Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität
Frankfurt am Main
Fachbereich Psychologie und Sportwissenschaften
Universität Frankfurt, Institut für Psychologie, 60054 Frankfurt
Institut für Psychologie
Arbeits- & Organisationspsychologie
The Psychology of Service: Interacting
with Customers and Clients
Part I
Dieter Zapf
Valencia
12th March 2008
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Content
1. What is service?
2. Emotional labour – emotion work
3. Emotional job requirements
4. Antecedents of Emotion Work and Emotional Job Requirements
5. Emotional Job Requirements and Well-being at Work
2
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Increased Importance of Service Work
(Source: Statistisches Bundesamt, 1999)
70
60
Primary Sector (Agriculture)
Secondary Sector (Industries)
Tertiary Sector (Service)
50
in %
40
30
20
10
0
1950
3
1999
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
1. What is Service?
4
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
What is Service?
 A problem of a customer is solved or a need is satisfied
 Not production of a product, but adding something to a product or
changing a product
 The process is in parts intangible
 Normally, there is no mutual obligation between the partners of
the service interaction
 There is a social interaction between a service provider and
a customer or client either face-to-face or mediated by
electronic media such as telephone
 The interaction itself is part of service delivery. Therefore it
has to satisfy certain requirements
Corsten (1997); Nerdinger (1994)
5
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Human Service Work

The customers/clients themselves are the subject-matter of service
performance

This includes a direct impact on
 Cognitive/intellectual,
 emotional or
 Physical
aspects of a person.

Examples: Physicians, nurses, teachers, social workers, hairdressers

Coincidence of production and consumption with regard to time and
location: the uno-actu-principle

The client has to ‘co-operate’ to make the service successful:
Co-Production
6
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
2. Emotional Labour
Emotion Work
7
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
8
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
9
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
10
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
11
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Smiling and
humour is good for
our well-being
12
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
However: being
Smiling and
EXPECTED to smile
humour is good for
all day is a different
our well-being
story!
13
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work / Emotional Labour
 Occurs in interactions with customers or clients
 Organisations expect that employees behave in a certain
way in these interactions
 This implies to display certain emotions based on so-called
display rules
The ‘friendly smile’ becomes a job requirement!
14
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work / Emotional Labour
First study of sociologist Arlie Russel Hochschild (1983):
Flight Attendants of Delta Airlines
Business man: Let’s have a smile.
Flight attendant: Okay. I’ll tell you what, first you smile and then
I’ll smile, okay?
Business man: smiles
Flight attendant: Good. Now hold that for 15 hours. walks away
15
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work / Emotional Labour
Defined as
 the paid work which
 requires the regulation of one’s own emotions
 to display an organisationally desired emotion in mimics, gestures
and voice,
 independent of whether or not this corresponds to the inner feelings
(after Hochschild, 1983)
16
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work / Emotional Labour
Framework Models of
 Rafaeli & Sutton (1987)
 Morris & Feldman (1996)
 Grandey (2000)
17
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Framework Model of Service Work in
Organisations
Work Task
Service
Organisation
Cognitive Regulation Requirements
E.g. Complexity
Regulation problems
(job stressors)
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
• Occupational
•
• Identity
Socialisation
•
Personality
•
Emotional
Competencies
Redefinition
Display rules
Primary Task
Internal Task
Redefined Goals
Regulation of
Work Behaviour
Cognitive
Action Regulation
Consequences
Well-being
Goal Specification
, Planning
,
Monitoring, Feedback
Secondary task
parallel to primary task
Automatisation
External Tasks
Secondary Task
Frequency,
Duration,
Quality
of Service Interactions
Customers
18
Interaction oriented Sub-Goals
Requirement to express
positive, negative or sympathy
emotions
Sensitivity Requirements
Emotional Dissonance
Dieter Zapf
Emotion regulation
Automated
Emotion regulation
surface acting
deep acting
Emotional deviance
Performance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Framework Model of Service Work in
Organisations
Work Task
Service
Organisation
Cognitive Regulation Requirements
E.g. Complexity
Regulation problems
(job stressors)
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
• Occupational
•
• Identity
Socialisation
•
Personality
•
Emotional
Competencies
Redefinition
Primary Task
Internal Task
Job
RequireSecondary
mentsTask
AnteExternal Tasks
cedents
Redefined Goals
Frequency,
Duration,
Quality
of Service Interactions
Interaction oriented Sub-Goals
Display rules
Customers
19
Requirement to express
positive, negative or sympathy
emotions
Sensitivity Requirements
Emotional Dissonance
Dieter Zapf
Regulation of
Work Behaviour
Cognitive
Action Regulation
Consequences
Well-being
Goal Specification
, Planning
,
Monitoring, Feedback
Work
Process
Secondary task
parallel to primary task
Automatisation
Cognitive/
Emotion regulation
Motivational/
Automated
Emotion regulation
emotional
surface acting
deep acting
regulation
Emotional deviance
Consequences
Performance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
3. Emotional Job Requirements
20
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Framework Model of Service Work in
Organisations
Work Task
Service
Organisation
Cognitive Regulation Requirements
E.g. Complexity
Regulation problems
(job stressors)
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
• Occupational
•
• Identity
Socialisation
•
Personality
•
Emotional
Competencies
Redefinition
Display rules
Primary Task
Internal Task
Redefined Goals
External Tasks
Secondary Task
Frequency,
Duration,
Quality
of Service Interactions
Customers
21
Interaction oriented Sub-Goals
Requirement to express
positive, negative or sympathy
emotions
Sensitivity Requirements
Emotional Dissonance
Dieter Zapf
Regulation of
Work Behaviour
Consequences
Cognitive
Action Regulation
Well-being
Goal Specification
, Planning
,
Monitoring, Feedback
Secondary task
parallel to primary task
Emotional Demands
Automatisation
Requirements
Emotion regulation
Automated Requirement
Behaviour
Emotion regulation
Performance
Approach
ofacting
Hackman (1970)
surface
deep acting
Emotional deviance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Job Demands in the
History of Work Psychology
Physical Demands
Cognitive Demands
 “Muscles Work“,
Environmental
factors (noise, heat, etc.)
 Activation of cognitive
resources; action control: goal
setting, planning, execution,
feedback processing
 In Service Occupations:
 Emotional Demands
22
 Activation of emotional
resources; perception,
appraisal, display and control
of emotions
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Dimensions of Emotion Work Emotional Requirements
Instrument: Frankfurt Emotion Work Scales FEWS 4.2
Zapf, Werner, Holz, Fischbach & Dormann (submitted)
Requirement to display
positive emotions
Item example:
„Does it occur in your job that you have to express
pleasant emotions towards clients?” (very often –
very rarely/never)
Requirement to display
negative emotions
Item example:
„Does it occur in your job that you have to express
unpleasant emotions towards clients?” (very often –
very rarely/never)
Requirement to display
neutrality
Item example:
„How often do you yourself have to come across as
being neutral and impartial when dealing with
clients?” (very often – very rarely/never)
Requirement to display
sympathy emotions
Item example:
„Please mark how often you are required to display
them when working with clients - sympathy” (very
often – very rarely/never)
Requirement to be sensitive to
emotions of others
Item example:
„Is it important in your job to know, how clients feel?”
(very often – very rarely/never)
23
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotional Dissonance
Instrument: Frankfurt Emotion Work Scales FEWS 4.2
Zapf, Werner, Holz, Fischbach & Dormann (submitted)
The requirement of the organisation to display emotions in interactions
with customers, clients, students, etc. in mimics, gestures and voice
which are not felt in that particular moment.
The dissonance between displayed and felt emotions (Rafaeli &
Sutton, 1987)
Item examples
“How often does it occur in your job that one has to display positive
emotions while feeling indifferent?”
“How often does it occur in your job that one has to display positive
emotions which do not correspond to what is felt in this situation?”
24
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work Control
Instrument: Frankfurt Emotion Work Scales FEWS 4.2
Zapf, Werner, Holz, Fischbach & Dormann (submitted)
Autonomy with regard to display rules end emotional requirements
Item examples
“How often can you decide for yourself on as to which emotions to
display towards the client? ?”
“Person A has strict instructions from the company on how to deal
with his/her own feelings and those of the clients.
Person B has hardly any instructions from the company on how to
deal with either his/her own feelings nor those of the clients
Which one of these two jobs is most similar to yours? ”
25
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work in Service Branches
Emotion Work in Call Centers and other Service and Non4,5
Service Jobs
4,3
4,1
3,9
3,7
3,5
3,3
3,1
2,9
2,7
2,5
2,3
2,1
1,9
1,7
1,5
Positive
Em otions
Call Centers
26
Negative
Em otions
No Services
Dieter Zapf
Sensitivity
Requirem ents
Services
Em otional
Dissonance
Human Services
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work in Different Service
Branches
4,50
4,00
3,50
3,00
Insurance
Retail
Social affairs
Hospital
Social W
Security
Travel A
Teachers
Call Centres
2,50
2,00
1,50
Positive E
27
Sympathy E
Negative E
Neutrality
Dieter Zapf
Sensitivity R
E W Control
Emotional
Dissonance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work in Different Service
Branches
4,50
4,00
3,50
3,00
2,50
Social Workers
2,00
Call Centres
1,50
Positive E
28
Sympathy E
Negative E
Neutrality
Dieter Zapf
Sensitivity R
E W Control
Emotional
Dissonance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Emotion Work – Desired Emotions
5,00
Several times/hour
4,50
4,00
Several times/day
3,50
3,00
Once/day
2,50
2,00
Once/week
1,50
29
Dieter Zapf
e
iv
Ag
gr
es
s
nt
ed
ap
po
i
Di
s
An
gr
y
ho
pe
fu
l
En
th
us
ia
st
ic
G
ra
te
fu
l
Co
nc
er
ne
d
pa
th
et
ic
Em
ha
pp
y
ct
io
n
Af
fe
Ne
ut
ra
l
seldom/never
Fr
ie
nd
ly
1,00
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
4. Antecedents of Emotion Work
and
Emotional Job Requirements
30
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Framework Model of Service Work in
Organisations
Work Task
Service
Organisation
Cognitive Regulation Requirements
E.g. Complexity
Regulation problems
(job stressors)
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
• Occupational
•
• Identity
Socialisation
•
Personality
•
Emotional
Competencies
Redefinition
Display rules
Primary Task
Internal Task
Redefined Goals
Regulation of
Work Behaviour
Cognitive
Action Regulation
Consequences
Well-being
Goal Specification
, Planning
,
Monitoring, Feedback
Secondary task
parallel to primary task
Automatisation
External Tasks
Secondary Task
Frequency,
Duration,
Social Quality
of Service Interactions
Customers
31
Emotion regulation
Automated
Emotion regulation
surface acting
deep acting
Emotional deviance
Antecedents
of Emotion Work
Interaction oriented Sub-Goals
Requirement to express
positive, negative or sympathy
emotions
Sensitivity Requirements
Emotional Dissonance
Dieter Zapf
Performance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Framework Model of Service Work in
Organisations
Work Task
Service
Organisation
Cognitive Regulation Requirements
E.g. Complexity
Regulation problems
(job stressors)
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Organisational Goals
Customer Orientation
• Occupational
•
• Identity
Socialisation
•
Personality
•
Emotional
Competencies
Antecedents
of
Redefinition
Display rules
Emotion Work
Primary Task
?
Internal Task
Redefined Goals
External Tasks
Secondary Task
Frequency,
Duration,
Quality
of Service Interactions
Customers
32
Interaction oriented Sub-Goals
Requirement to express
positive, negative or sympathy
emotions
Sensitivity Requirements
Emotional Dissonance
Dieter Zapf
Regulation of
Work Behaviour
Consequences
Cognitive
Action Regulation
Well-being
Goal Specification
, Planning
,
Monitoring, Feedback
Secondary task
parallel to primary task
Emotional Demands
Automatisation
Requirements
Emotion regulation
Automated Requirement
Behaviour
Emotion regulation
Performance
Approach
ofacting
Hackman (1970)
surface
deep acting
Emotional deviance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Relation between Antecedents and
Emotion Work : Cross-sectional Study
Zapf, Werner, Holz, Fischbach & Dormann (submitted)
Field study: 6 service organisations; N=1391
Positive
emotions
β
Sympathy
emotions
β
Negative
emotions
β
Sensitivity
requirement
β
Emotional
dissonance
total Time
.32 **
.18 **
.14 **
.20 **
.28 **
Display rules
.19 **
.15 **
-.07 **
.11 **
.08 **
Mean duration
.01
.14 **
.16 **
.17 **
-.12 **
Task complex
.02
.23 **
.28 **
.28 **
.15 **
Step 1
F
R2
β
65.33 **
60.24 **
60.39 **
80.59 **
40.45 **
15.9
14.9
14.9
18.9
10.5
Step 2
Negative quality
of interaction
F
ΔR2
R2
33
.13 **
.26 **
.40 **
27.20 **
106.41**
288.15 **
80.62 **
382.29 **
1.6
6.1
14.7
4.5
19.4
17.5
21.1
29.6
23.3
29.8
Dieter Zapf
.22 **
.45 **
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Experimental Simulation of a Call Centre
Situation
Experimental Group: be friendly!
Control Group:
34
be authentic!
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Effect of Display Rules on Emotional
Dissonance: Experimental Study
Fischbach & Zapf (2005)
4,20
t=7,70; p<.01; d=3.55
Experiment 2: Call centre
agent in a recruitment
agency for students; N=18
4,5
4
3,5
2,33
3
2,5
2
1,5
Quality of interaction
Interaction time
Duration
Held constant
Complexity
1
Friendly
35
Authentic
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
5. Emotional Job Requirements
and Well-being at Work
36
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Framework Model of Service Work in
Organisations
Work Task
Service
Organisation
Regulation of
Work Behaviour
Cognitive Regulation Requirements
E.g. Complexity
Regulation problems
(job stressors)
?
Object-oriented Sub-Goals
Organisational Goals
• Occupational
•
• Identity
Socialisation
•
Personality
•
Emotional
Competencies
Primary Task
Emotional Demands
Requirements
Redefinition
Customer Orientation
Display rules
Internal Task
Redefined Goals
Behaviour Requirement
External
Tasks of Hackman (1970)
Approach
Customers
37
Well-being
Goal Specification
, Planning
,
Monitoring, Feedback
Secondary task
parallel to primary task
Automatisation
Secondary Task
Frequency,
Duration,
Quality
of Service Interactions
Cognitive
Action Regulation
Consequences
Interaction oriented Sub-Goals
Requirement to express
positive, negative or sympathy
emotions
Sensitivity Requirements
Emotional Dissonance
Dieter Zapf
Emotion regulation
Automated
Emotion regulation
surface acting
deep acting
Emotional deviance
Performance
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Burnout
Emotional
Labour
Burnout
(Maslach Burnout Inventory)
Emotional Exhaustion
the feeling of being burnt out and frustrated;
working with people is perceived as very
effortful
Depersonalization
the tendency to treat clients like objects;
becoming indifferent and apathetic with
regard to clients
Personal Accomplishment
the feeling of having energy to do things
and of being able to meet one’s aspirations
38
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Negative Effects of Emotion Work
Hochschild (1983):
High load of Emotion Work
Emotional Dissonance
Alienation of one’s Feelings
Psychological Strain
Psychosomatic complaints, alcohol problems, sexual problems
Emotion Work has Negative Effects
39
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Positive Effects of Emotion Requirements
 Affiliation needs are met
 Recognition, status
 Experience of successful interaction, feelings of self efficacy
 Positive reaction in return
 Facial feedback hypothesis: Display of positive emotions induces
positive feelings
40
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Relations between Emotion Work and
Burnout
.51 (.61)
.48 (.44)
Sensitiv.
Requirem
.39 (.47)
Negative
Emotions
.10
Positive
Emotions
-.06
.11
(-.08
n.s.)
.18
(.21)
.08
(.15)
.33
(.42)
Emotional
Dissonance
.11
(.06;
n.s.) Neuroticism
-.07
.25
(.09
n.s.)
-.24
.23
(.16)
)
(-.32
.35 (.34)
Depersonalisation
Personl.
Accompl
-.09 (-.21.)
.11
(.12
p<.10)
Italic and in parentheses:
representative sample
(N=405)
.28
(.34)
Emotional
Exhaustion
.39 (.43)
-.12 (-.19)
41
Service Sample
(Kindergarden, Hotels,
Banks, Call Center,
Social workers (N=1032)
Dieter Zapf
from:
Zapf & Holz (2006, EJWOP)
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Relations between Emotion Work and
Burnout
Service Sample
(Kindergarden, Hotels,
Banks, Call Center,
Social workers (N=1032)
Italic and in parentheses:
representative sample
(N=405)
from:
Zapf & Holz (2006, EJWOP)
42
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Why is Emotional Dissonance Interesting?
 Although hypothesised, emotional demands did not play a role in
empirical studies in the prediction of burnout for a long time (see.,
e.g., Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998)
 Quantitative indicators describing interactions with customers (no.
of customers, frequency of service interaction; time working with
customers or clients) tended to show no correlation with burnout
(Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998; Zapf, 2002)
 Qualitative indicators such as verbal customer aggression predict
burnout are strong predictors (Dormann & Zapf, 2004), but are of
relevance only for a minority (<20%; i.e., many report not to be
exposed to customer aggression)
 In contrast, emotional dissonance is a sensitive qualitative indicator
to describe service interactions
43
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Status of Emotional Dissonance
Is Emotional Dissonance
a Stressor or
a Stress Reaction?
44
A characteristic of the situation/ environment
that has an impact on the individual
An individual reaction elicited by a stressor
and as such a characteristic of the individual
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Status of Emotional Dissonance
•Emotional Dissonance as job
requirement (Hackman, 1971)
•Emotional Dissonance as
psychological/behavioural strategy
 4-dimensional model of Morris
& Feldman (1996)
 Pugliesi (1999): self-focused
emotional labour
 Abraham (1998): Difference
scores
 Schaubroeck & Jones (2000):
requirement to suppress
negative emotional efference
 Zapf et al., (1999): regulation
problem
45
 Brotheridge & Lee (2003) and
 Brotheridge & Grandey (2002):
surface acting and deep acting
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Status of Variables in the Stress
Process
Situation
How often in
your job do you
have to display
emotions that
do not agree
with your true
feelings?
46
Coping/
Behaviour
Appraisal
Outcome
Reappraisal
How much do
you feel
hampered by
having to
express
emotions you
don’t feel?
How often do
you express
emotions which
you do not feel
at that
moment?
Dieter Zapf
I feel exhausted
because I have to
express emotions
which I don‘t feel
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
How can the Status of Emotional
Dissonance as a Job Requirement
be Justified
 Emotion theory: Inter-individual differences stronger for
regulation, but less for the experience of emotion
 Emotional dissonance can be induced in experiments
 Emotional Dissonance depends on
The frequency of interactions
Existence and Monitoring of display rules
Autonomy with regard to display rules
Quality of service interaction (conflicts, negative customer
behaviour)
47
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
What we know so far about Emotional
Dissonance and Burnout ...
 In cross-sectional studies, emotional dissonance is associated
with emotional exhaustion (around .30) and depersonalisation
(around .30) (Zapf, 2002, HRMR)
 But there is a lack of longitudinal field studies which allow the
investigation of cause and effect
48
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Hypotheses: Causal and Reversed Effects
 According to Hochschild (1983): Causal Effects
Emotion
work
Requirem.
Emotional
Dissonance
Strain
 Reverse Effects:
Employees under strain are less able to show the required
positive emotions. Thus strain increases emotional
dissonance
Strain
49
Emotional
Dissonance
Dieter Zapf
Emotion
work
Requirem.
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Instruments
Frankfurt Emotion Work Scales (FEWS 4.0, Zapf et al., 1999; 2005)
The Requirement to Display Positive Emotions
refer to the requirement to show pleasant emotions (e.g. "In your job how often does it occur that you have
to display pleasant emotions towards your clients?").
The Requirement to Display Negative Emotions
This scale asks for the necessity of displaying and dealing with unpleasant emotions (example item: "How
often does it occur in your job that you have to display unpleasant emotions towards your clients?").
Sensitivity Requirements
This scale examines whether empathy or knowledge about clients' current feelings are required by the job
(e.g. "Does your job require paying attention to the feelings of your clients?").
Emotional Dissonance
refers to the display of unfelt emotions and to the suppression of felt but organizationally undesired
emotions (e g. "How often does it occur in your job that one has to display positive emotions which do not
correspond to what is felt in this situation?”)
50
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Instruments
Maslach Burnout Inventory
MBI, German version, Büssing & Perrar, 1992
Emotional Exhaustion
the feeling of being burnt out and frustrated; working with people is perceived as
very effortful
Depersonalization
the tendency to treat clients like objects; becoming indifferent and apathetic with
regard to clients
Personal Accomplishment
the feeling of having energy to do things and of being able to meet one’s
aspirations
51
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Sample
 Municipal youth and social welfare office of one of Germany’s large
cities; (N=151): administrative staff, social workers (“paper work”)
 Hospital (N=54): Nurses, Physicians, administrative staff
 Total sample: N=205
Men age: 42 years at time 1
Women: 68%, Men: 32%
 Sample for LISREL analyses due to listwise deletion: N=188
52
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Correlation between Emotion Work
and Burnout
Pos Emo
Pos Emo
Sensitivity
Emo Dis
Emo Exh
Pers Acc
T1
T2
T3
1,00
1,00
1,00
T1
T2
T3
0,13
0,09
0,18
1,00
1,00
1,00
Sensitivity
T1
T2
T3
0,57
0,57
0,60
0,26
0,26
0,25
1,00
1,00
1,00
Emo Dis
T1
T2
T3
0,27
0,18
0,29
0,50
0,47
0,46
0,41
0,39
0,37
1,00
1,00
1,00
Emo Exh
T1
T2
T3
-0,07
-0,05
-0,04
0,40
0,35
0,33
0,05
0,17
0,07
0,46
0,47
0,43
1,00
1,00
1,00
Pers Acc
T1
T2
T3
0,32
0,33
0,43
-0,07
-0,08
0,06
0,28
0,27
0,36
-0,01
-0,15
0,01
-0,36
-0,34
-0,29
1,00
1,00
1,00
Depersonals T1
T2
T3
-0,18
-0,17
-0,06
0,41
0,50
0,50
-0,06
0,08
0,06
0,40
0,47
0,49
0,61
0,67
0,75
-0,24
-0,23
-0,22
Neg Emo
53
Neg Emo
Depersonals
p<.01 for r>.17
p<.05 for r>.13
198 < N < 202
Dieter Zapf
1,00
1,00
1,00
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Measurement Model
ED11
ED12

ED21


E Dis 1



EE11
54
EE12
ED31


E Dis 3


E Exh 2
E Exh 3


EE21
EE22
Dieter Zapf
ED32

E Dis 2
E Exh 1

ED22


EE31
EE32
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Positive Emotions and Emotional
Dissonance on Burnout
Baseline Model
55
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Pos E 1
Pos E 2
Pos E 3
E Dis 1
E Dis 2
E Dis 3
E Exh 1
E Exh 2
E Exh 3
P Acc 1
P Acc 2
P Acc 3
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Positive Emotions and Emotional
Dissonance on Burnout
Conceptual Model
56
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Pos E 1
Pos E 2
Pos E 3
E Dis 1
E Dis 2
E Dis 3
E Exh 1
E Exh 2
E Exh 3
P Acc 1
P Acc 2
P Acc 3
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Positive Emotions and Emotional
Dissonance on Burnout
Reversed Causation Model 1: Exh
57
E Dis
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Pos E 1
Pos E 2
Pos E 3
E Dis 1
E Dis 2
E Dis 3
E Exh 1
E Exh 2
E Exh 3
P Acc 1
P Acc 2
P Acc 3
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Positive Emotions and Emotional
Dissonance on Burnout
Reversed Causation Model 2: All Effects Reversed
58
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Pos E 1
Pos E 2
Pos E 3
E Dis 1
E Dis 2
E Dis 3
E Exh 1
E Exh 2
E Exh 3
P Acc 1
P Acc 2
P Acc 3
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Model Comparison
 2 (d.f.=203)
Model
AIC
AIC=  2 + 2t
t: no. of
estimated
parameters
Baseline (d.f.=212)
341,60
517,60
Conceptual
264,05
458,05
Exhaustion causes dissonance
276,45
470,45
All Effects reversed
281,27
475,27
  2 (d.f.=9, p<.05) = 16,92
59
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Positive Emotions and
Emotional Dissonance on Burnout
Zapf, Holz, Dollard & Werner (submitted)
Results from a 3-wave Longitudinal Study
Time 1
Pos E 1
.30
.36
P Acc 1
60
Time 3
.91
.88
Pos E 2
Pos E 3
.14
.80
.77
E Dis 2
E Dis 3
-.12
.25
.23
.62
-.42
SRMR = .076 
Time 2
E Dis 1
n.s. -.14 E Exh 1
GFI = .89 ok
AGFI = .84 ok
NFI = .92 
NNFI = .97  
CFI = .98  
RMSEA = .040  
.60
.61
E Exh 2
.14
E Exh 3
.27
-.28
.59
P Acc 2
Dieter Zapf
.63
-.15
P Acc 3
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Sensitivity Requirements and
Emotional Dissonance on Burnout
Zapf, Holz, Dollard & Werner (submitted)
Results from a 3-wave Longitudinal Study
Time 1
Sens 1
.46
.37
Time 2
.70
.83
Sens 2
.17
.71
E Dis 1
-.44
P Acc 1
61
Sens 3
.19
.72
E Dis 2
E Dis 3
.14
.51
E Exh 1
Time 3
.24
.56
.76
E Exh 2
.15
E Exh 3
.23
-.30
.58
P Acc 2
Dieter Zapf
.65
-.17
P Acc 3
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Effects of Negative Emotions and
Emotional Dissonance on Burnout
Zapf, Holz, Dollard & Werner (submitted)
Results from a 3-wave Longitudinal Study
Time 1
Neg E 1
.56
-.08
.44 E Dis 1
ns
.56
ns -.11
E Exh 1
-.39
P Acc 1
62
Chi2 = 241.52, df=202, p=.03
GFI = .90 ok
AGFI = .86 ok
NFI = .93 
NNFI = .98  
CFI = .98  
RMSEA = .032  
SRMR = .059 
Time 2
Time 3
.48
.80
Neg E 2
Neg E 3
.19
.71
.29
.79
E Dis 2
-.01 ns
E Dis 3
.20
.23
.61
.63
E Exh 2
.07
E Exh 3
.13
-.29
.64
P Acc 2
Dieter Zapf
.72
-.17
P Acc 3
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Experimental Simulation of a Call Centre
Situation
Experimental Group: be friendly!
Control Group:
63
be authentic!
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Method
Experimental simulation of a call centre situation
Anger induction: A customer complaint in a call centre of German
Railway (the customer was a confederate of the experimenters,
semi-standardized dialog)
64
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Method
Sample:
82 women (19-55 years), mainly psychology
students
Experiment:
Authentic
Friendly
behaviour
behaviour
Trait Anger (-)*
N = 20
N = 20
Trait Anger (+)*
N = 21
N = 21
* Median split of the State-Trait-Anger Inventory, German version (STAXI, Schwenkmezger et al., 1992)
65
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Method
Instruments:
•
•
•
•
•
•
State-Trait Anger Inventory STAXI (German version: Schwenkmezger,
Hodapp, 1993)
Surface acting, deep acting, venting (adapted from Grandey, 2003)
PANAS Negative Affectivity NA scale German version (Krohne et al.,
1992)
Heart rate
Verbal fluency: observer rating (trained observers rated videos of the
experiment) (Interrater agreement 83%)
Memory test: participants were asked for standardised information
provided by the confederate in the experiment (how much information
recalled; e.g.: where did the customer want to travel? How much money
was she charged?, etc.): % of correct answers
66
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Manipulation Check
F (1;78)=23.56,
p<.001
F (1;78)=6.42,
p<.01
2
1,8
F (1;78)=17.81,
p<.001
1,86
Authentic
Friendly
1,76
1,63
1,6
1,47
1,4
1,2
2=12.71,
p<.01
1,09
1
0,86
0,76
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,36
0,2
0
Emotional
Dissonance
Surface Acting
Deep Acting
Venting
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Hypothesis 1: Emotion regulation results
in a higher level of state-negative affectivity
Changes in State NA rate before and after the experiment
n.s.
1,5
1,43
1,45
1,4
1,35
1,3
1,29
Authentic
Friendly
1,25
1,2
1,15
1,1
1,05
1
State NA
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
The Effect of Display Rules on State
Negative Affect (PANAS): Experimental
Study
Fischbach & Zapf (2005)
1,00
Experiment 2: Call centre
agent in a recruitment
agency for students; N=18
1,00
0,90
0,80
0,44
0,70
0,60
t=2,54;
p<.01;
d=1.13
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10
0,00
Friendly
69
Authentic
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Psychophysiological Correlates of
Anger Suppression in the Workplace
(Rohrmann, Dinand, Meixner, Bechtoldt, & Zapf, submitted)
Heart Rate per Minute
110
p = .008
105
N=80
100
95
90
85
80
1st minute
2nd minute
3rd minute
4th minute
5th minute
Fraction of Time during the Customer Interaction
authentic
70
Dieter Zapf
friendly
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Psychophysiological Correlates of
Anger Suppression in the Workplace
(Rohrmann, Dinand, Meixner, Bechtoldt, & Zapf, submitted)
Heart Rate per Minute
82
80
p = .038
N=80
78
76
74
72
Prior the Interaction
After the Interaction
Time of Measurement
authentic
71
Dieter Zapf
friendly
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit
Summary: Relations between Emotional
Job Requirements and Well-being
1. Relations were demonstrated by
- cross-sectional
- longitudinal
- experimental
studies
2. Emotional dissonance had negative effects in all studies
3. The requirement to display positive emotions and sensitivity
requirements had positive effects feeling s of accomplishment.
(Mixed results for the other variables)
72
Dieter Zapf
Hier wird Wissen Wirklichkeit