
field
explain
supplementation,
the
discovery
of research
responses
supplemented Cr,
on
since
of
the
performance,
which up to
now
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-77-
CURRICULUM VlTAE
name:
May 14,
1968
1974-1978
Andreas Lemme
born in Rheda
citizen of
Grundschule Lockhausen
Bad
1978-1984
as a
Germany
(Primary School),
Salzuflen, Germany
Geschwister Scholl Realschule
(Secondary School),
Herford, Germany
1984-1987
Gymnasium
Bad
1987-1989
1989
1990-1995
1995
since 1996
im Schulzentrum Werl
Aspe (High School),
Salzuflen, Germany, 1987 Abitur
professional training
in mixed farmer,
at Fam.
Koch, Wietzendorf, Germany
at Fam.
Kleimann, Herford, Germany
qualifying
examination: Gehilfenbrief'
College
Education at the
Faculty
of
University Georgia Augusta,
Agriculture, Göttingen, Germany
Graduation
as
dipl. Ing.
agr.
Research Assistant at the Institute of Animal Sciences,
Nutrition
Biology,
ETH Zurich
Doctoral studies under the
guidance
of Prof. Dr.
Caspar Wenk