THE ETHIOPIAN ORHODOX CHURCH IN FOREST
CONSERVATION PRACTICE AND THE CURRENT STATUS OF
WOODY PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN DEBRE LIBANOS
MONASTERY, NORTHERN OROMIA, ETHIOPIA
MSc THESIS
TESFAYE TOLOSSA
NOVEMBER 2015
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY, HARAMAYA
THE ETHIOPIAN ORHODOX CHURCH IN FOREST
CONSERVATION PRACTICE AND THE CURRENT STATUS OF
WOODY PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN DEBRE LIBANOS
MONASTERY, NORTHERN OROMIA, ETHIOPIA
A Thesis Submitted to School of Natural Resource Management and
Environmental Sciences
Postgraduate Program Directorate
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND
MANAGEMENT
By
Tesfaye Tolossa
November 2015
Haramaya University
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM DIRECTORATE
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
We hereby certify that We have read and evaluated this Thesis entitled ‘The Ethiopian
Orthodox Church in Forest Conservation Practice and the Current Status of Woody Plant
Species Diversity in Debre libanos Monastery, Northern Oromia, Ethiopia’ prepared under
our guidance by Tesfaye Tolossa. We recommend that it be submitted as fulfilling the
Thesis requirement
Lisanework Nigatu (PhD)
Major Advisor
Dharmendra k.Dube (PhD)
Co-Advisor
_________________
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Date
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As members of the Board of Examiners of the MSc Thesis Open Defense Examination, we
certify that we have read and evaluated the Thesis prepared by Tesfaye Tolossa, and
examined the candidate. We recommend that the Thesis be accepted as fulfilling the Thesis
requirement for the degree of Master of Science in Environmental Science and
Management.
___________________
Chairperson
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Internal examiner
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External examiner
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ii
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Date
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STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
By my signature below, I declare and affirm that this Thesis is my own work. I have
followed all ethical and technical principle of scholarship in the preparation, data
collection, data analysis and compilation of this Thesis. Any scholarly matter that is
included in the Thesis has been given recognition through citation.
This Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Msc. degree in
Environmental science and management at the Haramaya University. The Thesis is
deposited in the Haramaya University Library and is made available to borrowers under the
rules of the Library. I solemnly declare that this Thesis has not been submitted to any other
institution anywhere for the award of any academic degree, diploma, or certificate.
Brief quotations from this Thesis may be made without special permission provided that
accurate and complete acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for
extended quotations from or reproduction of this Thesis in whole or in part may be granted
by the Head of School or Department when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the
material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must
be obtained from the author of the Thesis.
Name Tesfaye Tolossa
Signature ___________
Date ______________
School/Department:
Natural Resource management and Environmental Sciences/
Environmental Sciences and Management
iii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to my beloved family and to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church along
with its followers and scholars who save forest of church/monastery/yard for centuries to
this generation through their efforts as an ambassador of voluntary forest conservation.
iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The author was born on November 9, 1990 in Northern Oromia Region, in Were Jarso
woreda, particularly in Meliyu Chewa kebele from his parents Tolossa Wakjira and Shitaye
Asfaw. He attended his Elementary School at Meliyu hamusy Elementary School and his
Secondary and preparatory School at Tulu milky Secondary school and Gohatsion
preparatory school respectively. In 2009 he joined Mada Walabu University and graduated
with Bsc. degree in Ecotourism and biodiversity conservation. By 2011 he obtained
Bachelor of Science (Bsc.) in Ecotourism and biodiversity conservation. After graduation
Tesfaye was employed by Ministry of Education at Mizan Tepi University as graduate
assistance since 2012. Then, he joined the School of Graduate Studies of Haramaya
University in 2014 to pursue his Msc. in Environmental science and Management.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost I would like to praise the Almighty God, for his overall gifts to me and
help in every walk of my life to begin and to accomplish my thesis work.
Next I would like to express my genuine and heartfelt gratitude to my Major advisor
Dr.Lisanework Nigatu for his unreserved professional guidance, supervision and assistance
starting from proposal writing to the end of my thesis work. I am also grateful to my Coadvisor Dr.Dharmendra Kumar Dube for his positive comments, suggestion, constructive
advice and his scientific guidance throughout my research work
My heartfelt thanks go to Abimnet of Debre libanos monastery Tsebate W/Mariam
Admasu, with other monastery staff for their so much kind support when they allow me to
go through the holy garden of the monastery with their blessing.
I am very grateful to the Debre libanos Office of Agricultural and Rural Development for
letting me assess the manual of the office and for their interview.
My special thanks should also go to Deacon Biruk Diriba and Yonas Teshome for the
valuable advice and support they have offered to me. Moreover, I am highly indebted to
Mr. Eshetu Chane and Mr. Bareka Asfaw for assisting me in the field work and their
encouragement. Mr. Dejene Abate who help me in assigning field work for vegetation data
and identification of plant species kindly thanks much.
The Ethiopian Orthodox church community, who assisted me in identifying names of
woody plant species in monastery to whom I am indebted much.
Last but not least my special thanks go to my parents (My father Tolossa Wakjira and My
mother Shitaye Asfaw) for their unreserved help in every walk of my life to reach here.
vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ARC
Alliance of Religion and Conservation
CWS
Church world service
DICAC
Development and Inter-church Aid Commission
DLM
Debre Libanos Monastery
DLMF
Debre Libanos Monastery forest
EOC
Ethiopian Orthodox Church
FGD
Focus Group Discussion
HHs
Households
IBCR
Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
NCR
National Census Report
NRM
Natural Resource management
NSAO
North Shoa Agricultural Office
PFM
Participatory Forest Management
PLoS
Public Library of Science
RLDS
Regional and Local Development Studies
SPSS
Statistical Package for Social Science
WCMC
World Conservation and Monitoring Center
WCPA
World Commission on Protected Area
WWC
World Council of Church
WWF
World Wide Fund for Nature
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
iii
DEDICATION
iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDICES
xiv
ABSTRACT
xv
1. INTRODUCTION
1
2. LITRETURE REVIEW
4
2.1. Definition and Concept of Conservation
4
2.2. Religion and Biodiversity Conservation
4
2.2.1. Ecological values of sacred spaces
6
2.2.2. Institutional values of sacred natural sites
7
2.2.3. Potential of scared areas for forest conservation
8
2.3. Uniting Church and Science for Forest Conservation
8
2.4. Biodiversity Status in Ethiopia
10
2.5. Church Forests in Ethiopia
11
2.5.1. Forest conservation and religious view
12
2.5.2. Remnant forests of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
14
2.5.3. Sacred forests of Ethiopian Orthodox Church and biodiversity
15
2.6. Role of Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Forest Conservation
16
2.7. Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Sustainable Forest Management
18
2.8. Approaches to Conserve Forests through Religious Knowledge
20
2.9. Challenges to Forest Church
22
2.10. Relationship between Church Forest and Local Community
24
2.11. Forest of Debre Libanos Monastery and Its Vegetation
25
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
27
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINEUD)
3.1. Description of the Study Area
27
3.1.1. Geographical location and climate
27
3.1.2. Land use profile, vegetation cover, soil and land use pattern
28
3.1.3. Population
28
3.1.4. Main Economic activities
28
3.2. Research Design
29
3.3. Sample Size and Sampling Technique
29
3.4. Vegetation Sampling and Data Collection Techniques
31
3.5. Source of Data
32
3.6. Instruments of Data Collection
32
3.7. Methods of Data Analysis and Presentation
34
3.7.1. Socio-economic data analysis
34
3.7.2. Vegetation data analysis
34
3.7.2.1. Woody species density and frequency
34
3.7.2.2. Woody species richness, evenness and diversity
35
3.7.2.3. Woody species DBH distribution, height and population structure
36
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
37
4.1. Socio Economic Survey
37
4.1.1. Characteristics of study population
37
4.1.2. Potential and role of EOC in forest conservation
38
4.1.3. Stakeholder analysis
43
4.1.4. Perception of EOC community on forest conservation
47
4.1.5. Future ownership of monastery forest for better management
50
4.1.6. Church community toward conservation practice
51
4.1.7. Church followers on fear and respecting of monastery rule of conservation
53
4.1.8. Relationship between Ethiopian Orthodox Church community and forest
55
4.1.9. Conservation approach and methods by Monastery
60
4.1.9.1 Church rule (sanction)
62
4.1.9.2. Legal rule (Government rule)
62
4.1.10. Knowledge of forest conservation in Monastery yards and forest use
63
4.1.11. Perception of agriculture office towards Monastery forest
63
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINEUD)
4.1.12. Knowledge of local community on threats to Monastery forest
65
4.1.13. Sources of disturbance to Monastery forest
66
4.1.14. Local community reaction to deforestation
67
4.2. Vegetation
69
4.2.1. Species area curve
69
4.2.2. Woody species composition
69
4.2.3. Species diversity, richness and evenness
71
4.2.4. Density
72
4.2.5. Frequency
74
4.2.6. Diameter class distributions and population structure
76
4.2.6.1. Diameter class distributions
76
4.2.6.2. Population structure of woody plant species
77
4.2.7. Vertical structure
80
4.2.8. Conservation status of monastery forest
81
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
83
6. REFERENCES
87
7. APPENDICES
94
7.1. Appendix 1. Summary of Questionnaire Survey
95
7.2. Appendix 2. Check List of Interviews for Key Informants
98
7.3. Appendix 3. Check List of Interviews for Agricultural Office
98
7.4. Appendix 4. Checklist for Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
98
7.5. Appendix 5. Tables
99
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1.Total household heads of the three kebeles and sample size taken from
30
2.Selected Respondents for interview
31
3.Percentage distribution of respondents by their Family profile and socio economic
characteristics
37
4.Percentage distributions of respondents on agree and disagree for selected questionnaire
statements.
40
5.Percentage distribution of respondents on presence of diverse natural forest in DLW and
reasons
42
6.Percentage distribution of respondents on the reason why monastery boast large forest 43
7.Opinion survey among stakeholders on selected issues of monastery forest
44
8.Opinion survey on ranking the role of stakeholders in forest conservation
47
9.Percentage distribution of respondents on ranking the role of stakeholders
46
10.Opinion survey on reason to give more care for forest of monastery than other forests 47
11.Code given to selected attitudinal and perception statements
48
12.Parentage distribution of respondents on importance of forest in monastery and its
conservation practice/status
49
13.Percentage distribution of respondents on presence of forest in church and monastery 50
14.Percentage distribution of respondents on Suggestion of future ownership of DLMF 51
15.Percentage distribution of respondents on knowledge, willingness and practice on
conservation of monastery forest
52
16.Opinion survey on farm land expansion among respondents
55
17.Percentage distribution of respondents on factor denying tree cutting from monastery 56
18 Percentage distribution of respondents on source of motivation to protect the forest of
monastery
57
19. Percentage distribution of respondents suggestion on good conservation approach in
monastery (church) forest
61
20.Percentage distribution of respondents on suggested effective tool to conserve
Monastery forest
62
21.Activities allowed and not allowed in Monastery forest as per monastery rule
xi
65
LIST OF TABLES (CONTINEUD)
22.Percentage distribution of respondents on the current status of forest of DLM
66
23.Opinion survey of sample households on source of disturbance to Monastery forest
67
24.Opinion survey on personally preventing tree cutting from monastery
68
25.Opinion survey of sample households on measure to be taken to stop disturbance to
Monastery forest
68
26. List of woody species with their corresponding number of families in DLMF
70
27.Summary of growth habit distribution of the encountered species in DLMF
71
28. Species richness, diversity and evenness of woody species within sampled plots
72
29.List of most dense and least dense woody species identified within DLMF
73
30.Frequency of most frequent and least frequent woody species within DLMF
74
31.Distribution of woody species richness (number) in Debre libanos monastery forest
according to growth form (canopy layer)
80
32.Nationally and internationally priority indigenous tree species identified in DLMF
81
33.List of woody plant species which were mostly utilized by monastery community
82
34.Locally threatened tree species identified by monastery community from DLMF
82
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
pages
1. Stages of sample selection as developed in this study
29
2. Percentage distribution of respondents on respect and fear of Monastery rule
54
3. Percentage Distribution of respondents on monastery forest conservation
59
4. Opinion survey of respondents on preferable Church for spiritual purpose
59
5. Species area curve of woody species in sampled plots
69
6. Occurrence of species along frequency class
76
7. Diameter class distribution of individual species within DLM
77
8. Diameter class frequency distribution of selected tree species within DLMF
79
xiii
LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDICES
Appendix Table
Page
1. Summary of Selected questions for questionnaire Survey
2. Check list of interview for both agricultural office and monastery administration
99
100
3. Summary of biophysical inventory design measurements used for vegetation sampling,
diversity indices and methodologies used
100
4. Summary of list of species (scientific name and local name), the family category and the
growth habit of species recorded from Debre libanos Monastery forest
101
5. List of woody plant species from DLMF with their Density (D), Relative density (RD)
Frequency (F), relative frequency (RF) and Number of plots (NP) species recorded in 103
xiv
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Forest Conservation Practice and the Current
Status of Woody Plant Species Diversity in Debre libanos Monastery, Northern
Oromia, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) has long history of planting and conserving trees in yards of its
churches. These forests are critical to safeguarding Ethiopia’s fragile biodiversity, yet they are
probably one of the least-known and under-funded environmental issues of present time. The study
was conducted in Debra libanos Monastery forest which is located in Debra libanos Woreda. The
general objective of this study was to assess the contribution of monastery in forest conservation
practice and the current status of woody plant species diversity in Debre libanos monastery. The
vegetation data samples were collected from plots of 20m X 20m (400m2 area each) which were laid
systematically along parallel transects lines in the forests. From sampled plots, frequency of
species, density and diameter at breast were recorded. For the socioeconomic survey questionnaire
was administrated to150 households. Focus group discussion and key informant interviews were
also employed in which religious scholars, agricultural expertise and local community were
considered. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used. Data was analyzed using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20 and Microsoft excel. The diversity of
woody species (D) was analyzed using Shannon Diversity Index (H). From vegetation data sampled
it was found that forests enveloped the monastery comprised of trees, shrubs, tree/shrubs, climbers
life form of which majority of them were tree (46.12%). The diversity and evenness of species were
2.673 and 0.661 respectively. From all sample plots, 57 species which belong to 42 families were
recorded. The plant density was ranged between 1.1/ha to 402.2/ha, while the frequency of woody
plant species in plots ranged between 2.2% to 91.1% of which Olea africana was the highest
frequented species. Species of nationally important in terms of priority for conservation were
recorded within the forest. Of identified tree species as threatened Hagenia abyssinica, ranked first
by most of respondents (36%). Population structure from diameter class distribution for selected
woody species revealed trends of irregular shape, j shape, bell shape and u shape. The diameter
class distributions of individuals showed that the forest of the study area comprised of species of
early stage, middle and old stage in their growth. The monastery forest existed for centuries due to
strong effort from church followers and monastery itself. The result of survey revealed that 93.3% of
respondents prefer church enveloped by forest than church of large building for the religious
purpose. It was found that, Monastery forest escaped deforestation due to respecting of local
community to their holy place. Conservation of forest in the name of religion in the study area was
widely recognized by the followers as conservation approach. Results of study revealed that the
monastery forest existed due to church community effort consistently worked for its existence.
Almost all of respondents (92%) believed that trees in holy places to be respected and treated more
than that of non-holy places. Sanction and legal rule are two tools of conservation applied in
monastery forest. Of identified governing rule, local community respect (66%) and fear (82.7%)
more monastery rule of forest conservation to ahead of government rule. Both monastery rule and
moral rule related to religious thought were the most recognized conservation mode identified in the
study area. The main threat to forest was monastery community demand for fire wood. The result
suggested that, forests conserved by monastery via means of its old age conservation approach
provide a good insight in the program of forest conservation at larger scale.
Keywords/phrases: Community perception; Church forest; Debre libanos monastery; Ethiopian
Orthodox Church; Woody species diversity; Diameter at breast height
xv
1. INTRODUCTION
Forest conservation is currently the top agenda for a number of world conservation
organizations, authorities and interest groups (Bruner et al., 2001). Concern over forest
conservation generally hinges on anthropogenic activities that lead to depletion of forest
resources. Forest conversions to farmland, exploitation through selective logging,
seasonally set forest fires, fuel wood removal and charcoal production and woodland
grazing of cattle are the major factors of forest degradation, habitat change and biodiversity
loss. Disturbances created by these activities influence forest dynamics and tree density at
the local and regional scales. In the face of these problems, conservation biologists have
sought to protect forests using several different strategies from strict protection in National
Parks, to sustainable forest management and other integrated conservation and involving
traditional conservation methods and development program (Ramire et al., 2001).
In spite of expanding formal protected areas and numerous global agreements to reduce the
impacts of human activities on the environment, clearing of the world’s natural forests and
the resultant loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services continues at an alarming pace
(Watson et al., 2014). The Strategic for Biodiversity conservation agreement on
Convention on Biological Diversity emphasized the need for investment in institutions for
the management of biodiversity and these institutions includes of religious based,
traditional society and others those closely related to nature must be able to cope with
changes in ecosystems (Diaz et al., 2012).
However, creating institutions for conservation and biodiversity management can difficult
especially; it is very challenging in vast human-modified landscapes such as farmland and
pasture which comprise much of the 84.6% of the Earth’s land area which remains outside
formal protected areas. One alternative to building new institutions from scratch is
supporting and learning from conservation institutions that exist. For instance sacred
natural sites such as Ethiopian Orthodox church forests scattered across Ethiopia’s
Northern Highlands represent ecologically and institutionally important home of
biodiversity(McCarthy,2012).
2
Links between faiths and conservation of forest resources exist throughout the world and
involve every faith system. Faiths have been involved in some of the earliest forms of
habitat protection in existence, both through the preservation of particular places as sacred
natural sites and through religious-based control systems. Sacred areas are probably the
oldest form of habitat protection on the planet and still form a large and mainly
unrecognized network of sanctuaries around the world (Bhagwat et al. 2011a&b).
The rate with which forest resources have been depleted in Ethiopia has brought significant
decline in their biodiversity to the extent that some species are on the verge of local
extinction and this in turn diminishing size of both the manmade and natural forest
resource of the country poses an uncertain future for the resource (IBC, 2005). The
deforestation process highly associated with the increasing number of population and
previously the land devoid of people now highly settled with lots of people and practicing
extensive farm activities (Winberg, 2010).
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) has long history of planting and conserving forest
trees in yards of the churches. The patches of indigenous old aged trees in the northern
highlands of Ethiopia are confined to the church compounds. About forty five percent of
parish churches have forests and seventy five percent of its monasteries are surrounded by
forest (Alemayehu, 2007). Churches are traditional centers for protection of indigenous
biodiversity, as well as for the promotion of a faith-based respect for nature. This
observation is not only a recent phenomenon, but goes back several years as the event of
deforestation has been occurring in the area for centuries (Melaku, 2003).
The forest church and monastery lands of the EOC including of Debre libanos monastery
(DLM) have survived for many centuries as islands of natural forest biodiversity in a sea of
deforested landscape across much of the Ethiopian highlands. For the reasons related to the
spiritual values the surrounding landscape of churches and monastery remain undisturbed
for a long time as the resources of the churches (Demel, 2001).
Now a day the natural forests in Northern and central Ethiopia are confined to only some
holy places (Monasteries and Churches). These patches of natural forest have survived as a
result of the traditional conservation system and protective patronage of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Churches. These church forests are among the last remnants of Ethiopia’s
historic Afromontane forests, which date back to the fourth century. Church and monastery
3
forests are critical to safeguarding Ethiopia’s fragile biodiversity, yet they are probably one
of the least-known and least recognized environmental issues of current time. Their
disappearance would be a disaster for rural Ethiopia’s fragile natural balance (Jarzen et al.,
2010).
Given the vastness of the country and its rich biodiversity resources, the extent of protected
areas in the country is not such enough. Even the existing protected area networks are not
being intensively monitored and most of them lack management plans from concerned
bodies. Furthermore, due to limited understanding on the issue of forest conservation
amongst many sectors of society regarding the role EOC play in forest conservation and
this seems that there are challenges in integrating the traditional forest management
practice like of EOC in forest conservation programs at larger scale.
The forest of Debre libanos monastery (DLM) is one of unique forest biodiversity area in
the Ethiopian highlands where one can see the outstanding forest coverage in Northern
Oromia Regional State and an exemplary area with unique old stand of tree species in
Northern Shoa Zone (IBCR, 2007). However, the massive destruction of forest resources
during transitional government (1974) left the Monastery forest more exposed to the
external pressure from community as this continues to depend on the forest for fuel wood.
Yet, there is scanty in the study area concerning the contribution of the Monastery in
saving the forest from being destroyed. The absence of good recognition from concerned
bodies about the role of indigenous knowledge of church community in conservation is a
great gap for discussion. The study intends to explore the contribution of church in forest
conservation (forest Church-communities inter relationship) and identify the current woody
plant diversity of the study area which is helpful in sustainable forest management.
The overall objective of the study was to assess the contribution of Debre libanos
monastery in forest conservation and determine the current status of woody plant species
diversity in the study area.
Based on the general objective the following specific objectives were formulated.
Specifically the study was designed to:
 Analyze the significance of Debre libanos monastery in conserving the forest
resources of the study area,
 Quantify the current woody plant species diversity in the study area
4
2. LITRETURE REVIEW
2.1. Definition and Concept of Conservation
Whenever the topic of conservation is raised, it is usually related with preservation of
natural forests. The reason why conservation is usually associated with forests is because
of the generally accepted view that argues by saying ‘ecosystems which are little affected
by the activities of man resemble dense forest lands’ (Adams and Mashane, 1992).
The current definition of conservation, as established by the World Conservation Union
(IUCN) is stated as the protection of the integrity and diversity of nature, while ensuring
that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable (Abramovitz
et.al., 2001). In line with this, there are two major arguments on the need for conservation.
These are utilitarian and ethical. The utilitarian argument stresses the need for conservation
by pointing that ecosystems are useful to mankind; while the ‘ethical’ side emphasizes that
man should be guardian of the natural heritage which he has inherited. The utilitarian
argument supports its claims with evidence which states that it would be foolish to destroy
what might prove to be of value. With the present rate of deforestation on natural forests
globally, loss of useful plants and animals is bound to occur. This will be catastrophic to
mankind in the long run. The ethical approach puts more value on the aesthetic beauty of
nature and the duty of the present generation to pass this to the next. This view emphasizes
the need to preserve an unspoiled nature for mankind which makes it a moral issue than an
issue of gain (Cunningham and Saigo, 2005).
2.2. Religion and Biodiversity Conservation
Religion is a powerful influence on human behavior, guiding thought processes and daily
living for large population of the world (Higgins, 2011). Targeting a person’s deeply
entrenched paradigm such as a religious worldview may be more effective in persuading
people to make changes in daily behavior, including engaging in activity to influence
institutions on behalf of biodiversity. According to World Bank report (WB, 2006) the
three paths in which religious influence on conservation. First teach about the environment
and natural systems upon which life depends; second provide leadership in initiating
practical environmental projects and third can seek to persuade their members that each
individual has a moral obligation to contribute in some way to conservation and
5
can provide guidance on how to pursue environmental management objectives.
The dominant tendency in many faiths is anthropocentric such as the Abrahamic (Judaic,
Christian and Islamic) belief that humans are stewards of Yahweh-God-Allah’s creation
which has been given to us as a gift. Other traditions such as Jainism are biocentric and
hold that every being animal, plant or human has a soul and should be treated with respect
(Hall et al., 2009). Similarly Rolston (2010) religious faith can make a unique contribution
to environmental policy and argues that scientific reasoning is able to give only partial and
value-free guidance but religious faith and communities can, and have already begun to
offer what science lacks; a value-laden, unified understanding of creation, humankind and
our obligations as stewards of the earth.
The common ground between religions and biodiversity protection is found throughout the
world in the form of sacred natural sites and religious-based behavioral control systems
which are carefully protected. Societies conserved sacred sites long before the emergence
of modern protected areas. This is probably the oldest method of habitat protection on earth
and still forms a large and unrecognized network of sanctuaries around the world (Dudley
et al., 2005).
The World Wide Fund for nature (WWF) and Alliance of Religions and Conservation
(ARC) included a partial survey of protected areas around the world that included sacred
sites as well as sacred areas outside of protected areas reveals that, they have high
conservation values. The links between faiths and protected areas are neither unusual nor
limited by either geography or faith; rather the links are substantial and pervasive and
many religious believers look to local and global religious authorities for guidance not only
concerning larger purposes and meaning but for how to live their daily lives in accordance
with their larger purposes. For this reason, religious leaders have the capacity to convey to
their believers how their values can direct their behavior toward the natural world in ways
that conserve biodiversity whose influence extends globally can transcend national
boundaries, which are often a stumbling block in conservation (Dudley et al., 2009).
Most of biodiversity hotspots identified are located in countries in which seventy percent
of the population on average adheres to a religion. The power of religion to check
destructive behavior in the face of challenges ranging from political instability and conflict
6
to poverty and lack of empathy for other creatures is significant, and if it can be mobilized
in support of biodiversity it would be a noteworthy achievement (Rappaport, 1999).
Sacred sites, viewed by indigenous people with special spiritual context, are found in
different ethnic groups throughout the world that have been under the protection of local
people for their spiritual value for generations and might be the oldest forms of protected
areas in human history. It has been shown that the traditional practice of sacred site
worship may make significant contributions to protecting endangered species and
conserving biodiversity (Mgumia and Oba, 2003).
2.2.1. Ecological values of sacred spaces
Forest patches conserved around places of worship are found worldwide (Bhagwat and
Rutte, 2006). In Tanzania there are over 600 sacred groves, in Ghana 100 km over 2,000
sacred forests, in India over 100,000; and in Japan Shinto and Buddhist shrine forests cover
over 110,000 hectares (Verschuuren, 2010). Similarly in Ethiopia there are more than
35,000 Orthodox Church in which most of them own forests (Wassie et al., 2009). In
addition to providing cultural values, the geographically dispersed sacred natural sites
serve as key refuge for plant and animal species as well as increasing water filtration,
reducing soil erosion, and providing an array of other ecosystem services (Melaku, 1992).
Church forests harbor vast insect biodiversity provide pollination and hydrological services
for nearby farm land serve as seed banks for native plants that have otherwise vanished
from the region (Bhagwat and Palmer, 2009). Even though the ecology of the diverse set of
sacred natural sites in Ethiopia has only begun to be studied, surveys of a small sample of
church forests on the northern Ethiopia revealed a stunning a number of woody species
which comprises indigenous to Ethiopia (Wassie et al., 2010).
In spite of their ecological and spiritual benefits, due to a combination of economic,
environmental, and cultural factors the integrity of church forests like many other sacred
natural sites has continued to decline. Church forests in Ethiopia are decreasing in both size
and density, with visible losses in biodiversity due to livestock grazing, fuel wood
harvesting and other pressures. However, these church forests are still ecologically very
important in restoration (Alemayehu et al., 2009).
7
The dwindling biodiversity of sacred natural sites has begun to attract international
attention and some ecologists now advocate prioritization of sacred natural sites for
preservation (Verschuuren et al., 2010). The IUCN has published a guide for protected area
managers on the subject of sacred natural sites and in Ethiopia some conservation
institutions are directly funding stone wall construction around church forests to protect
ecologically valuable sites (TREE, 2014).
2.2.2. Institutional values of sacred natural sites
Remaining largely unappreciated, however, is the vast potential to learn from the
institutional diversity of sacred natural sites). From an institutional perspective the diverse
and dispersed sacred sites across the globe, conserved by local communities for a host of
spiritual and social values, represent the oldest protected areas management systems in
human history (Verschuuren, 2010). Thus in addition to their immediate ecological
conservation value, sacred sites such as Ethiopian church forests are also examples of
powerful social institutions that have ensured the provision of cultural and ecological
ecosystem services for generations and enduring strengths and recent transformations of
these institutions can thus offer invaluable lessons for conservation policy (Ostrom, 2009).
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is one of the oldest Christian churches in Africa and has a
long history of protecting and preserving indigenous forest as sanctuaries for prayer and
burial grounds for church followers. In a general sense the forests surrounding churches are
seen as sacred, with the trees symbolic of angels guarding the church (Wassie et al., 2010).
However, at the community level each church operates largely autonomously, with each
having developed its own contextually defined approach to forest management. In some
cases church forest governance has involved the construction of walls clearly demarcating
forest boundaries (TREE, 2014). In other areas the church pays guards to patrol forests to
detect and punish trespassers (with punishments varying across churches from public
apologies before the community to arrest by police for more serious infractions). In still
other communities some extractive uses of church forests are permitted such as harvesting
wild fruits, honey, or fuel wood from dead church forest trees (Bongers et al., 2006).
From an institutional perspective the diverse uses of church forests, often strictly
conservationist but sometimes more utilitarian, is a key part of how indigenous trees have
8
been conserved in Ethiopian Orthodox church forests while natural forest has all but
disappeared elsewhere. In other words, the thousands of church forests across different
parts of Ethiopia can be understood not only as precious islands of biodiversity and culture
in need of preservation, but also as invaluable experiments in what works for protected
areas management in Ethiopia across a variety of social, economic and environmental
contexts (Demel, 2006).
Sacred forests represent a unique stroke of good fortune for the conservation community,
but without support for continued management of indigenous biodiversity this luck may
not hold. Curbing the global biodiversity crisis will require learning from any and all
successful conservation institutions, including traditional and religious institutions. These
sacred sites in the midst of human dominated agro ecosystems in low-income countries can
have a particularly profound impact on conservation outcomes, as much of the remaining
land in biodiversity-rich areas is used by rural farmers and pastoralists (Cardelus et al.,
2013).
2.2.3. Potential of scared areas for forest conservation
Scared areas often have the strengths and opportunities in conservation science due to low
human impact and restricted access and are often in a pristine state, thus serving as
sanctuaries for rare, endangered and endemic species. Their role as gene pools for biotic
resources can directly contribute to conservation and as "indicator sites” for the restoration
and rehabilitation of degraded systems. Based on species’ inventories in sacred sites,
strategies can be formulated for the wider reintroduction of native and endemic species as
they are community areas fully in line with belief systems and values, they tend to be
more sustainable than classic legally protected areas. In fact, their preservation from
voluntary protection can enable long-term biological successions and can also be used as a
public awareness demonstration site offering the opportunity to witness active sustainable
resources management and nature conservation (UNESCO, 2003).
2.3. Uniting Church and Science for Forest Conservation
According to (UNESCO, 2003) scared natural areas are model sites for management
because these sites integrate cultural and natural values in a single management system and
9
can act as models for participatory conservation. In legally protected areas with a resident
population, the integration of sacred natural sites can improve people’s attitude to protected
area regulations. Intern it is important for preserving traditional knowledge for which local
and traditional knowledge of adapted forest conservation practices are often found in
sacred natural sites and many serve as healing sanctuaries. Traditional ecological
knowledge is often applied with regard to their management, thus providing good
opportunities for integrating western science and traditional knowledge systems.
Sacred natural sites are important manifestations of culture and cultural diversity as in
many cases; sacred natural sites are reference points of cultural, religious and national
identity, often with associated cultures and practices. They offer the possibility of
supporting fragile and threatened areas, particularly through the transmission of knowledge
by elders (Bhagwat and Palmer, 2009).
According to Dudley et al. (2012) the spiritual faiths, which are followed by most people,
have impacts on the natural environment: the interaction can be through the form/s of
Sacredness of places and/or influence of faiths. Since the existence of sacred areas within a
protected area can create a challenge for managers, decisions whether or not to make a
sacred area important to faiths into an official protected area need to be made on a case-bycase basis.
The Convention on Biological Diversity realized that many areas of the world that contain
high levels of biodiversity are anthropogenic landscapes inhabited by indigenous and local
communities, approaches have been refined, linking conservation initiatives with local
culture and religious view (Agrawal, 2001). The comprehensive understanding of the
cultural context (indigenous knowledge in this case) of a given community is necessary in
biodiversity conservation activities. Understanding the role that church forests play in the
provision of ecosystem services is critical, particularly for soil conservation, fresh water
protection, and carbon sequestration. To preserve these forests, and perhaps even expand
them multidisciplinary approach that includes all stakeholders from biologists, social
scientists, ethnographers, religious leaders, and local people must collaborate.
Understanding the relationship between local peoples and the forest is the way to empower
community to protect and conserve the forest (Cardelus, 2012).
10
According to Terefe (2003) community participation is very crucial to overcome the rate of
deforestation. For this purpose Participatory Forest Management (PFM) which is adopted
and implemented by involving the local community who intimately related to forest
resources in order to fulfill the interest, respecting of traditional users, their culture and
religious contribution in saving the forest of the country from small scale to large scale and
bottom-up approach which encourage a sense of belongingness to the rural people in
general and landless rural youth in particular (Winberg, 2010).
2.4. Biodiversity Status in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a vast country with a land area of 1.12 million square kilometers and wide
variety of topography and climate. There is a great variation in altitude, ranging from 116
meters below sea level in the Danakil depression to 4620m above sea level (asl) at the top
of Ras dashen mountain. The great plains of Ethiopia sit a top two massive highland
plateau, cloven in the middle by the Great Rift Valley (IBC, 2007). The differences in
altitude, coupled with topographic variations, has resulted in wide variations in rainfall,
humidity and temperature and thus, the country comprises of wide ecosystems that range
from afro alpine at the highest elevations to desert and semi-desert ecosystems at the
lowest elevations. As a result, Ethiopia is endowed with a wide variety of fauna and flora
and the extreme ranges have resulted in unique and diverse suite of its biological resources
(Yirdaw, 2001 and Feyera, 2003).
Ethiopia is a mountainous country characterized by great geographic diversity with rugged
mountains, flat topped plateaus and deep gorges and these diversified topographic features
made the country richest in flora of tropical Africa and this situation enable Ethiopia to be
considered as the center of origin and the rich in plant species diversity (Tolera et al.,
2008). Forests of the mountainous landscapes of Ethiopian highlands were characterized
by high woody plant species diversity. However, these rich forest resources are highly
declined due to rapid and continuous deforestation activities. Changes in land use mainly
through the conversion of natural vegetation to agricultural lands and settlement are the
main causes for this rapid deterioration of forest areas in the country (Eyayu et al., 2009).
Dry Afromontane forests have disappeared from most of the highlands in northern
Ethiopia, except around churches and some inaccessible pockets owing to deforestation
11
associated with, mainly, expansion of farmlands, spurred by the rapidly increasing
populations of humans and domestic animals, over centuries. Hence, a patch of indigenous
old-aged trees in the northern highlands of Ethiopia signifies the presence of a
church/monastery in the middle. These church forests, which are also referred to as ‘debr’
or ‘geddam’ locally, are visible from a great distance, with a majestic appearance, usually
built on small hills overlooking the surrounding villages. They are sanctuaries for different
organisms, ranging from microbes to large animals, which have almost disappeared in
most parts of northern Ethiopia (Alemayehu et al., 2005a and b).
2.5. Church Forests in Ethiopia
The churches and monasteries of the EOC are often surrounded by patches of natural
afromontane forest which are characterized by a high floral and faunal diversity with many
indigenous and rare species. There are two kinds of church forests in Ethiopia of which the
churches older than five hundred years are surrounded by primary forests while recently
established churches of the last decades are observed with secondary forests and in this
case the older church forests are characterized by a high floral and faunal diversity with
many indigenous and rare species. These closely located forests have a high ecological
importance to form corridors and are important for species exchange and the distribution of
genetic resources in conservation (Alemayehu, 2007)
The high number of churches and monasteries with their culture to protect the surrounding
environment and forest vegetation contributed to a high biodiversity in these so called
church forests. Gedam (Monastery) and churches in Ethiopia may be the only habitat
patches with primary forests remaining locally and species are confirmed in one of the
relatively undisturbed afromontane forests of Monastery. They host several endemic and
endangered species, which were destroyed completely in other places over the last decades.
They are buffers against depletion of genetically adapted local species and biodiversity
from deforestation and species loss (Lowman, 2011).
The church forests can serve as in situ conservation sites and source of seeds for
rehabilitating degraded areas. These forests as remnants of the holy property of the church
are managed by the churches themselves. The church scholars undertake specific tasks in
the church community like forest guarding and giving church education how to care for
12
nature of the earth including those of forest in their own interest, reforestation activities to
maintain the church forests as holy places (IFAD, 2007).
In the northern and central highlands of Ethiopia, patchy remnants of old-aged
Afromontane forests are found almost only around the Ethiopian Orthodox Churches.
Forests in most other areas have been completely destroyed and converted into farms and
grazing lands over centuries. The local people perceive these forests as holy places in a
religious, social and institutional sense. These forests are still sanctuaries of many plant
and animal species that have almost disappeared in most parts of northern Ethiopia
(Bingelli et al., 2003).
The churches and monastery of Ethiopia has a long history of conservation of forest
resources, which usually envelop the churches. Although the main purpose of churches is
as places for worship, burials and meditating religious festivals, they also provide valuable,
often unique, and secured habitats for plants and animals, and green spaces for people.
Church compounds are serving as conservation sites and hot spots of biodiversity, mainly
indigenous trees and shrubs of Ethiopia, which, in turn, give prestige to the religious sites
(These church forests, however, are threatened because of exploitation, the conversion to
agricultural land and several land redistribution processes, tree cutting, grazing, woody
harvesting by local community pressurized church forests to decline (Alemayehu, 2004).
2.5.1. Forest conservation and religious view
Links between faiths and conservation of forest, land and water exist throughout the world
and involve a number of faith systems. Faiths have been involved in some of the earliest
forms of habitat protection in existence, both through the preservation of particular places
as sacred natural sites and through religious-based control systems. Sacred areas are
probably the oldest form of habitat protection on the planet and still form a large and
mainly unrecognized network of sanctuaries around the world. A proportion of these sites
(probably a large proportion) are also highly successful at conserving natural ecology and
biodiversity. From a conservation perspective, sacred natural sites and other places of
importance to faith groups exist both inside and outside official “protected areas” as
recognized by IUCN. Sacred natural sites can usefully be integrated into protected area
13
systems using any of the recognized management models. Bringing a sacred area into a
national protected area system can increase protection for the site (UNESCO, 2003).
People may value forest for spiritual, economic, aesthetic, cultural and scientific reasons.
Although it has implication at international, national and local levels, forest conservation is
directly relevant to the local community, often biological resources represent primary
source of livelihood, medicine and spiritual values. However, it can be difficult to
reconcile these values. Thus, it is very important to be able to clarify different values that
underlie positions taken on various sides of a given issue relevant to forest and to
understand how values can affect willingness to adopt different patterns of resource use or
to reach compromises (Bhagwat, 2009).
The Ethiopian Orthodox religion assumes that each aspect of creation heavens, rocks,
wilderness, stars, and humanity in its diverse forms and beliefs-has its role to play in caring
for the creator. It is a model of diversity that the Orthodox Church in Ethiopia has now
explicitly extended to the role that all of us have in protecting life on earth, each offerings
has its own strengths and abilities. Christianity teaches that all of creation is the loving
action of God, who not only allows the existence of creation but also it continual nature
which is deeply related of bible thought (Palmer and Finbay, 2003).
Ethiopian Orthodox Church perceive the forest and other living things in forest ecosystem
as beauty work of God and therefore they give learn the miracle of creature, worship,
meditate, pray and practice with the trees, at the spring, along the shore. Participants come
with an attitude of experimentation, playfulness and readiness to connect with nature. God
is present in creation and can be understood through creation (Bingeli et al., 2003).
The church has owned its forest for centuries and this indication is the fact from the bible
that the forest tree has great relation with biblical thoughts. According to the Holy Bible,
God called to Moses out of the burning bush. "Moses, Moses!" And he said, from "Here I
am." Then He said, "Come no closer! Remove the sandals your feet, for the place on which
you stand is holy ground." Torah (3: 4-5). This shows that everything around us and the
earth which stand on it are created by God and the grounds within the church compound
specifically do have biblical interpretations for priests and believers to give due attention
for forest resources in the churches and monasteries(Cited in Alemayehu, 2004).
14
As indicted forests signify in the bible the predication of the heavenly life in contrast to
their absence signifies the demon. The words quoted for trees in the bible are: ‘‘O, God:
the art my God: my soul longeth for thee, how shall I stretch my flesh in a dry thirsty land,
where no tree and water’ (psalm 63:1-2 cited in Alemayehu (2004). Additionally, ‘‘I am
the vine of the tree, and my father is the handsome man. Every branch in me that bear the
not fruit he taken away: and every branch that bear the fruit, he purgeth it, that it may bring
forth more fruit. I am the vine, you are the branches’’ (John 15:1-5). The statement tells to
us Jesus and the Lord as a vine tree, believers as the trunk of tree and his relation to them
as the source of their entire spiritual and fruitful life. In other words, the teaching of God is
using a model of tree and its branches as cohesive power between himself and his
followers.
From the statement of the World Council of Churches (WCC) said in a document from a
meeting in Granvollen, Norway, in 1988: The drive to have "mastery" over creation has
resulted in the senseless exploitation of natural resources, the alienation of the land from
people and the destruction of indigenous culture (Creation came into being by the will and
love of the God, and as such it possesses an inner cohesion and goodness. Though human
eyes may not always discern it, every creature and the whole creation in chorus bear
witness to the glorious unity and harmony with which creation is endowed. And when our
human eyes are opened and our tongues unloosed, we too learn to praise and participate in
the life, love, power and freedom that is God's continuing gift and grace of beauty nature of
trees and other living things (Palmer and Finbay, 2003).
2.5.2. Remnant forests of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
In northern high lands of Ethiopia, woodland on the hills surrounding a monastery or in
and around churchyards is often all that remains of the once extensive forests. The reasons
are both spiritual and material (as a source of fuel wood and as shade during mass and
religious festivals). The woodlands occupied by church and monastic communities are also
important as habitats for biodiversity, sources of germplasm, and as indicator sites of the
original ecological landscape (Bekele et al., 2001).
The forests located around the churches comprise local as well as global hotspots as they
are critical conservation areas that provide ecosystem services (Bhagwat, 2009). In Ethiopia
15
the patches of forests that are left around the churches are the remnants of dry afromontane
forest cover that comes under the conservation practices by Ethiopian Orthodox Churches
(EOC). Some these churches that are established after recently have developed a forest
around them by rehabilitation processes that are not the natural afromontane forests. These
church forests possess woody indigenous tree species. The two tree species, Juniperus
procera and Prunus africana, which are listed in IUCN red list, are mostly found in church
forests of Ethiopia (WCMC, 1996).
The church and monastery forests comprise of many rare unique species and high
frequency species that make the preservation of these forests crucially important (Haileab et
al., 2012). The forest management is receiving attention in terms of timber production and
non-timber value products from the forests. These resources are being degraded from the
forests due to human settlements and utilization. Therefore, protecting the remaining
forests, increased a forestation and efficient use of exist forest resources should be given
attention (Yitebitu et al., 2010).
Despite the heavy depletion of forests that has taken place in the hill and montane zone of
northern high lands of Ethiopian it is still this area that contains most of the remaining
natural forests. Currently those areas are facing great challenges because of the
surrounding areas are devoid of forests. Although there are still sizeable forests in the
southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, the remnant natural forests in the central and northern
highlands are found only as isolated small patches at inaccessible locations and around the
numerous churches and burial grounds (FAO, 2003).
2.5.3. Sacred forests of Ethiopian Orthodox Church and biodiversity
Sacred groves also known as church forests, fetish forests and sacred forests are found all
over the world including Ethiopia, Japan, Morocco, India, and Ghana (Bhagwat, 2009).
These sites are often seats of religious and cultural ritual that have been maintained
through community conservation and are refuge of biodiversity; in fact, there is a
significant network of large shadow conservation sites that are protected because of their
sacredness (Recent work shows that many rare and endemic species are found only in
sacred groves. In turn, these forests provide essential ecosystem services that include both
16
the material provisions (timber and non-timber forest products), non-material (spiritual
value, cultural value) (Dudley et al., 2012).
Monastery and church forests are indicators of species to be chosen for afforestation
programmes in their specific localities and are sources of knowledge on biodiversity that
could serve as models of sustainable forest management (Taye et al., 2001). Many
endangered species of flora and fauna which virtually disappeared in Ethiopia, still live in
the church forests of Ethiopian Orthodox churches and Monasteries (Berhane-Selassie,
1994). The EOC is making a sustained effort to teach and advice the clergy and the people
living in the community; highlight the need to protect existing trees; induce the desire to
plant and look after newly planted trees, and in particular take care of indigenous trees and
plants (Melakeselam, 2001).
2.6. Role of Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Forest Conservation
The patches of natural forest stands occurring around more than 30,000 churches still
persist in a degraded landscape and might contribute to restoration, biodiversity
conservation and provide many other economic and social benefits. These church forests
provide ecosystem services for the landscape and serve as stepping stones for restoration in
long-term forest sustainability. They also provide valuable, often unique, and secured
habitats for plants and animals as well as green spaces for people to relieve the stressed
mind. Church compounds are the safe places for trees and other biodiversity resources
where one can animate trees that escaped from being destroyed forever under the shelter of
the church value and esteem. In other words, church compounds are serving as in situ
conservation and hot spot sites for biodiversity resources, mainly indigenous trees and
shrubs of Ethiopia, which, in turn, give prestige for the religious sites (Alemayehu, 2002).
The church has immense religious knowledge of forest conservation in which the church
and its believers have developed over generations through experiences. This knowledge
enables the church compound to be home of diverse flora and fauna where one can see
endemic and indigenous species diversity However, the remaining forests are currently
under threat, due to diminishing areas and extensive grazing by cattle. In such areas,
conserving and maintaining plant diversity has been a very challenging task (Demel,
2006).
17
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church practices have important roles in forest management since
these churches and monasteries have deeper values, practices and perceptions under
different psalms of bible quotations. Bible citations of the church has highly internalized
by the believers. This was further strengthened by the community responsibility of
managing the forest through the justification of everything inside the church is considered
as sacred. This is highly attached with the idea of community based forest conservation in
which both indigenous knowledge and their religious view toward conservation are the
main driving force for the program of the government and the community response of
settlement under different regimes (Desalegn et al., 2003).
According to Alemayehu and Demel (2006) in influencing people's perception on forest
conservation, the Orthodox Church is believed to play its role in three ways to conserve
forest biodiversity: First based upon and rooted in their own understanding of the
relationship between humanity and the rest of nature; Second they can teach about the
environment and natural systems upon which life depends; Third they can provide active
leadership in initiating practical environmental projects. Having Said this, the Church
norms and values which are being respected in the Church compound are not applicable in
other areas/ outside the Church compound which can be in this case expressed in the form
of separation between sacred and profane and levels of sacredness linked with secrecy of
spaces, from open space to very much closed one.
The Afromontane forests of Ethiopia, which render economic and ecological significance
for the highlands, have been vanishing fast. However, remnants of the original forests are
currently confined around churches and monasteries and homesteads. Forest restoration
and genetic conservation in the degraded landscapes of Ethiopia should depend on remnant
church forests and trees around farms (Teketay et al., 2010).
The church forests serve as a reference ecosystem for restoration efforts of the degraded
landscape due to their immense indigenous knowledge and long history of conservation of
forest resources, which usually envelop the churches, serve as secured habitats for plants
and animals, and green spaces for people. They can provide knowledge and point of
orientation to determine habitat of individual species and an association or assemblages of
species in communities (Aronson and Van Andel, 2006). In line with this Bekele (2003)
also states that Church forests play an important role in biodiversity conservation because
18
they are the only remaining patches of Afromontane forest in a landscape of degraded area.
Increasing the size of forest patches and placing forest plantations and grazing enclosures
in the vicinity of sacred groves may increase the likelihood of patch colonization by forest
birds and thus foster the regeneration of native woody species.
Although the main purpose of churches is as places for worship, burials and meditating
religious festivals, they also provide valuable (and often unique) and secured habitats for
plants and animals, and also as green spaces for people to rest the stressed mind. Church
compounds are the Monasteries of trees and other biodiversity resources where one can
animate trees escaped from being destroyed forever under the shelter of the church value
and esteem. Many indigenous trees and shrubs, which in some places were destroyed
completely over the last century, are still found standing in the compounds of remote rural
churches (Taye, 2001).
2.7. Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Sustainable Forest Management
The experience of conserving trees in the name of religion is apparent worldwide for which
(religion is one of the strong and powerful indigenous institutions, religious perspective
towards conservation, the past and present experience in the field of interest should
coincide with our planning and objective settings if sustainability is to be achieving. If
EOC is taken as an entry point, it can be argued that success begins there. Because it will
have a cumulative knowledge of thousands of years, experiences of many people, wisdom
of the spirit mediums, the wise council of elders and the leadership of religious leaders,
institutions in managing and conserving resources and strong sanctions and ‘gizet’ for
outliers (Siyanda, 1997).
The EOC is the oldest Church in Ethiopia, which played and continues to play an
important role in development and humanitarian activities including the conservation
national biodiversity, nature and heritage since thousands of years back. The church’s
doctrine commands to do so. This tradition of passing from one generation to the other is
believed to contribute to the knowledge of the society on natural resources and the current
forest cover in churches and monasteries. It has a long experience in conserving the natural
resources of the country. It has a tradition for planting tree and fruits in the churches and
monasteries to conserve the land and use the byproducts as source of feed for domestic
19
animals. Thus, scholars are using its resources for their research work and the production
of modern medicines. The Church has a structure that goes down to the grass root level that
encourages the community how to use and conserve Forest resources (Teketay et al., 2010).
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church, through Development and Inter-Church Aid Commission
(DICAC), has been long involved in forest management practice by promoting sustainable
development programmers through parish and diocesan-centered approaches (CWS, 2002).
This is why most parts of Ethiopia, churches and monasteries are the only places where
indigenous trees or forests can be seen. The forests grown on the church land are
considered sacred as they are growing in God’s compound.
Ethiopian Orthodox Church has been involved in forestry campaigns since 1986. Initially,
the work consisted of establishing nurseries and planting of seedlings not only in church
and monastery grounds but also in private holdings. In recent years, the EOC’s forestation
programme has been expanded into farm forestry. DICAC used to provide monasteries
with seedlings, often free of charge, and no monastery can cut a tree without consent of
diocese office (Binggeli, 2001).
According to Alemayehu et al. (2005a) Sustainable use of forest resources depends on two
main factors: having appropriate local knowledge and technology to use resources and the
environmental ethics that guides the relationship between human and nature (religious
view) in a sustainable way. In the development of human beings (either for misuse or wise
use of the environment) institutions can play a significant role. For instance, in states like
Ethiopia in which religion has a great value, EOC plays a prominent role in conserving
forest resources.
Forest and other natural resource management issues in developing countries like Ethiopia
are increasingly mimicking western theories, while the contribution of indigenous cultures
and religious institutions are often overlooked (Marsh, 2002). The various natural resource
management national and international policies, programmers and strategies have
marginalized the involvement of traditional institutions and indigenous knowledge
systems. It has become necessary that more feasible and sustainable approaches for natural
resource management (NRM) have to be pursued if the drastic loss of biological ecosystem
20
and cultural diversity is to be curtailed and natural regeneration is allowed to occur (Pillion
and Walpole, 2001).
Since the mid-1970s, the management of forest resources in Ethiopia was mainly carried
out as state and community forestry programs. These non-participatory approaches failed
to reduce tree felling and clearing, especially in Protected National Forest Priority Areas
(FARM Africa, 2000). Further, this problem was beyond the control of the state; therefore,
the ultimate solution for this severe problem will be encouraging of local people to manage
and conserve their resources through their traditional, religious and indigenous knowledge
since they live with forests, and they are primary users of forest products (FAO, 2010).
2.8. Approaches to Conserve Forests through Religious Knowledge
Human cultural has a close relationship with biodiversity and environment. Thus,
traditional societies have often protected parts of the natural landscape they occupy, or left
untouched some of its elements. Most such societies, for instance, have considered certain
sites as sacred, where most or all human activities are prohibited. As there is rich
biodiversity in Monasteries and churches of Ethiopian Orthodox Church religious
institution, the local communities have developed their own traditional culture which is
based on the rich biodiversity, and the traditional culture has also played an important role
in the conservation of biodiversity. The holy place forest and religious plants are good
examples (Hamilton, 1993)
Long before the existence of officially protected areas, people were protecting their sacred
lands. Sacred sites are probably the oldest method of habitat protection on the planet and
still form a large and mainly unrecognized network of sanctuaries around the world
(Bhagwat et al., 2011a). Links between sacred land and water and conservation are not
limited to minority faiths, but there are important links with virtually all faiths around the
world. Furthermore, the mainstream faiths, with many millions of followers, have a huge
influence on the way interact with the natural world. This influence is in large part by
shaping people’s philosophy and ethics, but also includes more direct links through
ownership of land, investment and considerable political and social influence. Conversely,
the practice of biodiversity conservation itself, deeply rooted in science, with its associated
21
secular and materialistic world-view, can pose a threat to sacred spaces if spiritual, cultural
is not considered (Palmer and Finlay, 2003).
The Christian Anthropocentrists believe that God created nature for human’s benefit by
using the biblical instruction of Genesis which instructs Adam and Eve to be “fruitful and
multiply and fill the Earth and subdue it; have dominion over everything that moves upon
the Earth.”, which supports the argument of Anthropocentrism: nature should be used as a
means (wealth) for the people (Chandran and Ramachandra, 2008). However, the Christian
Deep Ecologist, Nasa concludes that the massive losses in biodiversity matter morally, not
primarily because of the instrumental value of the other species (other than human beings),
but rather because of the intrinsic values of the species that humans ought to respect (Hall
et al., 2009).
The indigenous communities still practice some cultural linkages between social and
biophysical ecosystems in which they have not only co-evolved with the surrounding
environmental conditions but also they have maintained it in a diverse and productive state
on the basis of traditional practices and beliefs (Aerts, 2006). The necessity of natural
resources for human survival had made them to evolve a system having some customary
laws and practices, which in long run might help to conserve the surrounding natural
resources. Religion, being a powerful instrument for convincing people, has always been
used for meeting the desired objectives of the society. The various religious philosophies
have contributed significantly in the conservation of forests, biodiversity and landscapes by
promulgating customary norms, practices and beliefs (Ramakrishnan, 2002).
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church’s long standing forest management experience at parish
churches and monasteries as well as its development wing, EOC-DICAC’s, experienced in
the management of natural resources, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church is the oldest Church
in Ethiopia, which played and continues to play an important role in development and
humanitarian activities including the conservation of national biodiversity, nature and
heritage since thousands of years back. The church’s doctrine commands to do so. This
tradition of passing from one generation to the other is believed to contribute to the
knowledge of the society on natural resources and the current forest cover in churches and
monasteries (Taye et al., 2001).
22
Monasteries and Churches of EOC are traditional centers for the protection of indigenous
biodiversity, which various scholars have recently indicated can constitute the basis for
wider ecological projects. As monasteries are already reservoirs of biodiversity, this need
to be protected and enhanced through different methods. The monastic spirituality can also
constitute the basis for indigenously orientated ecological ideology, which appeals to local
sentiments. It has paramount important to consider sacred groves and indigenous
knowledge as key stakeholder of National Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation
Program, and carbon trade fund attraction. It is indispensible to recognize these forests as
an opportunity to explore possibilities of using them for future climate finance attraction.
In order to explore the strength and opportunity of these areas, their significance for
biodiversity of the forest areas in churches and monasteries conservation value of these
churches and monasteries should be appreciated (Tullu, 2011).
2.9. Challenges to Forest Church
Globally, as forests of non-sacred sites, sacred natural sites (forests of holy places) are also
threatened by population growth, social inequity, poor or no governance, political
corruption and government policies that encourage unsustainable land use practices
(Pledge, 2006). Deforestation is a major problem in Ethiopia, as it is in many East African
countries. Trees have been cut down over the decades to make clearings for agriculture,
pastures and settlements. By recommending that the government plant thousands of fastgrowing eucalypts to solve the problem, some well-meaning environmental groups actually
made matters worse: eucalypts are notoriously thirsty trees, which require much more
water than their native Ethiopian counterparts. They dried up the soil, making it poorer and
less fertile both for crops and the few remaining existing forests. In this case church forests
are critical to safeguarding Ethiopia’s fragile biodiversity, yet they are probably one of the
least-known and under-funded environmental issues of our time (Wassie et al., 2010).
Deforestation in highlands of Ethiopia is becoming an unstoppable process dating back
many hundreds of years. The conservation of forests in the whole landscape has been a
very challenging task. In some cases the line that separates the church or the monastery
forest from community arable land became progressively and intentionally blurred and
this, in the course of time, turned community members against the resources when they
need forests for any personal use. In fact, nowadays there is no extensive natural forest
23
cover in the Northern Ethiopia except remnants and patches mainly around churches and
inaccessible areas. In much of the landscape of northern Ethiopia, the lush vegetation on
the hillsides surrounding a church or a monastery presents a sharp contrast to the
surrounding bare ridges and mountain slopes (Yirdaw, 2001).
According to Bongers et al. (2006) the highlands of Ethiopia have suffered from intense
deforestation for decades. The little indigenous forest remains persists in church forests.
Small forests encircling the thousands of Ethiopian Orthodox churches spread throughout
the countryside. Church forests are sacred places for church followers and community
members alike. Unfortunately, today these forests are slowly disappearing due to gradual
conversion for agricultural land; in addition to demand for fuel and construction wood has
led to deforestation of the church forests.
Ecosystems which were untouched by human beings such as natural forests in steep lands,
monasteries and church yards are now being affected by human beings for getting
firewood. As a result of these land use pattern in the country is in a continuous change.
These church forests are threatened because of disturbances from human activities, such as
cutting, grazing (mainly cows and goats), droughts, and fires occur at increasing intensity
and frequency (Emiru, 2002).
Although, the church forests lived for a century due to the commitment of holy fathers and
mothers who sacrificed themselves as the natural resource ambassadors without any reward
for the provision of biodiversity conservation in that challenging situations, it is now in the
ocean of deforestation as it is surrounded by completely cleared lands. Monasteries are
located in isolated underdeveloped areas where there is often no or little Non-governmental
organization activity (Tullu, 2011).
In spite of what the EOC has done to conserve significant proportions of forests in
Ethiopia, its forests do not receive the recognition and support they deserve. Because of
this negligence, these forests are waiting for further degradation and possible entire
elimination comparable the tragic fate of the larger forests across the landscape in northern
Ethiopia. Maintaining church forests is maintaining large part of forest resources of
Northern Ethiopia (Alemayehu et al., 2005b).
24
2.10. Relationship between Church Forest and Local Community
The association between holy places and natural ones is common among the world’s
religious view, even; stronger among the Orthodox Christians of Ethiopia, whose belief in
creating a living symbol of the Garden of Eden around their places of worship has led to
the existence of some 35,000 church forests Lowman (2011). Followers of the EOC
Churches have been tending groves of trees from a handful of acres to 300 hectares for
hundreds of years, in the process preserving some of the few remnants of the country's
historical Afromontane forests where most church forests are found in the northern part of
the country, where the old forests have been razed to establish agriculture and build
villages. The written from public library of science (PLoS) States that if a traveler to the
area spies a forest, it surely has a church in the middle. With only few percent of Ethiopia's
historical forests remaining, the church forests (also known as Coptic forests) are key to
protecting biodiversity, though their importance has been very poorly studied (Jarzen et al.,
2010).
Human cultural diversity has a close relationship with biodiversity and environment.
Traditional societies have often protected parts of the natural landscape they occupy, or left
untouched some of its elements. Most such societies, for instance, have considered certain
sites as sacred (holy place), where most or all human activities are prohibited. As there is
rich biodiversity in monastery and churches of EOC, the local communities have
developed their own traditional culture which is based on the rich biodiversity, and the
traditional culture has also played an important role in the conservation of biodiversity.
The holy place forest and religious related plants are good examples of how the followers
closely attached with nature. However, establishing a connection between specific cultural
practices and conservation or enhancement of biodiversity is by no means a simple matter
(Jarzen et al., 2010).
Humans have been cutting Ethiopian forests for fuel and agriculture for centuries.
However, the fragments forests of many churches, escaped deforestation because of their
religious and spiritual importance; they are protected by, and are an integral part of the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
The church leaders and local community consider
biodiversity conservation as one of their primary steward. But the lack of perimeter
delineation of these forest fragments threatens their future. Within each forest, an Orthodox
25
priest and his disciples live, conduct services and oversee its use. These forests are both a
religious and a biodiversity sanctuary which are intimately part of human life and they
provide local people with essential ecosystem services such as fresh water, shade, honey,
pollinators, and spiritual value (Tullu, 2011).
The local communities do have higher respect and thrust in the EOC than other local
institutions, which has made the church the central institution and platform for socioeconomic issues of the people. The positive attitude to the resources protected by the
church and the acceptance of the church tradition could thus be an opportunity for forest
ecosystem conservation and restoration. The Church perceives nature in a holistic manner.
In their concept, nature includes among others, human beings, forests/trees, animals, water,
other land features and the nation as a whole. The church forests might be relics or
blueprints of ancient and largely lost forest ecosystems. These forests are hotspots of
biodiversity for indigenous species, and therefore they might serve as priority areas for insitu conservation and meanwhile maintain as prestigious religious sites (Bingelli et al.,
2003).
2.11. Forest of Debre Libanos Monastery and Its Vegetation
The forest of Debre libanos monastery (DLM) is the few remaining forest in northern
Shoa, Oromia Regional State. The woodland on the hills surrounding a monastery or in and
around churchyards is often all that remains of the once extensive forests. The EOC
maintains a long tradition of conservation. The reasons are both spiritual and material (as a
source of fuel wood and as shade during mass and religious festivals). Juniper (Juniperus
species) is favored for artifacts. The woodlands occupied by church and monastic
communities are also important as habitats for biodiversity, sources of germplasm, and as
indicator sites of the original ecological landscape (ICBR, 2003).
According to IBCR (2003), the forest at Debre libanos monastery boasts the patches of
natural forests. The natural tree cover of the monastery consists of three distinct areas.
These are large Olea europea species. Cuspidata woodlands, mixed woodland with patches
of planted Eucalyptus and to the south west there is a pure Eucalyptus plantation. The high
canopy tree species in the mixed forest of the monastery consists of trees such as Prunus
africana, Juniperus procera, Olea europea ssp. cuspidata, Millettia ferruginea, Dovyalis
26
abyssinica and Schefflera abyssinica. The shrub layer includes Carissa spinarum,
Capparis tomentosa and Myrsine africana, the forest is also rich in highland biome birds
and other wild
Debre libanos monastery forest was a heaven for wild life including bush buck, leopard,
pig, and warthog, in addition to a variety of birds, reptiles and amphibians due to its dense
forest. The wildlife and plant species have been significantly reduced from time to time.
There are several reasons, for the diminishing of forest size. The most significant being the
multiple use of the forest that was permitted after the revolution in 1974. Nevertheless, the
monastic community continues to depend on the forest for fuel wood. The monks are
permitted to take as much wood as is necessary for their fuel. Although, they are allowed
to cut trees which are carefully selected among those that showed signs of aging and decay,
but young trees especially Acacia abyssinica and Prunus africana are suffer from cutting.
Some tree species are associated with belief system.Specially Olive tree is linked to Saint
Teklehaimanot which was brought to Debre libanos Monastery by the saint Teklehaimanot
(IBCR, 2003).
27
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Description of the Study Area
3.1.1. Geographical location and climate
The study was conducted in Debra libanos Monastery, located in Debra libanos Woreda
(i.e. one of the Woreda in the Oromia Regional State which is named after the important
monastery of Debre libanos) (appendix.6). Debre libanos Woreda is bordered on the
northwest by Gerar Jarso, on the south west by Yaya Gulele, on the south and south east by
Wauchule and on the north east by Amhara region
Debre libanos Monastery is located 104 km from Addis Ababa, capital city of Ethiopia to
the Northern part of the Country and 14km from zonal city, Fiche in the Northern Shoa
Zone of Oromia Regional State. It is located at an altitude of 2400m above sea level whilst
the rim of the valley rises to over 2560m. Geographically, it is located between 09042'43ꞌꞌN
latitude and 38050' 51ꞌꞌE longitude. The drainage from the surrounding highlands drops
steeply into the flat land of the gorge where the monastery is located.
The study area is characterized by two rainy seasons, summer and spring (locally known as
Ganna (summer) and Arfaasaa (spring) rains respectively. Summer season lasts for about
four months (June to September), of which a peak rain fall is in July, while spring season
lasts for three months (March to May). The mean annual rainfall is 1200 mm and means
annual temperature 23oC. The mean length of dry season(s) of the study area lasts for four
months (NSAO, 2012).
The agro ecological zone of Debre libanos Woreda ranges from tropical to temperate
climate condition. About 60% of the total area of the Woreda is characterized by temperate
climatic condition, while about 30% and 10% of the total area of the Woreda are
characterized by subtropical and tropical conditions respectively (Debre libanos Woreda
agricultural office, 2013)
28
3.1.2. Land use profile, vegetation cover, soil and land use pattern
Debra libanos Woreda covers a total area of 18,700 hectares (2.1%) of total area of North
Shoa zone. The data of land use land cover in the Woreda indicates that majority of its land
is intensively and moderately cultivated. The open wood lands are found on the hill tops
which indicate as there is serious deforestation. Of total lands in the Woreda, about 643
hectares covered by forest of which includes forest of Debre libanos monastery (which is
one of the remaining natural forest patch in Northern Oromia Regional States), cultivated
land 14,400 hectares, grazing land 2007 hectares, degraded land (barren land) 550 hectares,
Construction and others uses 1100 hectares (North Shoa Zone Socio- Economic Profile,
2010).
The soil of the study area comprises of clay(63%), loam(27%) and sandy soil(10%) a
texture which is characterized as dark grey and fertile, which indicates eroded top-soil
deposits from the lava plateaus (Tekleheimanot, 2002). The monastery is situated at the
edge of the highland plateau on the flat ground below the first escarpment of the Jama
gorge. The sides of the gorge descend in a series of parallel escarpments towards the river.
The first escarpment (the surface rock of the plateau) is marked by massive cliffs formed
by the thick layers of basaltic lava and this leads to the flat land where the monastery is
located.
3.1.3. Population
According to population projection of 2014 National Census Report (NCR) total
population of Debre libanos Woreda is 55,637, of whom 28,632 are men and 27,005
women; 12,543 of its population are urban dwellers and 43,094 are rural dwellers.
3.1.4. Main Economic activities
Agriculture is one of the most fundamental sources of occupations which help almost all
rural areas of Ethiopia. Similarly, in the study area, the predominant source of livelihood
was both cultivation of crops and animal rearing. Most woody plants have been destroyed
due to the expansion of agricultural lands by the growing population. Some of the existing
remnant forests were mainly found around the mountain ridges, steep slopes, churches and
in enclosure areas.
29
3.2. Research Design
Descriptive survey method was used for socio economic study in which out of eleven
kebeles three were selected purposively due to their proximity to DLM. In the case of
vegetation sampling, a systematic sampling procedure was used to collect the vegetation
data information. The vegetation sampling was conducted on quadrats (plots) of 20m by
20m in the forest of monastery which were laid on parallel transect line. For the socioeconomic survey religious scholars, agricultural expertise and local community were
considered
3.3. Sample Size and Sampling Technique
To get raw data for this study, information from local community (church followers)’
perception toward forest conservation and conservation practice in monastery compound
and outside were considered. For this reason three nearest kebeles to the monastery forest
were selected purposively. Addisalem, Inagotam and Ayatarasho were targeted kebeles for
socio economic survey. In order to capture the church community’s perception on
conservation of forest and related problems, the sampling procedure was a combination of
both purposive and random sampling techniques. The first step was being purposive on
selection of kebeles for study based on their proximity to monastery and the next step was
selecting of households from targeted kebeles in simple random sampling method as
indicated in Figure (1) below.
Woreda
Debre libanos
Kebeles
Addis alem
Ayatarasho
Inagotam
Householdes
Figure 1. Stages of sample selection as developed in this study
30
To determine the sample size, the following formula was employed (Kothari, 2004)
(p(1−p)Z2
n=
e2
=
(p(q)Z2
e2
Where: n = Sample size, q+p=1
P= Estimated proportion of respondents who have knowledge. As the proportion was not
known, 0.5 was used as P value to obtain maximum number of the respondents. Z= the
number of standard error corresponding to 95 percent confidence interval which is 1.96. e
= the margin of error that the researcher tolerates which is 0.08. Therefore:
The total number of sample to be included in the study was
n=
0.5(1−0.5)x1.96
(0.08)2
= 150
Based on the above formulae, 150 households from three kebeles were selected for
questionnaire purpose. Further to identify the sample households random systematic
sampling procedure was employed. The sample distribution among the kebeles was done
using probability proportion to population size (pops) method Table (1) below.
Table 1 Total household heads of the three kebeles and sample size taken from them
Kebeles
Total number of HHs
Sample size taken
Proportion of the total
Addisalem
766
80
0.53
Ayatarasho
316
33
0.25
Inagotam
347
37
0.22
Total
1429
150
1.00
Source: Respective kebeles’ Administration office and self- calculation
In addition to the above sample taken, the researcher also selected twenty (20) individuals
for direct interview from the woreda’s Agricultural office, Community elders, church
scholars, monastery guard who were assigned at community level for interview purpose.
Those interviewed respondents’ were closely related to the issue of forest conservation.
Three Focus Group Discussion (FGD) were formed one from each kebeles
31
Table 2 Selected Respondents for interview
No
Respondents Category
1
Monastery administrative
5
2
Church scholars
5
3
Agriculture expertise
4
4
Community elders and forest guards
6
Total
Number of interviewed individuals
20
Field survey (2015)
3.4. Vegetation Sampling and Data Collection Techniques
A reconnaissance survey was carried out, before the actual data collection, in January
2015, in order to have an impression of the sampling sites and to determine the sampling
methods to be used for vegetation data collection. The vegetation sampling was done
systematically following the line transect method described by Bullock (1996). Nine
Parallel line transects were laid across the forests and plots measuring 20 m ×20 m, were
established along the line transects at 100 m intervals. The first transect line was aligned
randomly at one side of the forest around the gate of the monastery followed by the
remaining transect laid out at 100 m intervals from each other. Accordingly a total of forty
five quadrats /plots/ of 0.04 ha (20 x20m) each was sampled on all transect line from the
forests of DLM. The four corners of the plot were marked and the square plot was
delineated using bright ribbon. The woody plants species, within the working units (in the
drawn plots) were identified and recorded. Additional, woody plants species outside the
plots boundary within 10m following methods of Fikadu et al. (2014) were collected and
noted as present for the complete list of woody species diversity within DLMF.
The diameter was measured at breast height (DBH, 1.3 m height from the ground) to the
size class distribution of trees in a sampling plot following the method of Alemayehu
(2002). Species diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 3 cm and height >2m in forest were
individually counted, their DBH measured and numbered and frequencies were also
estimated for description of population structure following the method of Samson et al.
(2010). The height (m) and DBH of species within the plot were measured using a meter
marked stick and a caliper respectively.
32
To complete this task, species in each sample plot were identified and their local names
were recorded in the field with the help of experienced local community and forestry
expert. Written materials were also used to identify the woody species encountered. The
species those difficult for identification in the field, their voucher specimens were collected
and identification was made at the National Herbarium at Addis Ababa University then
identification was done by referring to the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea: volume 6 and 8
(Edwards, et al. 2000), and Useful trees and shrubs of Ethiopia (Azene, 2007).
3.5. Source of Data
To meet the stated objectives, the data were collected from both primary and secondary
sources. Primary data were obtained through both formal and informal interviews. A
questionnaire for basic information at the household level was designed prior the fields
work to collect both qualitative and quantitative information. The questionnaire was
designed to obtain information on respondents’ religious based knowledge of forest
conservation, perception and practice towards forest conservation threats to monastery
forests, Current status of monastery forest, over all role of monastery in saving its forest,
EOC (DLM) conservation approach and measure to be taken to stop disturbance to forest.
The interviews were helped with check list questions (semi structured questionnaires)
accompanied by personal observations which allowed the author to judge the reliability of
the answers given. In the case of observations it was used in collecting information on
physical aspects of the forest of the monastery.
Secondary data were obtained largely through the analysis of various documents relevant
to the study from both published and unpublished documents. This includes institutional
reports (both monastery administration and agricultural office), books, records, and
journals/papers/articles which provide baseline information for the study.
3.6. Instruments of Data Collection
In order to capture the perception of followers of EOC community on conservation of
forests in monastery yard and the current status of forest within Debre libanos monastery,
questionnaires interview. Field observation (visual observation) and FGD were used.
33
Questionnaires: - The study used questionnaire survey method which allows capturing the
perceptions of sample households on wider issues, to generate the required data. Based on
the research objectives both open ended and close ended questionnaires were prepared (the
questionnaires' was structured). Before the actual data collection via questionnaire,
questions were pre-tested and modified with the help of few selected respondents. The
improvement was made on the format of the questionnaire and final questionnaires were
administered to one 150 respondents from the selected kebeles (Addisalem 80 households),
Ayatarasho (33 households) and Inagotam (37 households). The variation in the number of
samples from kebeles was as a result of differences in the total number of household heads
living in the kebeles from which samples were taken proportionally.
Interview: - The interview was also used as tool to capture the general overview of the
contribution the EOC has in forest conservation, and used to triangulate the views of
different stakeholders and practice toward forest conservation in church (monastery). For
this purpose questions were prepared and key informant interview was conducted with
selected individuals from church scholars, community elders, Agricultural experts, forest
guards. A semi-structured interview was used which combines a pre-determined set of
open questions and further explore particular themes or responses. The entire interviewed
individuals were above eighteen years of age.
Field observation: - During the study, field observation was made on land use types,
extent of forest degradation, its conservation practices, forest boundary, grazing areas,
forest types, activities allowed in forest, reforestation activities and nature of forest was
considered. Because these all helps the researcher to reduce complexities and even to make
the research work more fruitful through cross checking the church followers’ responses as
well as information generated from key informants interview regarding on and it makes
easy and simple understanding of the findings.
FGD:- The other method of data collection was Focus group discussion (FGD) with
groups of composed of elders, church community, youth and landless household heads.
The aim of focus group was to obtain critical reflections from the community on forest
related issues and to triangulate data gathered through interviews.
34
3.7. Methods of Data Analysis and Presentation
3.7.1. Socio-economic data analysis
On the basis of the data that were collected through both primary and secondary sources,
the researcher adopted both qualitative methods and descriptive statistical techniques. It
was analyzed and interpreted in accordance with the nature of the data. Descriptive
statistical data obtained from the sample households were compared and contrasted. Data
obtained from interview, FGD (focus group discussion) and field observation were also
analyzed qualitatively and then interpreted in terms of theoretical concepts in combination
with the related literatures to draw the conclusion.
Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version
20 and Microsoft excel. Calculation of the percentage was used as a tool of analysis for
interpreting of the qualitative information gathered from respondents. To accomplish the
analysis of the data for better understanding of the issues covered in the study, the data
were analyzed by using descriptive statistical techniques (like percentage and frequency of
occurrence) provided by the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20 and
micro soft excel (2007).
3.7.2. Vegetation data analysis
The collected data were used to compute species structure of richness, diversity, evenness,
density, relative density, frequency, relative frequency and population structure of woody
species within DLMF as indicated in summary of Appendix(1)
3.7.2.1. Woody species density and Frequency
As indicated in summary of (Appendix 1) the following species parameters were computed
following the method of Kent (2011). Density of woody species was determined by
converting the total number of individuals of woody species encountered in all the
quadrants to the equivalent number per hectare. Relative density was calculated as the
percentage of the density of each species divided by the total number of all species ha-1.
Frequency, which refers to the degree of dispersion of individual species in an area, was
expressed as the ratio of the number of quadrats in which a species occurred to the total
35
number of plots, whereas relative frequency was computed as the ratio of the frequency of
the species to the sum total of the frequency of all species.
Density (%) =
Number of individuals of species in all quadrats
∗ 100
Total area sampled
Frequency(%) =
Number of quadrats in which species ocurred
∗ 100
Total number of quadrats sampled
3.7.2.2. Woody species Richness, Evenness and Diversity
Species richness (S) is the total number of different woody species recorded in each of the
sampled plots (Magurran, 2004). Accordingly Species richness (number of species) of the
study area was determined from the total number of woody species recorded.
The diversity of woody species (D) was analyzed by using Shannon Diversity Index (H')
(Magurran, 2004). The index takes into account both the species richness and proportion of
each species in all sampled plots of each sampled plots. The following formula was used to
analyze woody species diversity.
S
H   pi ln pi ………………………………… (1)
i 1
Where, H' is the Index of Species Diversity; S is the number of species; Pi=n/N is the
proportion of individuals found in the ith species (ranges 0 to 1); n=number of individuals
of a given species N=total number of individuals found (Shannon and Wiener, 1949).,
Pi=proportion of S made up of the ith species (relative abundance). Species evenness or
equitability (J), a measure of similarity of the abundance of the different woody species in
the sampled plots, was analyzed by using Shannon’s Evenness or Equitability Index (E)
(Magurran, 2004). The following formula was used to calculate species evenness
J= Σ pi lnpi / ln S= H’/lnS………………………………………… (2)
36
Where, H' is Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index; S is the number of species found when all
sample plots are pooled; Pi is the proportion of total individuals in the ith species, lnS is
the natural logarithm of the total number of species evenness (a measure of species
abundance).
3.7.2.3. Woody species DBH distribution, height and population structure
The height and DBH of woody plant species within sampled plots were measured and
recorded by using meter marked stick and caliper respectively to describe population
structure. For population structure analysis, the woody species of ≥3cm DBH and >2m
height encountered were taken from all sampled plots following method of Samson et al.
(2011). Accordingly two hundred individuals of woody plant species of fifty two species
encountered were grouped into nine diameter class conventionally with an interval of 5
(<5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-25, 25-30, 30-35, 35-40, ≥40cm) following the method of
Haile et al. (2008). Then population structure of woody species in study area was assessed
through bar graph constructed by using the (frequency) of individuals of each species (Yaxis) categorized into nine diameters classes (X-axis). The vertical vegetation structure was
also derived from the height of the tree, to classify in the three canopies by rough
estimation in all plots and they were grouped into three vertical height classes (large tree ≥
15 m, medium tree 5 - 15 m, small tree < 5 m).
37
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Socio Economic Survey
4.1.1. Characteristics of study population
A total of one hundred fifty sample households had completed the questionnaire survey of
which (80.7%) male and (19.3%) female were involved in socio economic survey.
Concerning the age of respondents, significance proportion (56.7 %) was found in the age
group 41-60 followed by (21-40). As far as family size of households concerned large
proportion of the respondents (67.4%) had >5 family size (Table 1)
In regards to educational qualification, a high proportion of the respondents (79.3%) had
completed one form of formal schooling and the rest (20.7) had non- formal schooling.
More than half (54%) of the respondents were engaged in on farm activities while off-farm
accounted for (46%). As far as the respondents religious back ground is concerned,
(99.3%) respondents were the followers of EOC residing in the area for long times.
Table 3. Percentage distribution of respondents by their Family profile and socio economic
characteristics
Family profile
Sex
Age
Family size
Socio economic characteristics
Occupation
Educational back ground
Owning farm land
Religious back ground
Categories
Male
Female
18-20
21-40
41-60
>60
≤5
>5
No
121
29
4
47
85
14
49
98
%
80.7
19.3
2.7
31.3
56.7
9.3
32.6
67.4
Farm activities
Non- farm activities
formal education
None formal education
81
69
119
31
54
46
79.3
20.7
Have
Have no
Orthodox Christianity
Protestant
96
54
149
1
64
36
99.3
0.7
38
4.1.2. Potential and role of EOC in forest conservation
To have impression on the role the monastery has in conserving forest, respondents were
asked some selected questions which reflect the relationship between forest and religious
of EOC. Accordingly those questions were captured based on three scales (Strongly agree
(SA), Agree (A), Disagree (DA) as indicated in Table (4). Of the total statement selected
three of them (1, 2, 3 and 7) were categorized as (SA) by more than half of the
respondents, which accounts 63.3%, 58%, 72.7% and 82% respectively. On the other hand
statement (4, 5 and 6) were categorized as (D) by almost all respondents, which accounts
97.3%, 99.3% and 92% respectively. The high disagreement (99.3%) was recorded for
statement "Protecting monastery forest doesn't means protecting the forest of the country.
According to the result of this study, trees in monastery forest and outside monastery forest
(other area) were not respected and treated equally (92%); implies that the trees in
monastery forest were respected than trees in other areas among the followers of EOC in
the study area. All respondents believe that, the word of God is always in favor of tree and
they consider trees in monastery forest need to be conserved and treated than that of trees
in non holy places. Contrary to this, Chandran and Ramachandra (2008) states that, human
being have the domination on everything move on the earth including plants and animals,
which may jeopardize their life. This disagree with the finding of the study area, that
might due to high regard of local community around DLM for the forest of holy places.
Of the total respondents, almost all (98.7%) believed that human beings have no right to
destroy the forest may be liked. Hence destroying the forest of holy places (both monastery
and church) considered to be against the religious believes. Similarly, conserving forest in
name of religious (EOC) needs to supported as said by all of respondents. About (72.7%)
of respondents strongly agree whereas (27.3%) of them agree on the statement "conserving
forest in the name of religious need to be supported".
From interview with the key informants the following result concerning traditional forest
conservation approach were obtained. The church community and the church itself
associate many events with respecting of trees. Trees have been symbolized on several
occasions as EOC church education. Among these events festival events and burial system
are mostly associated with the trees in church and monastery compound considered as
sacred trees in EOC. Of festival events, Easter associated with olivea tree (The festival in
39
which EOC believe that the God forgive his peace for people of the world) while
Euphorbia abyssinica associated with burial system (church community prefer to plant
trees on burial ground rather than building decorated sculptures on the tomb, since the
church followers associated those trees with symbol of Eden genet (paradise), where every
EOC followers wish to have for eternity life.
Conservation of forest in name of religious in the study area was widely accepted by the
followers as means of conservation. In this case it was acknowledged by all respondents
that, 'Conserving forest in name of religious need to be supported'. The experience of
conserving trees in the name of religion was mostly accepted by local community.
In line with the finding of this study Alemayehu (2007) also stated that, local communities
do have higher respect and thrust in the EOC than other local institutions, which has made
the church the central institution and platform for socio-economic issues of the people. The
positive attitude to the resources protected by the monastery and the acceptance of the
monastery and church tradition could thus be an opportunity for forest ecosystem
conservation and restoration.
40
Table 4. Percentage distributions of respondents on agree and disagree for selected
questionnaire statements.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Statements
Church education is always in
favor of its forest conservation
Conserving forest in name of
religious(EOC) need to supported
As bible taught human beings
have given the right to destroy
other nature, particularly forest
Protecting
monastery
forest
doesn't mean protecting the forest
of the country
Trees in monastery forest and
trees in other non holy places
need to be conserved and treated
equally
Conservation of forest in the
Monastery has great contribution
for the country at large
SA
No
87
%
58
A
No
63
%
37
DA
No
0
%
0%
109
72.7
41
27.3
0
0%
0
0
2
1.3
148
98.7
0
0
1
0.7
149
99.3
0
0
12
8
138
92
123
82
27
18
0
0
Key (SA=Strongly agree, A=Agree, DA=Disagree)
The monastery forests existed for centuries because of effort from church followers. The
result of this study implies that forest of the monastery escape deforestation due to high
regard given by local community to their religious issue which encouraged forest
conservation via church education. According to key informant interview, the church value
forests of its compound from religious perspective which were supported with church
education as follows. The word of God in the holy bible, (Deut.20:19) favor and order for
conservation and preservation of trees which states that,
"You shall not destroy the trees there of by forcing an axe against them, for you may eat
of them, and you shall not cut them down. Are trees in the fields men that they should be
besieged by you?”
The implication of above point is that, the church followers believe in bible taught and
obey to the church rule that might be the reason why trees and other natural resources in
church compounds were much respected and survived for centuries by in EOC compounds.
From the interview with key informant, the obtained result was summarized as follows.
Churches and monasteries are considered as holy places and as thought of EOC, those holy
41
places are the most respected places along with the nature in its compound including
forests. Plants found in these holy places are recognized as sacred. The trees in the church
and monastery compounds are symbolic of the presence of angels guarding the church and
example of Eden genet (symbolized with Eden genet) for which all Christianity wish to
have eternity life in. Above all the church followers seek eternity life and Eden genet is a
place where all Christianity wishes to head for destiny. The holy places are precious
heritages passed from many generations with the sacrifice of holy fathers and mothers and
the places where followers worship for God in free mind and have a rest under. They have
got blessings of many saints beneath their roots where their holy flesh rested in peace as
the result. Therefore, trees in the monastery compound were not assign for cutting unless
for the purpose of the monastery.
The above point clearly indicate that church has deep rooted knowledge of forest
conservation which was an indication a potential church has in convincing its followers to
care for nature particularly of forest in church and monastery compound.
Currently forests in Ethiopia are facing great pressure due to population growth which was
also the problem in the study woreda. However, forests of monastery are relatively an
outstanding example where one can observe the remaining natural forest patch in the study
woreda which was supported by respondents evidence as shown in Table(5) below. As far
as knowledge of biodiversity was concerned, (95.33%) of respondents believed that, Debre
libanos monastery had dense natural forest which is rich in biodiversity than other areas in
the woreda. Among those who said the forest is rich in biodiversity, majority of
respondents believed that this was due to effort from monastery itself. The report of
interview with agricultural office also confirms that, currently the remaining natural forest
patch in woreda is confined to the monastery compound.
Comparatively monastery own dense natural forest than other forest areas in Debre libanos
woreda as shown in Table (5) below. This was due to good conservation practice by
monastery administration as indicated by(54%) of respondents and also a significant
proportion of respondents (37.3%) pointed out that the good will of church community in
conservation was unquestionably the main reason the monastery forest existed. It is
possible to summarize that the monastery forest remained for long time not due to presence
42
of special government program given to the area prior to other areas in Ethiopia rather it
was the effort of the monastery itself.
The study of Alemayehu (2002) on church forest of South Gonder stated that if a traveler
can see a patch of indigenous old aged trees in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, most
probably it is sure that there is an Orthodox Church in the middle. This observation is not
only a recent phenomenon, but goes back many years as the event of deforestation has been
occurring in the area for centuries. The result doesn't mean ignoring the effort of other
religious institution in forest conservation.
Table 5. Percentage distribution of respondents on presence of diverse natural forest in
DLW and reasons
Alternatives
Where do you observe diverse
On farmer land
natural forest in your woreda?
In other protected areas
2
1.33
5
3.33
143
95.33
5
3.3
56
37.3
Forest of Monastery is not cut for any
means
1
0.7
Good conservation by monastery
81
54
In Monastery area
If you say in monastery why?
Response
No
%
Special government conservation
program
Good will of church community
Key (DLW=Debre libanos woreda)
Concerning the governing rule, the result of Table (6) below revealed that the presence of
large and old natural forest in monastery were due to presence of strong church rule against
deforestation(59.33%). On the other hands (24.7%) of respondents pointed out that it was
due to moral rule related to faith. Only few (16%) associated the reason with the presence
of strong government rule for forest of monastery prior to forests of other areas. From this
result both moral rule and church (monastery) rule were main reason for the presence of
forest of monastery. The result of interview with key informants confirms that, besides to
the church (monastery) rule, the monastery guided by government rules which is also
applied for forest of other areas.
43
The study of (Siyanda, 1997) similarly stated that, in forest conservation programs if EOC
is taken as an entry point, it can be argued that success might begins there. Because it will
have a cumulative knowledge of thousands of years, experiences of many people, wisdom
of the spirit mediums, the wise council of elders and the leadership of religious leaders,
institutions in managing and conserving resources with strong sanctions(gizet) for outliers
which is a great potential EOC has to convince large community.
The result of Table(6) below indicates that, the presence of strong monastery rule (which
refuse deforestation) is an identity the monastery has, probably the potential monastery
developed over generation which might help the monastery in protecting the forests of its
compound for long years. This strong rule against deforestation may use as an entry point
to bring the concept of sustainable forest management.
Table 6. Percentage distribution of respondents on the reason why monastery boast large
forest
Reasons
Good conservation of forest in
monastery when compared to Strong government rule(legal rule)
other area is due to
Strong Monastery rule
Moral rule related to religion
Total
Field survey (2015)
Respondents
No
%
24
16
89
37
150
59.3
24.7
100
4.1.3. Stakeholder analysis
From the result of Table(7) below concerning the idea of which rule need to dominate in
forest conservation for the wellbeing of monastery forest, all three stake holders
acknowledge that it is better if church rule (monastery) dominate to conserve the forest of
its own land. But the agricultural office perceive as it is good if government rule also come
into play as dominant.
Regarding the owner of the monastery forest there was similar interests among the
stakeholders that are to be under the control of monastery rule for future. All stakeholders
develop the similar view that the owner and the fully ownership had to given for the
monastery itself. All argued that the forest should be retained under the monastery
administration with full ownership
44
In the case of better management for forest of monastery almost similar idea were
forwarded by stakeholders. As to EOC, monastery needs to take a model role in forest
conservation prior to other stakeholders, whereas as view of Agricultural office, it is better
to keep indigenous knowledge of church in forest conservation and get technical support
from government. As suggestion of Community the conservation of monastery forest is not
only burden on monastery administration, but also government needs to help the
monastery.
In the case of how conservation of monastery forest can be useful in large scale, different
ideas were suggested by stakeholders. As to monastery's suggestion Church scholars can
convince the local community to conserve the forests, even on their farm lands. The
agricultural office believes that the knowledge of monastery can use as input to conserve
forests in larger scale (at national level).
The EOC expects recognition of the old age church knowledge in forest conservation and
the acceptance of the full ownership of the church by the state and respected bodies, legal
protection technical and financial support from the government in developing conservation
program of the church/monastery to larger scale.
Table 7. Opinion survey among stakeholders on selected issues of monastery forest
Statement
Stakeholders
EOC
AO
Which rule need to dominate in
forest conservation for
wellbeing of monastery forest?
Who do you prefer to own the
monastery forest future?
What should have to do for best
management of the monastery
forest?
MR
MR supported by GR
C
MR
Monastery
Monastery
Monastery
Monastery need
to take a model
role in forest
conservation
Keep indigenous
knowledge of church
conservation and
provide technical
support from
government
Monastery
Government
have to help the
monastery
Knowledge of
monastery can use as
input
Community
(followers)fully
accept what
church order
Who should have to praise most
for saving monastery forest
from being destruction?
Monastery and
Community
How conservation of monastery
forest can be useful in large
scale?
Church scholars
can convince the
local community
Key (MR=Monastery Rule, AO=Agricultural Office, C=Community)
Monastery
45
To have information on the role of different stakeholders in conserving church forest
(DLMF), respondents were asked to give a rank for each stakeholders based on their
knowledge and experience. Accordingly the result of survey as indicated by Table(8)
revealed
that
majority
of
respondents
give
the
first
rank
for
church
administration(monastery) shows that, church administration ranked first by most of
respondents(55.3%) followed by local community (followers of EOC) which was ranked
first by(25.3%) respondents as indicated in Table(8).
Similarly church scholars were ranked third by majority of respondents (42.7%) followed
by local community and government bodies. On the other hand the role of government
bodies was ranked fourth by majority of respondents (39.3%), which indicates that it was
preceded by all three major stakeholders namely church administration, local community
and church scholars took a rank of first, second and third respectively. The fifth rank was
that of agricultural experts and government bodies which represented by (40%) and
(54.7%) respectively. From the result it can be easily summarized that from all
stakeholders both church administration and local community contribute a much for the
existence of monastery forest. The result revealed that, much is expected from both
government bodies and individuals of agricultural professionals to support the conservation
of monastery forest
Similarly the study of Alemayehu (2002) on forest churches of Gonder, Ethiopia argued
with above result, explain that church forest doesn't exist merely by chance, it is from
effort of Church community, in which the church forest can't exist without church.
Table 8. Opinion survey on ranking the role of stakeholders in forest conservation
Alternatives
Ranking the role
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
No
%
No
%
No
%
No
%
No
%
Agricultural experts
_
_
_
_
4
2.7
45
30
82
54.7
Church scholars
29
19.3
14
9.3
64
42.7
46
30.7
_
_
Local community
38
25.3
62
41.3
50
33.3
_
_
_
_
Government bodies
_
_
3
2
28
18.7
59
39.3
60
40
NGOs
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
MA
83
59
39.4
8
5.3
_
55.4
Key (MA=Monastery Administration, _ none of respondents response it)
_
46
Local community knowledge and experience in forest conservation is a key input in
program of sustainable forest management. To have an over view on the role of
monastery/church/ in conservation, respondents were asked to rank the roles as per their
experience. The four ranking scale were used (high, medium, low, no role) as shown in
Table (9). Majority of respondents (94.7%) rank the role of monastery as high and (78.7%)
of respondents acknowledge that the role of the monastery community in conservation as
high role. Only few (5.3%) respondents rank the role of monastery as medium. Both
monastery administration and monastery community were labeled as high rank by more
than half of respondents. From this result it can be summarized that, monastery forest
existed because of the effort of these stakeholders.
Table 9. Percentage distribution of respondents on ranking the role of stakeholders
Alternatives
MA
Cm
Gv.
No
%
No
%
No
%
High
142
94.7
118
78.7
34
22.7
Medium
8
5.3
29
19.3
98
65.3
Low
_
_
3
2
18
12
No role
_
_
_
_
_
_
Total
150
100.0
150
100.0
150
100.0
Key (MA=Monastery Administration, Cm=Community, Gv=Government, _=none of respondents response
it)
The similar study by Tullu (2011) on the forest of Rama Kidist Kidane Miheret monastery
revealed the same result with Table(9) above which indicates that the church forest lived
for a century due to the commitment of holy fathers and mothers who devoted as the
natural resource ambassadors without any reward for the provision of biodiversity
conservation.
Of identified reason why local community (followers of EOC) give more respect for forest
of the monastery/church, than other non-religious forest areas, the result indicate that,
moral rule which related to religious view and strong monastery administration rule for
conservation were the reason that enforce them to care more for monastery/church forests
as shown in Table(10). Accordingly the former accounts (44.7%) whereas the latter
47
accounts about (53.3%). Only very few of respondents (2%) point out presence of special
government rule against deforestation as means of enforcement to give more care for
church forest than that of other areas. The study of Demel (2006) similarly argued with the
above finding that the fragments church forests of EOC escaped deforestation because of
their religious and spiritual importance; they are protected by, and are an integral part of,
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. From this finding it is clear to say that there was no such
special government rule for only DLMF conservation rather as a country in general.
Table 10. Opinion survey on reason to give more care for forest of monastery than other
forests
Alternative reasons
You give more care for
forest in the monastery than
other non-religious forest
areas due to,
Respondents
No
%
Moral rule which related to religious
view
Special government rule for
conservation
Strong Monastery administration rule
67
44.7
3
2
80
53.3
Total
150
100
4.1.4. Perception of EOC community on forest conservation
Data on role of EOC in forest conservation was collected along with the knowledge and
perception of church followers on forest resource conservation to get the general over view
of the monastery contribution in saving the forest resources. Respondents' perception
toward forest of monastery were captured based on scale of (strongly agree, agree, disagree
and strongly disagree) on major selected questions(Table 12) which were assign to capture
the perception of respondents about forests of the monastery and its conservation practice.
The present statement making up of statement code and the code were given to each
statement as indicated in Table (11) below.
48
Table 11. Code given to selected attitudinal and perception statements
S. No
1
CG
S1
2
3
S2
S3
4
S4
5
S5
6
7
S6
S7
8
S8
Statement
Monastery conservation approaches need to be encouraged for future
wellbeing of monastery forest
Forest in Monastery remain save for long years due to strong church rule
Traditional forest conservation practices in church/monastery compound
should have to replaced by modern knowledge
Old age trees species in Monastery need to be cut and replaced by easily
grown and useable eucalyptus trees.
In science of forest conservation, uniting church knowledge into current
forest conservation program is very important
Monastery forests are only heritage of monastery administration
Role of churches/monastery in forest conservation have to get high
recognition from government
Traditionally, in most Ethiopian orthodox churches, followers prefer to
plant trees on tomb of buried body rather than decorated building. This
need to be encouraged.
Key (1 =S 1, 2=S2, 3=S3, 4=S4, 5=S5, 6=S6, 7=S7 and 8=S8 where, S=Statement and subscripts (1-8) indicate
statement number, CG=Code Given)
Based on Table (11) above, as shown in Table (12) below, a great degree of similarity was
observed in the responses of the respondents of which five of the eight statements (S1, S2,
S5, S7, S8) were produced an agreement (strongly agree) by more than half of respondents
which ranges from 58% to 88%. The highest percentage of strongly agreement was
observed for (S7) which account 88% of total respondents followed by S2 (78.7%).
Contrary to this the highest strongly dis-agreement (SD) was recorded for statement S3
(92.7%) followed by S4, which states "Old age trees species in Monastery need to be cut
and replaced by easily grown and useable eucalyptus trees" had got strongly disagreement
by 80.7% of the respondents. This is an indication of the favorable perception hold on
monastery forest by community. From selected statements, S8 which states "Traditionally,
in most of Ethiopian Orthodox Churches/Monastery /specially in rural areas people prefer
to plant trees on tomb of buried body rather than build decorated building this need to be
encouraged" had got less disagreement (6%). By implication local community appreciate
planting of trees rather than building on buried of died body.
Most of respondents want to see diverse natural forest than planted forest and that is why
(97.4%) of them refuse (disagree to statement with statement four (S4).By implication they
were not interested in the conversion of natural forest to man made. The survey result of
the study indicate that, all respondents(100%) explained that conservation of plants and its
49
presence in Monastery (churches) compound is important and need to be encouraged Table
(12) below.
These attributes of the conservation measures may influence community' adoption
decision. In view of this, respondents were refused the domination of modern conservation
method over that of religious based conservation strategies for forest management. From
this result the interpretation is that, respondents believed religious conservation methods as
more effective than the modern ones in monastery compound and this might be due to their
long years adapted to the custom of the monastery. The result of FGD confirmed that,
comparing with their relative advantages; maintaining the indigenous knowledge of
religious institution is best option for future management of church/monastery/ forests in
Ethiopia but it require more community awareness. Similar observation was stated by
Emiru (2002) perception of local people is a key issue to the successful management of
communal resources.
In line with this finding the study of Alemayehu (2004) also states that, Some churches and
their forests may date back to the fourth century, and all are remnants of Ethiopia’s historic
Afromontane forests. To their followers, they are a sacred symbol of the Garden of Eden to
be loved and cared for, but not worshipped
Table 12. Parentage distribution of respondents on importance of forest in monastery and
its conservation practice/status
Statement
s
Options
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
No
%
No
%
No
%
No
%
S1
113
75.3
37
24.7
_
_
_
_
S2
118
78.7
32
21.3
_
_
_
_
S3
_
_
_
_
11
7.3
139
92.7
S4
_
_
4
2.6
25
16.7
121
80.7
S5
87
58
63
42
_
_
_
_
S6
_
_
14
9.3
102
68
34
22.7
S7
132
88
18
22
_
_
_
_
S8
79
52.7
62
41.3
9
6
_
_
Key (Statement 1=S1, 2=S2, 3=S3, 4=S4, 5=S5, 6=S6, 7=S7, 8=S8 and _ refers none of respondents response it)
from Table (11) above
50
Respondents' reaction toward the presence of forest and its conservation in monastery were
captured based on four alternatives of which (VI) was scaled by majority of respondents
(78%) as shown by Table (13) below. While (22%) of respondents believed that presence
of forests in monastery is important (I). This indicated that, all respondents explained that
conservation and presence of forests in monastery were important. On the other hand none
of the respondents rank it as less important and not important. The result was favored the
presence of the forest in monastery compound. All of the respondents of the surveyed
possess positive attitudes towards forest of the monastery irrespective to their demographic
and socio economic characteristics and want to see the church and monastery to be
enveloped by forests. Contrary to this, Chandran and Ramachandra (2008) states that,
human being have the domination on everything move on the earth which may jeopardize
the life of other natures including of forest, was dis agree with the finding of this study,
that is probably due to high regard of local community for the holy places which is
associated with religious back ground.
Table 13. Percentage distribution of respondents on presence of forest in church and
monastery
Presence of forest
Alternatives
and its conservation
in monastery
VI
I
No
%
No
117
78
33
LI
%
22
NI
Total
No
%
No
%
No
%
0
0
0
0
150
100
Source: Field Survey (2015)
Key (VI=Very important, I=Important, LI=Less important, NI=Not important)
4.1.5. Future ownership of monastery forest for better management
As information obtained from opinion survey Table (14) shows that almost all (99.3%)
respondents want to see (prefer and suggest) the best option for conservation of forest in
monastery for future to be owned and administered by monastery as before and continue
for future for sustainability of forest management. Only (0.7%) of respondents prefer that
the monastery forest need to be under the control of government body. None of the
respondents prefer the monastery forest be owned by local community and NGO. This
might be due to they were not familiar and trust in such for long years. This implies
community believe in the effort of monastery administration on forest conservation and
this was confirmed by the fact that the community would disagree, if the state or other
51
bodies tries to shift a part (whole) of the monastery forest from monastery ownership to
another form. Community acceptance of monastery forest was clear in the study area as
almost all (99.3%) of respondents prefer that, the forests to be owned and managed by
Monastery administration for future.
Table 14. Percentage distribution of respondents on Suggestion of future ownership of
DLMF
Options
Respondents
Frequency
Percent
147
99.3
Government
1
0.7
NGO
_
_
Local community
_
_
150
100.0
Monastery administration
Total
Key (DLMF=Debre libanos monastery forest ,_=none of respondents response it)
4.1.6. Church community toward conservation practice
Apart from undertaking religious activities and guarding church forests, the church
community in the study area had willingness to plant trees in monastery yards (100%)
because the local communities do have higher respect and trust in the EOC than other
socio-economic issues of the people. The followers of the church generally agree with
anything the church does since church followers are strongly bind to church and its rule.
Peoples living in and around this monastery forest believed that some people (6.7%) cut
trees from the monastery forest for fire wood purpose of monastery services only. But most
of them (93.3%) report that people living in and around the monastery forests do not cut
trees, cutting trees in those church/monastery forests is considered as sin by them and they
prefer to obey the church rule. The questionnaire respondents believed that they can
conserve the biodiversity (plants and animals) of the church/monastery forest to the next
generation by planting trees (100%) and protecting the existing forests of the monastery.
All of them believe that they were benefited from the forests directly and indirectly. The
respondents believe that trees in church/monastery compounds serves as shadow during
pray (39.3%), praise for God's work through such nature (21.3%), beauty and heritage of
the country (44.7%). People living in and around the monastery forest (94%) discussed that
52
they have willingness to stop tree cutting from monastery and they were believe that
people never cut trees at all for personal use.
All most all 142(94.7%) believed that every individuals including local community, church
scholars, government bodies should responsible to conserve church forest in broader
context. As to the respondents view every individual has responsibility to save the
remaining forests of monastery. The result obviously implies that local community have
good understanding on responsibility they have and developed sense of belongness on
forest of monastery. By implication respondents argued that to make the intervention
sustainable, government need to give attention, since church forest is not only asset of
EOC but also of the country at large.
Of total enquiry survey (75.3%) of respondents participated in protecting monastery forest.
while (98.7%) of the respondents want to see diverse tree species in monastery forest.
Almost all of them believe that there was deforestation in monastery forest. All of the
respondents reply that the monastery has its own rule of forest conservation. From the
result it is possible to wind up that presence of monastery forest in the study area was
socially accepted. This new conviction of the positive attitudes towards forest conservation
should receive higher attention from the forestry expertise and might be exploited for
further development of new program.
Table 15. Percentage distribution of respondents on knowledge, willingness and practice
on conservation of monastery forest
Responses
Statements
Yes
No
willingness to plant trees in monastery compound
Willingness to stop tree cutting from monastery
Do you protect monastery forest?
Is there tree cutting in the monastery?
Have you ever cut trees from monastery?
Do you want to see diverse tree species in monastery?
Do trees in monastery forest religiously important?
Do all, LC, GB and MA have to responsible for
conservation?
Is there any benefit you can get from monastery forest
conservation?
No
%
No
%
150
141
113
147
10
148
146
142
100
94
75.3
98
6.7
98.7
97.3
94.7
0
9
37
3
140
2
4
8
0
6
24.7
2
93.3
1.3
2.7
5.3
149
99.3
1
0.7
Key (LC=Local community, GB=Government bodies, MA=Monastery administration)
53
Similar observation by FARM Africa (2000) stated that, the ultimate solution to stop
deforestation problem will be encouraging of local people to manage and conserve forest
resources using their traditional based forest conservation methods since they live with
forests, and they are primary users of forest products.
4.1. Community on fear and respecting of monastery rule of forest conservation
In view of more respected and feared between church rule of forest conservation and
government rule of forest conservation among local community as indicated in Figure(2)
below, significance proportion of respondents( 66%) confirm that they respect church rule
more, a head of government rule (8.7%). On the other hand respecting of both church rule
and government rule equally (BE) was suggested by (25.3%) respondents as indicated in
Figure (2A). From the this result it is easy to come across how far amount church followers
respect church rule of forest conservation which can be an entry point in sustainable forest
management of the current issue. The overall survey result implies that church rule of
forest conservation was most respected among followers of EOC in the study area than that
of government rule of forest conservation in church and monastery yards. This result may
not guaranty outside church/monastery and didn't indicate the local community is against
government rule rather an indication of how community gave high regard to forest of holy
places. This may due to the matter that the followers are highly abide to church/monastery
rule.
Concerning the rule most feared in the study area, result revealed that, the community
members in the study area fear to violate religious sanctions more than government rule
(Figure 2B). About (82.7%) of respondents confirm that they value forest church because
of fear of religious rule. Overall findings suggest the EOC will continue to play a
significant role in forest preservation in the monastery, both as a direct actor and as a
source of moral leadership. The result revealed that, change in the feeling of fear of
religious not to damage the monastery forest and moral rule is a decisive tool to save the
church forest from further destruction.
From this result it is possible to summarize that church rule for conserving monastery
forest was the most feared and respected among local community around monastery than
that of legal rule of forest conservation. The above result doesn't mean, the local
54
community of the study area ignore government rule, rather the indication of how far
amount the local community abide by monastery rule for conservation.
B
A
80
60
40
20
0
RCR
RGR
RBE
Percentage of respondents
Percentage of respondents
Figure 2. Percentage distribution of respondents on respect and fear of Monastery rule
100
80
60
40
20
0
FCR FGR FBE
Key (RCR= Respect Church Rule (who respect church rule most), RGR= Respect Government Rule (who
respect government rule most), RBE= Respect Both Equally (who respect both equally), FCR=Fear of
Church Rule, FGR=Fear of Government Rule, FBE=Fear Both Equally)
Similar observation was stated by Alemayehu (2007) on forest church which states that
local communities do have higher respect and trust in the EOTC than other local
institutions, which has made the church the central institution and platform for socioeconomic issues of the people. The same observation was also stated by Hall et al. (2009)
every creature being animal, plant or human has a soul and should be treated with respect
According to Table (16) below, the survey result implies that community prefer their
religious to be respected (conserving the forest in church compounds) than getting farm
land expansion from forest land of the monastery. The survey result indicates that all
(100%) of the respondents had no intention to expand their farm land to monastery
territory even if there was a shortage of farm lands as described by (28%) of respondents.
This indicates that how much the church community value trees in church and monastery
compound. From this result, there was shortage of farm land that may be problem to
monastery forest in long run.
The observation in the Orthodox Church compounds particularly of study area seems in
line with the proponents of deep ecology as stated by Hall et al. (2010) massive losses in
forest biodiversity matter morally, not primarily because of the instrumental value of the
55
other species (other than human beings), but rather because of the intrinsic values of the
species that humans ought to respect).
Table 16.Opinion survey on farm land expansion among respondents
Alternative questions
Yes
No
No
%
No
%
Have you face shortage of farm land in your area due to
land occupied by monastery?
42
28
108
72
If yes have you intention to expand to monastery forest
area?
0
0
42
100
4.1.8. Relationship between Ethiopian Orthodox Church community and forest
To know the respondents perception toward monastery forest (church community-forest
relation), they were asked the factors deny them most from cutting forests of holy places
(Table 17) below. Of the total respondents, 38.7 percent of them reason out that, believe
system enforce them not to cut forest of monastery. More than half of respondents (51.3%)
point out that monastery rule was the most denying factor to the head of government rule
for the reason why they were not involved themselves in cutting of monastery forest. Only
(8%) of them considered the government rule as the most denying factor not to cut trees
from monastery forest to head of church/monastery/. The result implies that both fear of
believe (what is good and what is bad) and monastery rule point out by most of
respondents as major denying factor not to cut trees from monastery forest. This result
implies that both believe (for good seek of their religious) and Monastery rule were main
factor for community not to cut trees from monastery church. The result doesn't mean the
community is ignorant of government rule; rather it is an indication of how far (most) the
monastery rule influence the community in forest protection. This result argued with that
of Dudley et al. (2005) which states that, the links between faiths and protected areas are
neither unusual nor limited by either geography or faith; rather the links are substantial and
pervasive.
56
Table 17. Percentage distribution of respondents on factor denying tree cutting from
monastery
Alternatives
What factor mostly denies you from
cutting trees from monastery forest?
Respondents
No
Believe
58
Government rule
12
Fear of community in Monastery 3
%
38.7
8
2
Monastery rule
All three equally
Total
51.3
0
100.0
77
0
150
The survey result on respondents motivation to protect forest of monastery indicate that,
most of them (91.3%) believed that bible taught(church education) is main source of
motivation or encouragement to protect monastery forest since the church education order
to do it. Both government incentives and government enforcement were point out as source
of motivation by very few respondents which were 6% and 2.7% respectively as shown in
Table (18) below. This result may not hold true outside monastery/church compounds.
The result of key informant interview confirm that, in EOC Christianity religion church
education strongly encourage its followers to abide by church rule, which come down
through generation. By implication church teaches that humanity, both individually and
collectively, ought to perceive the natural order as a sign and sacrament of God. Human
being perceives the natural order as an object of exploitation. To respect nature is to
recognize that all creatures and objects have a unique place in God's creation and created
for reason and that is why forest has special value and respected in EOC Christianity
context. Human being need to see nature and value them as a work of God and praise the
God through those natures, notably of forest in church compound.
According to Johnson (1992) people value biological resources in different ways
spiritually, economically, aesthetically, culturally and scientifically. Conservation of this
biodiversity is directly relevant to local residents, for whom biological resources often
represent their primary source of livelihood, medicine, and spiritual values.
57
Table 18. Percentage distribution of respondents on source of motivation to protect the
forest of monastery
Sources
Respondents
No
Bible thought(Church education )
Government incentive
Government enforcement
Total
137
9
4
150
Percent
91.3
6
2.7
100.0
The following points argued with finding of Table (18) above, as it stated below
Followers of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church believe that "all of God’s creatures should
have a home around men’s places of worship". They see the forests as a living symbol of
the Garden of Eden. As such, church forests are among the last places where Ethiopia’s
endangered native plant species have been left untouched. Ethiopian Christians truly love
their forests, which have a deep spiritual meaning to them. Our hope is that future
generations will become responsible stewards for the remaining forest. "The church forests
are the last remnants of Ethiopia’s historic Afromontane biodiversity” Lowman (2011)
"In America, some fundamental Christians believe that man has a God-given right to use
the earth and all its resources to meet their needs. After all, Genesis says so. But, different
attitude prevails among followers in Ethiopia, which has the longest continuous tradition
of Christianity of any African country. Followers of the EOC believe, they should maintain
a home for all of God’s creatures around their places of worship. The result Forests
ringing churches." T. DeLene Beeland 25/2/2011
Regarding the Functions of the forests for local communities the young man from DLM
stated as follows,
"Forests are like home for monks and saints where they pray for God, you cannot live
without them. The forests in monastery are perceived as a living space. Local people
identify themselves with their forests and have a sense of responsibility, because they are
living in and from the forests. For the people from Debre libanos monastery the forest is a
place of relaxation (shade giving), satisfaction and happiness. The natural aesthetics is
highly valued. From a religious perspective the forest is seen as spiritual space and a
place of praying for the monks and priests. The forest is conserved for its own sake it has
an “existence value”. It is also a living space for saints in the form of ghosts. People
58
believe that the saints can only live in the forests. If the forest is cut, the saints will
disappear" By deacon Biruk, 14/7/2015
According the result of interview with key informants the world, as God's handwork, has
its own inherent integrity; that land, waters, air, forests, mountains and all creatures,
including humanity, are "good" in God's sight. All are created for reason and need to be
respected. The integrity of creation has a social aspect which is recognize as peace with
justice, and an ecological aspect which recognize in the self-renewing, sustainable
character of natural ecosystems. However, these good relation in creation sometimes
broken as interest of human being, that it has been human selfishness and greediness that
has lead to destruction of forest of the planet. Human beings are the only species capable of
rebelling against what God has revealed as the way in which human being should live. This
rebellion takes many forms, one of these is the abuse of the rest of creation in general and
forests in particular. Given that, human has the right to govern all other nature as bible
taught, it was the responsibility of human being to build a proper relationship between
human beings and forest.
The above result indicates that, there must be respect of the human and environmental
issue for sustainable environment (forest) management to be maintained. As the result in
program of forest management, using the old age Knowledge EOC in forest conservation is
at least important insight to local level development in particular to forest management
practices.
The result of key informant interview (Figure.3) below indicate that, Community interest
in church forest protection indicate that, most of them (97%) want to see church and
monastery to envelop by forests, there should be fence around the church forest as
suggested by (89%), want to see guard who protect forest (78%) and (73%) of them were
who want to see monastery to have nursery site in monastery forest as it indicated in Figure
(4) below. The result implies that, how the local community love their monastery to be
envelop by forest, this is from religious back ground.
59
Figure 3. Percentage Distribution of respondents on monastery forest conservation
Percentage of respondents(%)
100
97
89
90
78
80
73
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
Key (1=Percentage of respondents who want to see monastery envelop with forest, 2=Percentage of
respondents who want to see fence around monastery forest, 3=Percentage of respondents who want to see
guard for monastery forest, 4=Percentage of respondents who want to see nursery site in monastery forest)
The study of UNESCO (2003) on scared areas of the world argued with above finding
which states that, sacred natural sites often have more sustainable protection than legally
protected areas, as they are community areas fully in line with belief systems
To know the church affiliation of local community, the respondents were asked the
preferable church for their believe (worshiping) as shown by Figure (4) below. The survey
result implies that all most all (93.3%) of the respondents select church with dense forest as
preferable option than that of church with large building without forest. Only very few
respondents prefer church of large building without forest and both equally which accounts
(4.7%) and (2%) respectively. From this result it is clear that church community want to
See their churches to envelop by dense forest rather than church of large building which is
devoid of forest.
60
Figure 4. Opinion survey of respondents on preferable Church for spiritual purpose
Percentage of respondents
100
93.3
80
60
40
20
4.7
2
0
CDF
CLB/NF
BE
Key (CDF=Church of Dense Forest, CLB/NF=Church of large building with no forest, BE=Both Equally)
4.1.9. Conservation approach and methods by Monastery
In assessing the effective conservation approaches applied in EOC forests, particularly of
the study area, subsequently the survey result of community' perception analysis showed
that more percentage (73.33%) of the total respondents were perceptive religious
based/public interest as an effective conservation approaches that need to be continue in
conserving the monastery forest Table(19). It was suggested by most respondents as good
conservation approach to the head of both government enforcement and government
incentives. The result implies that the church community around monastery was aware
about the importance of voluntary (public interest) on forest conservation rather than
waiting government either to enforce them or to encourage them by giving incentive. By
implication, morally, they were aware to save the monastery forest and suggested that
conservation measures followed by monastery in the study area were acknowledged.
Conserving plant diversity through old age traditional knowledge of EOC, the results
(Table 19) show that the approach of conserving forest based on cultural and religious
values are often much more sustainable than those based only on legislation or regulation.
Church followers are often very knowledgeable about forest of its church and monastery.
But the religious indigenous knowledge was created in the conditions with a smaller
population, large forest coverage and richer biodiversity. When confronted with market
pressures, higher densities, new technologies and increased opportunities, there is a long
61
way to go for promoting the wide use of old age church knowledge in the conservation of
biodiversity in broader context.
Table 19. Percentage distribution of respondents suggestion on good conservation
approach in monastery (church) forest
Conservation approach
Respondents
Frequency
Percent
Religious based/public interest/
110
73.33
Government enforcement
2
1.33
Government incentive
6
4
Moral rule related to believe
32
21.33
Total
150
100
In case of conservation tools the most widely used by monastery administration was
sanction( monastery rule) which based on fear of religious rule to care for every nature
including forests in monastery compound as stated by majority of respondents(81.33%)
supported by legal rule (Table 20)below. These figures are good indications of how
religious based conservation practices are far amount important in the maintaining of the
forest of the area from generation to generation. The result of interview held with
monastery administration office, also agreed with the result, which stated that, monastery
manage the forest of its own land by established church/monastery rule for forest
conservation, that is sanction rule supported with legal rule. All of the informants were
interested that the monastery forest managed by the religious institutions. As the
respondents view, the rules and sanction of monastery obeyed by community like cutting
trees from forest of monastery for personal interest is strictly forbidden. The one who cut
trees from monastery forest is considered to be violent of monastery rule.
62
Table 20. Percentage distribution of respondents on suggested effective tool to conserve
monastery forest
Tools
Respondent
Frequency
Percent
Sanction /church rule/
122
81.33
legal rule
17
11.33
Both equally
11
7.33
Total
150
100
According to the result of the interview held with monastery administration the monastery
apply two conservation tools; these are Monastery rule (Sanction) and Government rule
4.1.9.1 Church rule (sanction)
The main approach of conservation is via creating religious commitment and respect
among the followers. Everything in the compound of church and monastery are sacred and
respected. Every follower is expected to respect and protect the house of God together with
the forest enveloping the church. Cutting a tree in the church compound for personal
interest is strictly forbidden as is it considered as denying the presence of God unless; it is
for the only monastery services. The successful establishment and preservation of the
forests trace their roots to informal regulations and practices founded on the spiritual base.
For centuries, local people have adhered to specific guidelines that restrict land use in and
around the monastery and have performed activities to secure the forest from human
interferences. By respecting the church's privilege in entering the forest, keeping their
compounds, farms, and livestock out of the monastery forest and local adherence to these
rules enables the monastery to apply sanction rule as main conservation guide line.
4.1.9.2. Legal rule (Government rule)
As other areas, in the country monastery administration also apply and governed by legal
rule (government rule) since the forest of monastery is found around people of different
attitudes and perspectives of which may damage the forest of the monastery, in this case
the monastery use the legal rule and own its guard who protect the forests from any
disturbance appeal to the court to when necessary for equivalent penalty as per legal rule.
63
4.1.10. Knowledge of forest conservation in Monastery yards and forest use
The survey showed that respondents were knowledgeable about forest of the monastery in
which most of the respondents perceive that forests in monastery have to protect because
they are found in holy places. All of the respondents perceived trees as valuable and useful
resources. Based on the results of this survey, trees are most useful to respondents as a
source of firewood for church community (73%) to provide energy for the daily needs. The
second use of trees most often mentioned by the respondents was as a source of recreation
(54%). Thirty five percent of the respondents also perceive the benefit that trees provide in
terms of shade protection and give free of mind while worshiping.
Forests, especially church /monastery/forests have a high cultural and religious meaning
for the local people in the study area. One part of the culture is the life in the forest. This
emphasizes the social importance of the forest for the local people. Forests play a major
role for religious practice the priests and followers pray in the forest for peace and eternity
life in free mind and praise for God through what they give for world such as forest. Due to
this the church value forest of its holy places as primary asset. It is essential to integrate
human life in the natural living space in order to maintain the forests for the next
generations. One way is to foster environmental education and to convince the local people
of alternative possibilities for resource use. From the result of survey it was said that
monastery educate (church education and moral rule(what is good and bad by their own
understanding which is deeply related to faith) were the driving force for conservation of
monastery forest.
Similar observation was stated by Alemayehu (2007) on church forests of South Gonder
conclude that the positive attitude to the resources protected by the Church and the
acceptance of the church tradition could thus be an opportunity for forest ecosystem
conservation and restoration at large.
4.1.11. Perception of agriculture office towards Monastery forest
The interview result of Woreda office of agriculture indicate that, the Monastery forests
existed due to the effort of Monastery itself and local community contribution. They
responded that the religious institutions protected the forests very well for long years,
because they believed that the communities are managing the forests sustainably. It was
64
not because of the government give special attention for the monastery forests rather the
religious institution manages by its effort. They also explain that it is better for the church
forests to continue under the church administration management as it also supported by
respondents suggestion for future best conservation. This is the interesting result which
shows that EOC institution has decisive role in forest conservation. Therefore the kebele
administration entrusts the Church with the responsibility to create awareness among the
community.
According to the result of interview of Agricultural Office of Woreda (WAO).It is quite
successful when the church scholars considered as trustful and influential in convincing its
followers the value of forest particularly of study area and generally of the whole country).
A promising approach is technically support the church community to get in wide
community based forest management. Here the involvement of the Church leads to more
acceptance of conservation within the community, leading to more successful forest
management program.
The result of interview with Agricultural office, department of rural development of
woreda indicates that, forest administration entrusts the Church with the responsibility to
create awareness among the community. It is quite successful when the priests considered
as trustful and influential conduct trainings together with agricultural expertise who
contribute deep ecological knowledge. At this stage it is better by having the monastery
forest conservation knowledge and experience as entry point then the promising approach
is financially and technically supports the Churches for making rehabilitation efforts and
distributing seedlings to the community. The involvement of the Church leads to more
acceptance of conservation within the community, leading to more successful forest
conservation projects.
According to the key informants there was distinction between monastery yard and
surrounding community area for forest protection because the church yard is dedicated for
spiritual purpose where one can pray for God, get faith relief inside forest which is
completely different from worldly things. As a matter of fact, monasteries are associated
with forests throughout Orthodox Ethiopia, with idea of suggesting symbolic links to the
Garden of Eden. In this patch of forest there are no, farming activities, encroachments,
hunting wild animals, woody species harvesting by local community. The monastery forest
it is a place where nature (forest and other living things) and human being coexist
65
intimately. The distinct between open landscape and monasteries forest is clear here, and it
helps by contrast to define monasteries as the place where everything is forested.
Table 21. Activities allowed and not allowed in Monastery forest as per monastery rule
Activates
Allowed
Not allowed
Grazing
**
Tree cutting
**
Praying and worshiping for God in the forest
*
Tree cutting for only monastery services(selective cutting)
*
Taking videos& photos in the forest without permission from
monastery administration
Woody species harvesting by local community
Encroachment
Farming activities
Seed collection
Hunting wild animals
**
**
**
**
**
**
Key (**=Activities which were not allowed for local community in monastery forest,*=Activities which
were allowed for local community in monastery forest)
4.1.12. Knowledge of local community on threats to Monastery forest
The community’s level of awareness of what is happening in their environment in terms of
change in forest coverage, deforestation, forest conservation practice and its important
could be taken as one measure of their knowledge of forest conservation. From result of
Table (22) below, respondents claimed that, there were environmental problem in the study
area that, most of them have observed the change in forest coverage in monastery,
decreased (62.7%), and increased (2%) and no change (35.3%). The vegetation cover of
the monastery forests was decreased currently when compared to past time. This was
supported by the information from FGD as participants pointed out that, before long years
ago one can observe dense natural forest coverage in the monastery. But now due to woody
harvesting by monastery community the natural forest of the monastery decreased in
density, specially selected species like Calpurina aurea, Carissa spinarum and Acacia
abyssinica were being cut for firewood purpose. This might a great factor for
disappearance of such species in long run.
Over half of the respondents (68%) claimed that the boundary of monastery forest had no
changed over the past few years, whereas (28%) of respondents perceived as there was
66
decrease in forest boundary and (4.7%) as there was an increment of forest boundary. As
per result of Table (22) there was far difference between increased in forest boundary and
decrease in forest boundary as reported by respondents which call for an action to protect
the monastery forests in the future.
Besides what a role the monastery plays in forest conservation for centuries, study area
experienced the problem of deforestation. As respondents claimed there was an increment
in deforestation rate (22.7%), decreased (9.33%) and no change (68%). This was due to
heavy depend of monastery community on forest and absence of equivalent conservation
measures while trees being cut which were pointed out by the key informants interview as
major problem. In this case the monastery apply selective cutting by shifting to enhance
regeneration (easily replaced plant species by natural means) were used for cutting
purposively for better management. For this purpose Eucalyptus tree were mostly planted
as reforestation program. According to informants there was mass destruction of natural
forest of monastery during the transition of government period of 1974 which left
monastery forest exposed to external disturbance.
Table 22. Percentage distribution of respondents on the current status of forest of DLM
Response
Forest cover
Forest boundary
Deforestation rate
Reforestation
No
%
No
%
No
%
No
%
Increase
3
2
7
4.7
34
22.7
17
11.3
Decrease
94
62.7
42
28
14
9.3
22
14.7
No change
53
35.3
102
68
102
68
111
74
Total
150
100
150
100
150
100
150
100
4.1.13. Sources of disturbance to Monastery forest
With the intention of understanding the community perception on the current threats to
monastery forest, the respondents were asked to mention the major threats to monastery
forest. Woody harvesting by monastery community was the main sources of threats to
Debre libanos monastery forest indicated by result of enquiry survey (72%) Table (23)
below. Grazing and expansion of residential house also indicated as sources of threats to
monastery forest as stated by (14.66%) and (12.66%) respondents respectively. Of all the
67
identified threats, the worst that may leads to decline of diversity of forest of monastery
was woody harvesting by monastery community as shown in Table (23) below. In the case
of ranking based on severity of threats to monastery forest, of all threats to woody
harvesting by monastery community was the worst as it was ranked first by majority of
respondents (84.7%) and followed by grazing as it was ranked first by (14%) respondents.
The result implies that if there are no equivalent conservation activities, only keeping the
exits forest may not be solution to save forests of the monastery for future generation.
The finding of Wassie (2009) similarly states that the sacred church and monastery lands
of the EOCs, survived for many centuries as islands of natural forest biodiversity in a sea
of deforested landscape from pressure of firewood collection, and livestock (grazing).
Table 23. Opinion survey of sample households on source of disturbance to Monastery
forest
Sources
Respondents
Agricultural land expansion
Wood harvesting by the monastic and church community
No
1
108
%
0.66
72
Grazing livestock
22
14.66
0
0
19
150
12.66
100.0
Wood extraction by surrounding local communities
Expansion of residential house
Total
4.1.14. Local community reaction to deforestation
Regarding deforestation, respondents indicates that in case of problems to forest of
monastery they had willingness to react either directly or indifferent in different ways) to
stop from cutting as shown in Table(24) below. Of the total respondents (72.67%) them,
had put themselves in charge of stopping through giving advice, 18.67% of them by
informing to church official, and few of them said that they stop by calling police to react.
From the result it is clear that church followers positively react against deforestation.
Community participation in forest conservation is good insight in today's world for the
achievement of sustainable forest management.
68
Table 24. Opinion survey on personally preventing tree cutting from monastery
Alternatives
How do you stop if you see someone
who cut the trees from Monastery?
Respondents
Inform to church official
No
28
%
18.67
Stop by giving advice
109
72.67
Call police to stop
Keep silent
12
1
8
0.67
Total
150
Regarding the solutions for deforestation (30.7%) of the respondents suggested that
reforestation program had to exist to halt deforestation. Providing environmental education
as a solution was also indicated by (16.7%) of the respondent. Using alternative energy
instead of firewood was suggested by most respondents (39.3%) as indicated in Table (25).
Most of respondents believe that the alternative sources of energy to reduce firewood
collection is an option to stop tree cutting, the result from interview also confirm that,
using alternative source of energy is unquestionably best method to reduce tree cutting that
proposed by monastery administration near future.
Table 25. Opinion survey of sample households on measure to be taken to stop disturbance
to Monastery forest
Alternatives
Measure to be taken to
Reforestation
stop deforestation
Strong rule
Respondents
No
%
46
30.7
20
13.3
Educating community
25
16.7
Use alternative energy, instead of fire wood
59
39.3
Total
150
100
69
4.2. Vegetation
4.2.1. Species area curve
Species area curves were drawn to judge the adequacy of sampled areas to represent the
species diversity and related vegetation qualities. The leveling out of the species area curve
is used to determine whether adequate samples were taken. The species area curve is a
cumulative curve that relates the occurrence of species with the area sampled. Since the
curves grow up and gets flattened at the end, this indicates that the number of plots taken is
sufficient Kent, 2011). The numbers of species recorded per plots ranged from six to
eleven (Figure 5) below.
Number of species
Increased in sample area of 20m by 20m
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Plot numbers
Figure 5. Species area curve of woody species in sampled plots (Field survey, 2015)
4.2.2. Woody species composition
The forest at Debre libanos monastery is one of the few remaining dry afromontane forests.
The forest cover of the monastery consists of different distinct areas. These were large
Olea europea ssp. cuspidata woodlands, mixed woodland with patches of planted
Eucalyptus and to the south west there is a pure Eucalyptus plantation. The mixed forest
covers areas from the east to some parts of the south west of the monastery lands. The total
numbers of woody plant species recorded in the monastery forest were sixty five
representing forty two families (Appendix 4).
70
In Debre libanos monastery forest (DLMF), a total of 65 woody plant species, representing
42 families of plants were recorded in both inside and outside the study plots (Table 26).
Among these, eight plant species were identified outside the sample plots and the rest 57
plant species were recorded in forty five quadrats of the study area. Among the recorded
families of plants, Rosaceae and Fabaceae family were found in a dominant (diverse
family) which were represented by four plant species(6.15%), followed by Euphorbiaceae,
Anacardiaceae and Moraceae which were equally represented by 3(4.62%) species. The
ten families were represented each equally by two species, while the remaining families
were represented equally by single species.
Table 26. List of woody species with their corresponding number of families in DLMF
Family
Anacardiaceae
Apocynaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Lamiaceae
Loganiaceae
Moraceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrtaceae
Oleaceae
Polygonaceae
Rosaceae
Solanaceae
Tiliaceae
Verbenaceae
Other remaining
Total
Number of species
3
2
3
4
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
1 species each
65
Percentage (%)
3.07
3.07
4.62
4.62
3.07
3.07
4.62
3.07
3.07
3.07
3.07
6.15
3.07
3.07
3.07
1.5 each
100
Of the total number of woody plant species recorded in the monastery forest majority of
them were representing a growth habit of trees (46.12%) (Table 27) and 21.54% were
associated tree/ shrubs, 18.46% were shrubs, 4.61% climbers and the rest belongs to herbs
and associated shrubs/climbers. The main high canopy tree species in the forest includes,
Prunus africana, Juniperus procera, Olea europea ssp. cuspidata, Millettia ferruginea,
Dovyalis abyssinica, Ficus vast, Ficus sur, Schinus molle and Schefflera abyssinica. The
shrub layer includes species such as Myrsine africana, and Carissa spinarum (appendix 4)
The most abundant tree species identified were, Juniperus procera, Olea europea ssp.
cuspidata and Accacia abyssinica while the most abundant shrubs were species such as
71
Carissa spinarum, Rhus vulgaris and Myrsine africana. Herbs were represented by species
such as Rumexa nepalensis and Solanum incanum. Jasminum abyssinicum and Phytolacca
dodecandra were the climber species recorded. Of the total recorded woody species most
of species were naturally grown plants and only few were established in plantation. The
cultivated plants species includes Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus globulus,
Rhamnus prinoides, and Phoenix reclinata (Appendix 4)
Table 27. Summary of growth habit distribution of the encountered species in DLMF
Growth habit or life form
T
S/T
S
C
Other
Total
Planted
3
_
2
_
_
5
Naturally grown
27
14
10
3
6
60
Over all
30
14
12
3
6
65
Percentage (%)
46.12
21.54
18.46
4.61
9.23
100
Key (T=Tree, S/T=Associated Shrub and Tree, S= Shrubs, C=Climbers, H=Herbs, Other= includes, herbs,
associated shrub and climbers)
4.2.3. Species diversity, richness and evenness
Species richness which is the number of different species present in an area (recorded
species per assigned plots). Accordingly from the sampled population in the study area a
total of 65 different species plant species were recorded from the study site of which 57
were recorded from sampled plots and the rest were outside plots. Based on the Shannon
Wiener and Simpson diversity index the calculated value of species diversity and evenness
were 2.574 and 0.66 respectively (Table 28). According to Kent (2011), Shannon-Wiener
index value varies between 1.5 and 3.5 and rarely exceeds 4. Its value increases with
increase in the number of species and the distribution of the individuals among the species
becomes even. According to Kibret (2008) a value of evenness approaching zero reflects
larger difference in abundance of species, where as the higher evenness value means all
species are equally abundant or even their distribution within the sample quadrats. From
the result the species within Debre libanos monastery forest were not evenly distributed as
the calculated J value indicates, their distributions across the sampled plots were not evenly
distributed across the forest area. According to study of (Tamirat, 1993) church forests
possess diverse woody species and accommodate good wood stock compared to some of
the biggest continuous forest in the central highlands of Ethiopia.
72
Table 28. Species richness, diversity and evenness of woody species within sampled plots
Diversity indices
Debre libanos monastery
forest
No of species in all plots(S)
Diversity
Evenness
H'
57
2.673
J
0.661
Key (H'= diversity index, J= evenness of the species, S= number of species recorded in sampled area)
The higher the value of Shannon-Wiener diversity index, the more woody species diversity
would be in the quadrant (Nangendo et al., 2002). Evenness (J) value between zero (no
heterogeneity and no diversity) to a maximum close to one (high heterogeneity, being
complete or lots of diversity).
4.2.4. Density
The density of species expressed as the number of individuals recorded across all sampled
plots per hectare. In this case individuals greater than or equal to one meter were
considered. Accordingly a total of five thousand nine hundred seventy two individuals of
woody plants which belongs to 57 different species were collected. Among the collected
plant species, Olea europaea was the dominant one with recorded value of 724. Acacia
abyssinica and Carissa spinarum ranked the second and third in dominance with 651 and
572 numbers respectively. Salixa mucronata was the least dominant in the study site which
recorded with the individuals of two. The density of all woody species recorded in the
study plots was (3317.771 individuals/ha as indicated in Appendix (5). The densities of
woody species ranged from 1.1 individuals /ha to 402.2 individuals/ ha. The minimum
density was recorded for Salixa mucronata (1.1 individual/ha) whereas the maximum
(highest density) was of Olea europaea (402.2 individuals /ha) as shown in (Table 29)
below. From this result it is clear that, species of least density like Salixa mucronata and
Solanum incanum needs an immediate conservation action to save from further reduction in
density prior to higher density.
According to IUCN (2006) the two indigenous tree species (Juniperus procera and Prunus
africana) currently included in the IUCN red list of threatened species are common and
abundant to church forests. These church forests accommodate many species represented
by single individuals (rare species) and also many species found only in single plots
(unique species). The study of Alemayehu(2002) surveyed of church forests strongly
73
suggests that, monastery forests are thus important refuges for a wide diversity of woody
species of the area. A possible explanation for the presence of many rare and unique
species in church forests could be that the, effort of the church and its followers in
conservation. This makes that church/monastery forests should be high in the priority of
conservation efforts in high lands of Ethiopia.
Table 29. List of most dense and least dense woody species identified within DLMF
List of species
Density(No/ha)
Life form
Category
Acacia abyssinica
Calpurina aurea
Carissa spinarum
Eucalyptus globulus
Ficus sur
Ficus vasta
Juniperus procera
Ocimum utricifolium
Olea africana
Phytolacca dodecandra
Salixa mucronata
Solanum incanum
361.7
191.7
317.8
136.1
5
4.4
278.9
2.8
402.2
3.3
1.1
1.7
T
T
S
T
T
T
T
S
T
C
T
S
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Key (N=naturally grown species, C=cultivated species, T=tree, S=shrub, C=climber)
The finding of this study indicates that DLMF is dominated by species such Juniperus
procera, Acacia abyssinica and Olea africana suggesting that these forests represent remnants
of the devoid natural vegetation of the Northern Shoa, Oromia. From key informant
interview it was said that, olive tree brought to Debre libanos monastery by saint
Teklehaymanot and people give high respect which associated with religious festivals of
Easter. This condition enhance the presence of Olea africana in abundant in forests.
Similar to the above finding the study of Demel (1995) suggested that the highlands of
Ethiopia were once covered by diverse forest dominated by Juniperus procera, codominated by Olea tree, presumed to be the natural vegetation of the northern high lands.
Apart from ecological and climatic reasons the social values of these two species can
contribute to their dominance. Almost all local churches are built largely from Juniperus
and Olea woods. Most local people consider Juniperus procera and olea africana as a tree
that should belong to the church forest for its grace, strength and durability.
74
4.2.5. Frequency
Of the total species encountered across all plots, the result of frequency distribution
revealed that some woody species were most frequent within DLMF and the others were
least frequent within the forest of monastery (Table 30). The high frequencies were
observed for species such as, Olea europea.subs.cuspidata, Eucalyptus globulus, Acacia
abyssinica, subs.abyssinica, Juniperus procera and Calpurina aurea. Of all recorded
frequency, the highest (91.1%) was recorded for ,Olea europea.subs.cuspidata which was
recorded in 41 plots out of 45 plots, followed by Juniperus procera(84.4%), recorded in
38 plots, Carissa spinarum recorded in 34 plots( 75.6%), Acacia abyssinica recorded in 31
plots(68.9%), Eucalptus globulus recorded in 23(51.1%) and Calpurina aurea recorded in
21 plots(46.7%) for which all were observed in more than (45%) of total plots (Table 30).
On the other hand, the least frequency observed were (in descending orders) Justcia
schimperiana recorded in 8 plots (17.8%) followed by Ficus sur recorded in 6 plots
(13.3%) Phytolacca dodecandra recorded in 4 plots (8.9%) Ficus vasta recorded in 3 plots
(6.7%) Phoenix reclinata recorded in 2 plots (4.4%) and Arundo donax was recorded in
single plot (2.2%). The most frequently observed species along plots were exhibit the tree
life form. From the result of Table (30) below, species of least frequency need to be given
priority in conservation to enhance their frequency distribution prior to other species.
Table 30. Frequency of most frequent and least frequent woody species within DLMF
Species
Life form
Olea africana sub sp cuspidatta
No of plots in which species Frequency (%)
recorded
41
91.1
Juniperus procera
38
84.4
T
Carissa spinarum
34
75.6
T
Acacia abyssinica
31
68.9
T
Eucalyptus globulus
23
51.1
T
Calpurina aurea
21
46.7
T
Justcia schimperiana
6
13.3
S
Ficus sur
5
11.1
T
Phytolacca dodecandra
4
8.9
S
Ficus vasta
3
6.7
T
Phoenix reclinata
2
4.4
T
Arundo donax
1
2.2
H
T
75
Juniperus procera had the highest proportion of seeds that has a potential for forming soil
seed banks, which help to ensure its perpetuation in the events of disturbances. Olea
compared with its slow growth have high survival success once established due to a strong
tradeoff under environmental stress (Wassie and Demel, 2006)
The high frequency indicates regular horizontal distribution of the species in the forests
and variation in frequency between species may be attributed to habitat differences, habitat
preferences among the species, species characteristics for adaptation, degree of exploitation
and conditions for regeneration (Demel, 1995).
As shown in Figure (6) the frequency class A (1-20%) was represented by 19(33.3%)
species. The species of this class were, consists of Ficus sur, Ficus vasta, Hagenia
abyssinica and Diospyros abyssinica. The highest frequency species for this class was
recorded in nine plots. Twenty five species (43.85%) were belongs to frequency class B
(21-40%) of which (Rumexa nepalensis) was the highest recorded in class B. Thirteen
species (22.8%) were belongs to the frequency class of C (41-100%). Of all the frequency
class distribution the highest frequency was observed for frequency class B. which was
ranges from ten plots to eighteen plots. Only 8 species occurred in more than 50% of the
plots, indicating dominance by few species.
Of all woody species collected across all plots within DLMF the least frequency was
recorded for Arundo donax which was represented by single plot (2.2%) from 45 total plots
(100%) that belongs to frequency class A(1-20%).
According to the study of Haileab et al. (2011) frequency gives an approximate indication
of the homogeneity of a stand. Studies pointed out that high values in higher frequency
classes and low values in lower frequency classes indicate constant or similar species
composition. High values in lower frequency classes and low values in higher frequency
classes on the other hand indicate a high degree of species heterogeneity. In the present
study high values were obtained in middle frequency class (class B) whereas low values
were obtained in higher frequency class (class C) Therefore, according to the above
interpretation it is possible to conclude that there exists a high degree of floristic
heterogeneity in DLMF. The species that appear in the lower frequency classes have
irregular occurrence whereas those appearing in higher classes have regular horizontal
distribution.
76
Figure 6. Occurrence of species along frequency class
25
25
Number of species
20
19
15
13
10
5
0
A
B
C
Frequency Class
Key (A=frequency class (1-20%), B=frequency class (21-40%), C= frequency class (41-100%))
4.2.6. Diameter class distributions and population structure
4.2.6.1. Diameter class distributions
Diameter class distribution of Debre libanos monastery dry afromontane forest was
classified into nine classes conventionally (Figure 7). Following the method of Samson et
al. (2010) for description of DBH individuals' species of DBH greater than three
centimeter and height greater than two meter were selected as presented in Figure (7). The
highest individuals were belongs to fifth class which accounts about (15%) of the total
individuals followed by fourth class which accounts (13.5%), second class (12%), sixth
class (11.5%), ninth class (11 %), third class (10.5%), and seventh class (9.5%). About
7.5% of the individuals were found in the first class. The remaining eight Classes together
account for about 92.5% of the total. In the case of distribution of species richness in
different classes showed high number of species recorded in fourth and fifth DBH classes.
Only 3.12 % of total species were had ≥ 40cm DBH (about 11% of total individuals).
Species of this class includes Ficus vast, Ficus sur, and Olea europea subsp.cuspidata,
Junipures procera which were the larger species in terms of their thickness and found
77
within the monastery forest and even form the upper canopy of the forest in terms of
vertical structure.
Figure 7. Diameter class distribution of individual species within DLM
Frequency of individuals
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
DBH class
Key (Diameter class in cm: where class 1=<5, 2= 5-10, 3= 10-15, 4= 15-20, 5= 20-25, 6= 25-30,
7= 30-35, 8 = 35-40, 9=≥40)
4.2.6.2. Population structure of woody plant species
Diameter class distributions of the species of study area exhibited different trends. From
the DBH class distribution the following population structure were observed within
DLMF. The evaluations of some selected species revealed the following diameter class
distributions (patterns of population structure as indicated by (Figure. 8A-F).
A) Irregular: The individuals are distributed differently in all lower, medium and higher
classes and the first pattern was formed by the species having lower number of individuals
in the second class and relatively higher in fourth class then decrease with increasing DBH
towards the higher classes except for the 7th class which was increased (e.g. Crotona
macrostachyus (Figure. 8A),
B) A distribution pattern which shows low frequency in lower class and an increasing trend
in the middle class then decrease in frequency in very higher class. (Species having few
78
individuals at the lowest class followed by increases at the next class and decline thereafter
at very higher class forms bell shape (Figure. 8B). Species of this group includes, such as,
Eucalyptus globulus, Juniperus porecura, Euphorbia abyssinica, Pittosporum viridiflorum.
According to Feyera et al. (2007) species of this pattern indicates a poor reproduction and
recruitment which may be associated with intense competition from the surrounding trees
C) The pattern which shows a frequency distribution of relatively high number of
individuals in middle class and decrease in the next class, even absence, then it appears in
the higher class and absence in lower class (Species having no individual at the lowest
diameter class/classes but a few individuals at only two or three of the other diameter
classes and forms U-shape, (Figure. 8C). Species of such example includes, Albizia
schimperiana, Podocarpus falcatus, Ficus sura Prunus africana, Diospyros abyssinica
Millettia ferruginea, Cordia Africana
D) Pattern of distribution which shows high frequency in lower class and absence in both
medium and higher class (Figure. 8D). Species of this type includes Calpurina aurea and
Rubus steudneri. This type of distribution exhibits an early stage of regeneration. The
species in this group exhibited relatively good recruitment, but the regeneration is
negatively affected as evidenced from the absence of individuals in progressively higher
classes. This may be attributed to either natural or human-induced (like selective cutting)
hampered regeneration (Tesfaye et al., 2010).
E) A pattern which show the presence of more frequency in lower class and a gradual
decrease towards the higher classes (individuals of species having a high proportion of
individuals at the lowest class and a decline at the next class/classes followed by a gradual
decline in the number of individuals towards the next classes) which forms an inverted Jshape (Figure. 8E). Species of this pattern of distribution was represented by Acacia
abyssinica as shown in (Figure. 8E). The species of this group, widely acknowledged as
indicating stable population structure, or good regeneration status (good reproduction and
retirement), naturally replacing senesced individuals with seedlings and saplings (Teketay,
2005a, 2005b).
F) Pattern that shows absence in both lower and medium class and appear in only higher
class. (Individuals of species having either no or few individuals at the lowest classes and
missing individuals at the next middle classes followed by few individuals at the upper
79
classes (Figure. 8F). Species of this pattern includes Ficus vasta, Hagenica abyssinica,
Schefflera abyssinica and Ekebergia capensis
Figure 8. Diameter class frequency distribution of selected tree species within DLMF
Number of individuals
6
5
4
3
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ficus sura
C
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Calpurina aurea
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DBH class
DBH Class
Acacia abyssinica
Ficus vast
F
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of individuals
Number of individuals
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DBH Class
9
D
2
E
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
1
Number of indivuals
Juniperus procera
B
Crotona macrostachyus
Number of individuals
Number of individuals
A
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DBH Class
DBH Class
DBH class: (1 represents <5 cm of diameter, 2 represents 5−10 cm; 3 represents 10−15cm;
4 represents 15−20 cm; 5 represents 20-25 cm; 6 represents 25−30 cm; 7 represents 30−35
cm; 8 represents 35−40 cm and 9 represents ≥40cm)
80
From the above DBH class distribution except(8 E) pattern other distribution types indicate
more or less unstable population structures that may have resulted under the influence
of different natural or anthropogenic disturbances, including exploitation of individuals of
woody plants within desirable diameter classes by the churches or poachers of trees
(Wassie et al., 2005). This strongly suggests the need for management interventions aimed
at facilitating regeneration of the affected woody species. Plant population structure shows
whether or not the population has a stable distribution that allows continuous regeneration
to take place (Tesfaye et al., 2010)
From the above result, the analyses of population structures, using frequency distribution
of diameter classes of woody species, can provide an insight into their regeneration status
which plays a key role in the promotion of their sustainable management, utilization and
conservation.
4.2.7. Vertical structure
The species in DLMF shows a distinct category in their height, accordingly as shown by
Table (31) below; the species which can only reach the height of less than 5m across the
plots were account about (35.08%). The species of this category includes species such as
Rumexa nepalensis, Premna schimperi, Jasminum abyssinicum, Justica schimperiana etc.
The species of medium height (5-15m) contribute (36.84%) of total species. The rest
(28.07%) of species can attain the height category of (≥15m). The species of this category
found above all other species which forms the upper canopy of the forest. This category
largely consists of large species such as Olea europia cuspidata, Juniperos procera, Ficus
sur, Fus vasta, Hygenica abyssinica, From the result of Table (31) below most species of
monastery forest can attain the medium classification that is sub canopy (36.85%).
Table 31. Distribution of woody species richness (number) in Debre libanos monastery
forest according to growth form (canopy layer)
Growth form
Natural forest
Planted
Over all
Percentage (%)
Canopy layer (≥15 m height)
13
3
16
28.07
Sub canopy (5 - 15 m height)
20
1
21
36.84
Under canopy (<5 m height)
19
1
20
35.08
Total
52
5
57
100
Source: Field measurement (2015)
81
4.2.8. Conservation status of monastery forest
In forest conservation program it is common to categorize species into Priority category to
give a priority in conservation because some species may either identified as IUCN red list
or National priority, those needs critical conservation. Similarly in the study area as
indicated in Table (32) below, the species under IUCN red list which were recorded in
DLMF
includes Juniperus procera and Prunus africana ,whereas species like, Olea
europea subsp.cuspidate, Podocarpus falcatus, Acacia abyssinica, Cordia africana, Ficus
sur were species found in Monastery forest those fall under category of high national
priority species.
Table 32. Nationally and internationally priority indigenous tree species identified in DLMF
List of species
Acacia abyssinica
Cordia africana
Ficus sur
Juniperus procera
Olea europea subsp.cuspidate
Podocarpus falcatus
Prunus africana
Priority category
High national priority, IBCR
High national priority, IBCR
High national priority, IBCR
IUCN Red list
High national priority, IBCR
High national priority, IBCR
IUCN Red list
Life form
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
Family
Fabaceae
Boraginaceae
Moraceae
Cupressaceae
Oleaceae
Podocarpaceae
Rosaceae
Source: IUCN (1996) and (IBCR, 2003) Key (T= tree life form)
During field survey the researcher was observed the selected species those were cut by
monastery community for the purpose of fire wood collection. Among these species,
Acacia abyssinica, calpurina aurea, and carissa spinarum were mostly used for fire wood
purpose by monastery community. The result of interview with church community implies,
these selected woody plant species were used for fire wood purpose because they can
easily re-grow and replace themselves within short time as compared to other species
within DLMF. Even though they were used for fire woody purpose still they are found in
high density and frequency as indicated in Table (33) below. The highest RF was recorded
for species Carissa spinarum (4.69%), followed by Acacia abyssinica (4.29%) and the
least observed for Rubus steudneri (). Similarly in the case of frequency distribution the
same trend as density was observed in which Carissa spinarum was found in high
frequency (75.6%), followed by Acacia abyssinica (68.9%) and the least frequency was of
Premna schimperi (observed in only nine plots of forty five plot
82
Even though these plant species were mostly utilized by monastery community, they found
relatively in high frequency, this might due to the monastery system of using them in shift
while cutting and easily bearing new generation after cutting.
Table 33. List of woody plant species which were mostly utilized by monastery community
List of species
RF
RD
life form
Acacia abyssinica
Calpurina aurea
Carissa spinarum
Premna schimperi
Rubus steudneri
Vermonia amygdalina
4.29
2.9
4.69
2.35
1.66
2.62
10.88
5.77
9.53
1.79
1.62
1.98
T
T/S
S
T/S
S
H
Key (RD= Relative Density, RF=Relative Frequency)
Regarding the conservation priority, tree species were identified as locally threatened by
monastery community. Of identified tree species within DLMF Hagenia abyssinica was
ranked first (36%) and Dovyalis abyssinica was ranked seventh (1%) by monastery
community. These identified tree species are those need priority conservation in issue of
conservation program.
Table 34. Locally threatened tree species identified by monastery community from DLMF
S. No
Species identified
Percentage of priority for conservation
Rank
1
Cordia africana
14
4th
2
Dovyalis abyssinica
1
7th
3
Ekebergia capensis
5
6th
4
Ficus sur
17
3rd
5
Ficus vasta
21
2nd
6
Haygenia abyssinica
36
1st
7
Prunus africana
9
5th
83
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The present study was carried out to assess the role of Debre libanos monastery in forest
conservation and the current status of woody plant species diversity in Debre libanos
monastery. The study consisted of two parts of which Socio economic survey conducted by
implementing questionnaires and interview whereas the vegetation survey conducted by
using plots along transect parallel line. For analysis of data SPSS version 20 and micro soft
excel were used.
Regarding socio economic survey the result revealed that the holistic approach has favored
the respect and good care of nature (forest) in monastery compound which built good
image between nature, particularly forest and church follower's intern enriching ecological
conservation which supports the wider concept of today's biodiversity conservation. The
combination of biblical education and justification to the traditions of local community in
respecting the forest was an important characteristic observed.
The perception of local community on how the monastery forest survived for centuries
rests on the belief of monastery itself and thus, the monastery forests could not survive if
the monastery had not been there. The community perceive that forest of monastery (holy
places) have to treated and respected more than forest of non holy placed because of strong
monastery rule and moral rule related to religious. The main expectation and interest of
local community on the future of forest of monastery and their suggestion was to keep
under the monastery administration and they always need to see forests enveloping
monastery, had its nursery site, had its own forest guard which may indicate the old age
monastery knowledge, will continue in the future for conserving holy place forests.
In the case of governing rule of local community, the result revealed that the religious rules
was the main governing rules in the life of the local community and thus majority of
respondents respect and fear the church rule to a head of government rule. This indicates
that the main approaches of protection for monastery forests to be both religious sanctions
(monastery rule) supported by both moral rule and government rule. According to the
monastery rule, tree cutting from forest of monastery for personal interest, collection of
fuel wood, cutting trees for construction grazing are forbidden for the community.
84
From stakeholders analysis the EOC expects recognition of the old age church knowledge
in forest conservation and the acceptance of the full ownership of the church by the state
and legal protection technical and financial support from the government in developing
conservation program of the church/monastery to larger scale. The monastery
administration needs to manage the forest resource under the values and norms of the
church.
The local communities do have higher respect, fear and thrust in the in monastery rule
among other institutions, which has made the church the central institution that shape
socio-economic issues of the people. The monastery forests exist for centuries because of
effort from church followers. The result of this study implies that forest of the monastery
escape deforestation due to high respect of local community to their religious issue which
encouraged forest conservation via church education that is biblical thoughts
Of locally existing institutions, the results suggest that the local community accept more
the order of church education and church scholars be trusted and respected more by the
community. This indicates how the church’s beliefs and practices are socially accepted and
serve as central institution among the community in the study area. Thus, the knowledge
and experience of monastery can be taken, as an entry point in forest conservation
programs in broader context.
Almost all the respondents prefer the monastery forests to be managed by the monastery as
it is now and for future health conservation of monastery forest. The community interested
in conservation approach followed by monastery so far and to be continue as before rather
than replacing by modern conservation program. The result doesn't indicate that, local
community were totally against modern conservation approach, rather they didn't want the
replacement of old age experience of monastery by new and modern approach.
Concerning the current status of forest coverage most of respondents claimed that the
forest coverage decreased recently due to heavy pressure from monastery community. The
main threat to monastery forest was influence of monastery community for fire wood
collection as point out by majority of respondents
In study area, a total of 65 woody plant species, representing 42 families of plants were
recorded in both inside and outside the study plots. The species area curve indicates that
85
the numbers of species per plot ranged from six to eleven. Among recorded family of
plants Rosaceae family and Fabacea family were found in dominant (diverse family) which
were represented by four woody species (6.15%), followed by Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae
and Moraceae which were equally represented by 3 species. In the case of life form
majority of species (46.12%) were trees and the rest (21.54%) associated tree/ shrubs,
(18.46%) shrubs and (4.61%) climbers. Most of woody plant species recorded in
monastery forest were naturally grown.
The densities of woody species ranged between 1.1 to 402.2 individuals/ha. The minimum
density was recorded for Salixa mucronata (1.1 individual/ha) whereas the maximum
(highest density) was of Olea europaea (402.2 individuals /ha). The relative density of
woody plant species were ranged between (0.0502 to12.1233) (Appendix 5)
The highest frequency (91.1%) was recorded for, species Olea europea.subs.cuspidata
which was recorded in 41 out of the 45 plots, followed by Juniperus procera (84.4%),
recorded in 38 plots and Carissa spinarum recorded in 34 plots (75.6%). Whereas the least
frequency was recorded for Arundo donax which was observed in single plot (2.2%).This
type of species
call for immediate
conservation action prior to other. The relative
frequency (RF) of woody plant species were ranged between (0.14 to 5.66) (Appendix 5)
Diameter class distributions of the species of study area exhibited different trends. The
evaluation of some selected woody plant species reveals the pattern of irregular shape, bell
shape which was represented by Juniperus procera, inverted J shape which was
represented by acacia abyssinica, U shape by ficus sura,and the other pattern were a
pattern where high frequency of individuals found only in lower class(represented by
Calpurina aurea and a pattern where individuals absence in lower and medium class but in
higher single class which was represented by Ficus vasta. Species such as Ficus vast, Ficus
sura, Juniperus procera and, Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata were species which attain the
higher diameter class distribution and found in higher canopy above other species.
The species such as Acacia abyssinica, Calpurina aurea, Carissa spinarum, Premna
schimperi Rubus steudneri and Vernonia amygdalina were the species mostly utilized by
monastery community for fire wood collection. On the other hands species such as
Juniperus procera, Olea europea subsp.cuspidate, Podocarpus falcatus Prunus africana,
Cordia africana and Ficus sur are those species of national and international conservation
86
priority indigenous trees identified in Debre libanos monastery forest. In the case of locally
identified trees as threatened species Hagenia abyssinica was ranked first by majority of
respondent which was call for priority conservation.
Finally the following recommendations were suggested based on the finding of this study
in order to emphasis the role of old age EOC (Debre libanos monastery) in forest
conservation and reduce the challenges to forest resources.
 The monastery save the resources of the country for centuries ,in spite what it contribute in
conservation program, no much recognition is given, at this stage it is better if more
recognition is given from government both technically and financial to promote the
experience of old age knowledge of churches in forest conservation for broader context and
even to the level of be gazetted
 It would be better to involve the church scholars in the agenda of forest conservation
training, conference at level of local, regional and national, even at international level.
 In the monastery forest there was tree cutting for firewood collection, especially some trees
are selectively cut for firewood purpose, in long run this species may disappear, and hence
it would be better if alternative energy will be used instead.
 The monastery boasts old age indigenous trees those were under the category of nationally
and internationally identified priority trees, but in long run they may disappear due to old
age since there were no comparable planting of new seedling. Hence it is advisable if there
will be probability of replacing them with new generation (young trees) by reforestation
and enable the monastery to have its own nursery site.
 In diameter class distribution, some species shows a trend in only single higher class which
may lack young generation. Example species such as Hagenia abyssinica hence such
species have to consider at first hand in issue of conservation.
 It will be more successful in participatory forest conservation program if knowledge of
local community, institution (particularly of EOC) taken as an entry point.
 Some species like Ficus sur, Ficus vasta, Salixa mucronata and Solanum incanum were only
found in less frequency and density. To enhance their distribution in forest of monastery
priority should have to given for such species.
 Further research is recommended to for the detail structure of the forest, like forest carbon
stock and the implication of monastery forest in climate change.
87
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7. APPENDICES
95
7.1. Appendix 1. Summary of Questionnaire Survey
Dear Respondents, This questionnaire is meant to gather information for research on the
contribution of Ethiopian Orthodox Church in forest conservation practice and the current status of
woody plant species diversity within Debre libanos monastery. I hope that the research out comes
contribute much in creating awareness and relationship among different stakeholders by exploring
the role of EOC on the effective forest management practices and assess the current status of plant
diversity in Debre libanos monastery. Therefore your sound response has great value in my
research work.
Notice: 1. You can write your answer in a language which is easy for you, either in English,
Oromic/ Amharic
Part-I: General information of Households
Personal Information
1. Questioner Number: _____ Day______
Month____
Year ______
2. Sex:______ , Age_______ , Education______________ , Family size___________
3. Farm land: Own/No______ Economic activities_______________, Religion_____________
Part II: Questionnaires on local community perception and knowledge on forest conservation
1. Who do you think is/are/ responsible for conservation of forest of the Monastery?
1. Local community 2. Government bodies 3. Church scholars 4. All have responsibilities
2. Is the forests of the Monastery are well protected over long time? 1. Yes 2. No
3. If you say ‘Yes’ for above question who protect it
1. Church scholars 2. Monastery community 3. Local communities 4. all
4. Do the church/Monastery/ has its own rule to conserve the forests? 1. Yes 2. No
5. If yes for above question could you mention them. 1________________________________
2___________________________________3,___________________________
6. Which church is spiritually/to worship/ good for you?
1. Forested Monastery with diverse forest 2.Church with large building, without forest
7. If your answer to Q6 above isꞌ 1ꞌwhat is your reason____________________________
8. What is your initiation to protect the forest in church compounds?
1. Bible thought 2. Government incentive 3. Strong monastery rule
9. Do the conservation of animals and plants are biblically good?
1. Yes
2. No
10. Do the presence of forest and other nature in church /Monastery/ compound is religiously
important?
1. Yes
2. No
11. Good conservation of forests in the church/Monastery/ compound when compared to other nonreligious areas is due to,
1. Moral rule related to religious 2. Good conservation effort by Monastery administration
3. Good conservation effort of government 4. Both 1&2
12. The presence of forest in the monastery 1. Very important 2. Important 3) less important
13. What are the importances of conserving the forests in the Church (Monastery) compounds?
1.______________________ , 2____________ , 3.__________, 4 ._________________
14. If the agricultural land is becoming scarce, do you have intention to expand to Monastery land?
1. Yes
2. No
15. Do you have willingness to participate in planting trees in church compound? 1. Yes 2. No
16. Church forests belong to whom?
1. Monastery community 2. Monastery administration 3. Country at large 4. All
17. Which rule you respect most in forest conservation? and why? 1. Government 2 Monastery 3
Both equally
18. Which rule you fear most? 1. Government 2 Monastery 3 Both equally
96
Part-III: Questionnaires on Local community contribution in saving forest of Monastery
1. Why you give more care for forest in the Monastery than other non-religious forest areas?
1. Moral rule which related to religious view 2. Strong government rule for conservation
3. Government incentive
2. Do you protect the Monastery/gedam/forest from destruction
1. Yes
2. No
3. If you say yes for above question, how?
1. Giving advice on forest conservation 2. Participate in conservation/planting/ 3. Both
4. Have you ever cut the trees in the Monastery?
1. Yes
2. No
5. If you say “No” for above question, what is your reason from the below choice?
1. Forbidden due to religious
2. I afraid off local community inside the monastery
3.Government body penalize me
6. If you say yes to above Q6 for what purpose you cut?
1. For individual use 2. For monastery services 3.For investment
Part-IV: Questionnaires on current status of forest diversity and its conservation
1. What changes have you observed since you know the place?
1) Still intact 2) better than before
3) slightly disturbed
4) heavily disturbed
2. How you noticed changes in the area of forest coverage over time?
1. No change 2. Becoming scarce
3. Increasing over time
3. What do you noticed about the status of Monastery forest boundary since you lived here?
1. Increased 2. Decreased 3. No change 4. I do not know
4. How is the forest species status of Monastery forest since you lived here?
1. Increased
2. Decreased
3. Remain the same
5. The Monastery (Debre libanos Monastery) forest remain save for long years due to the
conservation effort from (Give rank for the following as your idea) Rank, it as (1st, 2nd, 3rd...)
1. Government bodies______ 2. Non-government bodies/NGOs/_________
3. Church scholars________ 4. Local community around Monastery_________
5. Agricultural experts_______
6. Church rules and regulation against deforestation/monastery administration/____
6. If the diversity of the forest in the Monastery gates declining, what could be the reasons?
________________________________________________________________
7. Have you observed changes as a result of the practiced activities by local communities on
forest of
the Monastery?
1. Yes
2. No
8. If yes to above question, what are these changes?
1. Increased fuel wood collection
3. Reforestation trees
2. Selected plant species are cut& decrease in density
4. More conservation effort
9. Is there any new Modern technology of Forest conservation measures whenever they are
introduced to your area?
1. Yes
2. No
10. If yes, list them: 1_____________2, ____________ 3, _____________________
11. Which forest age group mostly found in the Monastery? 1. Old 2. Medium 3.Small
12. If you choice (a, b,c,or d) for above question, Why?________________________
13. Is there tree cutting in Monastery?
1. Yes
2. No
14. How do you observe the rate of deforestation in and around monastery over time?
1. Increasing
2. Same
3. Decreasing
Part -V: Questionnaires on the challenges to Monastery forest
1. Is there tree cutting in the Monastery?
1. Yes
2.No
2. Have you ever cut the forests in the Monastery
1.Yes
2.No
3. Do you face shortage of grazing and farm lands due to area occupied by Monastery forest?
1. Yes
2. No
4. If you yes to above question, do you intend to expand to monastery boundary? 1. Yes 2.No
97
5. Do the lands in the Monastery is allowed for grazing? 1. Yes
2. No
6. If you say yes for above questions who use it? 1. Local community around the Monastery
2. For livestock of the Monastery only 3.Government bodies
7. Is there any disturbance on the forest of the Monastery?
1. Yes
2. No
8. If yes to Q5 the sources are from_____________
1. Local community around the church 2. Monastery community
3. Government bodies for investment purpose
9. Of the sources of disturbance to forest of monastery give rank for following _______
1. Agricultural expansion 2. Grazing 3.Fire wood collection
4. Expansion of residential houses inside monastery compound
10. For what purpose the forest in the Monastery is cut?
1. Farm land expansion 2. Fuel wood for monastery community 3. Construction and
residential house expansion
11. How the trees in the monastery are cut for fire wood purpose?
1. Randomly with no tree selection 2. By shift /period with tree selection 3. Both
12. Which activities are allowable in forest of the monastery for local community and other
bodies? 1. Grazing 2. Tree cutting
3. Praying and worshiping in the forest
4. Taking photograph and video without permission of monastery administration
Part -VI Questionnaires on Measures to be taken to stop disturbance of Monastery forest
1. How do you prevent/stop/ if you see someone who cut the trees from monastery forest?
1. Inform it to church official
3.Calling police to stop it
2. Stop by giving advice
4. Keep silent
2. Who do you prefer to own and control the monastery forest for future to remain with good
protection 1. Government 2. Monastery administration 3. NGO
3. Which do you think is the effective tool for you to protect church/monastery forest?
1. Sanction /church rule/
2. Legal rule 3. Both equally
4. Who deny you from cutting the forests in the monastery?
1. My believe
2. Monastery rule
3. Government rule
4.all
5. Which measures should be taken to stop the deforestation in the monastery? 1. Reforestation
2. Strong regulation against deforestation 3.Educating community 4.Using alternative
energy instead of fire wood
6. Which conservation method is comparatively good for forests in Monastery/churches/?
1. Religious based/public interest/ 2. Government enforcement 3. Government incentive
Part - VII. Questionnaires on Church/Monastery/ role in forest conservation& land use
1. Why the Monastery own huge forest area than other areas in the Debre libanos woreda?
1. Good government conservation program 2. Forest of Monastery is not cut for any means
3. Good conservation practice by church community 4. Presence of good rule of monastery
2. Who owns / has the right to use the trees found in Monastery forest?
1) Local community 2) Monastery administration 3) Agricultural office 4) All
3. Do you think that conservation of forest in the Monastery has great contribution for country
at large?
1 .Yes
2. No
4. Currently, where you observe diverse natural forest in your woreda?
1. On farmer land 2. In church/Monastery compound/ 3. In protected areas
5. How you rank the role of religious institution/Ethiopian Orthodox Church/ in forest
conservation?
1. High
2. Medium 3. Low 4. No role
6. Why the local people save the forest in the Monastery for long years?
1. Strong government rule against deforestation 2. Religious thought which encourage
conservation
3. Both
7. Do you think that the role of churches is most significant in saving the forest diversity of the
country?
1. Yes
2. No
98
7.2. Appendix 2. Check List of Interviews for Key Informants
1. Do you like the presence of large forest coverage in the Monastery Compounds? Why?
2. Who administer the forest of the Monastery? And why you conserve the forest in the Monastery?
3. Do you teach the Church followers about the importance of forest conservation?
4. How the Bible thought, support the conservation of nature, plants and animals?
5. Is there any support for forest conservation practice from other bodies? Who are they?
6. How you save the forest of the Monastery from disturbance?
7. Why natural forest dominates the forest of monastery than manmade forest?
8. Is there strong rule and regulation against deforestation of Monastery forest property, If yes what
are those rules, is it of monastery or government rule?
9. Why sacred land biodiversity has been conserved and if and how this relates to those values and
beliefs?
10. What is the relationships between these values and religious or spiritual belief systems to
conservation of nature/forest/?
11. Which tree age group cut for the purpose fuel and why? and how?
12. Trees which are being used for fire wood from monastery forest on long run may be decline so
how you intend to save it from destruction?
7.3. Appendix 3. Check List of Interviews for Agricultural Office
1. Do you think that the responsibility of saving the forest of monastery is solely relying on church
community? If not how do support from your professional perspective?
2. Have you observed Deforestation in the Monastery? If yes what measure have you taken to stop
deforestation?
3. Currently it is clear that the remaining forest coverage in Debre libanos Woreda are found in
holy places /specially in Debre libanos monastery/ how do you plan to save it for future generation
from further destruction?
4. Have you ever visited the forest of the Monastery? If yes how do you describe the degree of
deforestation, conservation status, community reaction toward forest protection?
5. Are you working with church community on forest conservation program and how?
6. What are the roles (participation) of the local community in saving the forest of the Monastery
and responsibility of agricultural office?
7. What incentives are given to local community around Monastery who undertake the
conservation measure? Do you think the conservation approach of monastery need to be supported?
8. Have ever hold a decision with church community on the issue of forest conservation? if yes
how
9. How do you describe the role of religious institution/EOC/ in forest conservation program?
10. If you think that religious institution has great role in forest conservation how you plan to give
your professional advice for church followers/local community/?
11. Do you have a plan to work with religious institution on conservation program? How?
7.4. Appendix 4. Checklist for Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
1. Why you protect the forest of Monastery? Who enforce you to protect it?
2. Why do you think that the Monastery own huge forest than other areas in the woreds
3. Is there depletion of forest coverage of the Monastery since you know the area?
4. If yes what do you think the possible cause of forest depletion in your area?
5. Do you think the community around the church is involving in forest conservation activities?
6. If yes, how the religious values and believes contribute for forest conservation?
7. What is the status of knowledge and practice of the local community about the forest
conservation with relation to their religious thought?
8. How do you describe the role of EOC religious institution in forest conservation?
99
9. Who do you think should be thanks/praised/ for saving the forests of Monastery from
destruction for long time from early to present time? Why?
10. How do you observe the status of forest coverage, its boundary, species diversity, Conservation
practice of Monastery Forest since you know the area?
7.5. Appendix 5. Tables
Appendix Table 1. Summary of Selected questions for questionnaire Survey
No
1
2
6
7
Statement
SA
Monastery conservation approaches need to be encouraged
Forest in Church/Monastery/of Ethiopia remain save for long
years due to strong church rule
Traditional forest conservation practice of church community
should have to replaced by modern knowledge
Old age trees species in Monastery need to be cut and replaced
by easily usable eucalyptus trees.
In science of forest conservation, uniting church knowledge into
current forest conservation program is very important
Monastery forests are only heritage of monastery administration
The word of God is always in favor of tree protection
8
Church education is always in favor of its forest conservation
9
10
Conserving forest in name of religious need to supported
Conservation of forest in the Monastery has great contribution
for country at large
As bible taught human beings have given the right to destroy
other nature, particularly forest as he want
Tree in monastery forest and tree in other non holy place need to
be conserved and treated equally
Role of Churches in forest conservation have to get high
recognition from government
It is better for the future fate of remaining church forest of
Ethiopia if it is ruled/owned/by government rather than religious
institution
Traditionally, in most Ethiopian orthodox churches, followers
prefer to plant trees on tomb of buried body rather than
decorated building. This need to be encouraged
3
4
5
11
12
13
14
16
A
DA
SDA
Please put"(x)"mark as you agree or disagree for the above selected questions, Key ( SA=Strongly
agree, A=Agree, A=Disagree, SDA=Strongly disagree)
100
Appendix Table 2. Check list of interview for both agricultural office and monastery administration
S. No
1
2
3
4
Activities
How its level (extent) of deforestation in Monastery
Events
Sever
Medium
Slow
Never
Role of the church in forest conservation
High
Medium
Low
Has no role at all
Role of Government and NGOs in conservation of High
Monastery forest
Medium
Low
Never
Indigenous religious institution in conserving forest More significance
resource
Significance
5
Method of forest conservation in Monastery
6
Why forest in Churches/Monastery/ well protected
7
Ways of forest conservation in Monastery
8
Status of forest coverage, diversity and
extent from time to time
Evaluation
Less significance
Afforestation
Reforestation
Both are involved
Poor/ignorance/
Good will of community
Strong church rule
Community interest
Government
enforcement
Religious thought
bounder shrink(decrease)
Same over time
Increase
Appendix Table 3. Summary of biophysical inventory design measurements used for
vegetation sampling, diversity indices and methodologies used
Parameters
Sample plots numbers
Sample plot allocation
distance between plots
Number of plots along the line transect
Sample plot shape and area
Total area sampled for vegetation
survey
Sample plot
Subplots
Species (S)
Individuals (N)
Density of a species
Relative Density(RD)
Frequency (FR)
Relative Frequency(RF)
Relative diversity (RD)
Methodology used and description
45 sample plots/quadrats/
Preliminary photo from top of the monastery was taken
Approximately 100m
Nine
square fixed-area of 20m by 20m=400𝑚2
45 plots of each area 400m2 (0.04ha/plot) =45× 0.04ℎ𝑎=1.8
hectar
Plot 20 x 20 m [for species with DBH => 3cm and height
>2m (subplots 5m x5m for species of height ≥1 m)
Total number of recorded species
Total number of censured individuals
No of individuals of that species /Total are sampled( in ha)
Density of species A/total density of all species X 100
No of plots a species occur /Total numbers of plots x 100
Frequency of species/total frequency of all species X 100
Number of species in a family / total number of species x 100
101
Appendix Table 4. Summary of list of species (scientific name and local name), the family
category and the growth habit of species recorded from Debre libanos Monastery forest
S. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Scientific name
Acacia abyssinica
Acacia etabacia
Acokanthera schimperi
Aloe vera*
Apodytes dimidiate
Arundo donax
p
Asparagus flagellaris
Bersama abyssinica
subsp.abyssinica
Brucea antidysenterica
Buddleja polystachya
Casuarina cunninghamiana
Cajanus cajan*
Calpurina aurea
Capparis tomentosa
Carissa spinarum
Cordia africana
Crotona macrostachyus
Discopodium penninervum*
Dodena angustifolia
Dombeya torrida subsp.torrida
Dovyalis abyssinica
Dracaena steudneri
Ekebergia capensis
Eucalptus camaldulensis p
Eucalptus globulus
p
Euphorbia abyssinica
Ficus carica/Ficus palmata/
Ficus sur
Ficus vasta
Grewia ferruginea
Hagenia abyssinica
Hypericum revolutum
Jasminum abyssinicum*
Juniperus procera
Justcia schimperiana
Lippia adoensis
Maesa lanceleota
Mrysine africana
Momordica foetida
Nuxia congesta*
Ocimum utricifolium/
Ocimum lamifolium
Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata
Osyris quadripartita
Phytolacca dodecandra
Phoenix reclinata
p
Pittosporum viridiflorum*
Rumexa nepalensis
Podocarpus falcatus
Premna schimperi
Local name(A or O)
Girar(A) laaftoo(O)
**
Merenz(A)
Argiisaa(O)
Cheleqleqa(A)
Shenbekkoo(A)
Yset Qest /Seriti/(A)
Loonchisa(O)
Family
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Apocynaceae
Aloaceae
Icacinaceae
Gramineae
Asparagaceae
Melianthaceae
Habit
S/T
S
T
S
S
S
S/T
T
Hatawicho (O)
Hanfere(O)
**
**
Zegeta(A)Cheekaa(O)
Gumero(O)
Agam(A)agamsaa/(O)
)waddeesa(O)
Bakkannisa(O)
Almit(A)
Kitkita(A)ittacha/(O)
Daannisa(A)
Yehabesha koshim(A)
Yuddoo(O)Istepatos(A
Somboo(O)
Keyi behar zaf(A)
Bargamoo adii(O)
Adaammii(O)
**
Harbuu(O)
Warka(A)
lenkuata(A)
Heexoo(O)/
Amija/A)
Misirich(O)
Gaattiraa(O)
Dhummugaa(O)
Kusaayee (O)
Abbayii(O)kelawa(A)
Qacamaa(O)
laqana quraa(O)
Dhamaye(O) anfar(A)
Yenchet Zikaqibe(A)
Daammakasee(O)
Woira(A) Ejersa(O)
Kert(A)
Indoodee(O)
Zenbaba(A)Meexxii(O)
Dengay Seber (A)
Dhangaggoo(A)
Birbirsa/(O)zigba(A)
Urgeessa(O)Chocho(A
Simaroubaceae
Loganiaceae
Casuarinaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Capparidaceae
Apocynaceae
Boraginaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Solanaceae
Sapindaceae
Sterculiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Agavaceae
Meliaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Tiliaceae
Rosaceae
Hypericaceae
Oleaceae
Cupressaceae)
Acanthaceae
Verbenaceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrsinaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Loganiaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Oleaceae
Santalaceae
Phytolaccaceae
Areaceae
pitosporaceae
Polygonaceae
Podocarpaceae
Verbenaceae
T
S/T
T
S
S/T
C/T/S
S
T
T
S
S
T
S/T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
S
T
S
C
T
S
S
S
S
C
T
S
S
T
T
C
T
T
H
T
S
102
51
Prunus africana
Oomoo(O)
Rosaceae
T
52
Rhamnus prinoides
p
Geeshoo(O)
Rhamnaceae
S
53
Rhus glutinosa
Kamo (A)
Anacardiaceae
S
54
Rhus vulgaris
Tateessa(O)
Anacardiaceae
S
55
Ricinus communis
Chaqima(A)
Euphorbiaceae
S
56
Rosa abyssinica
Kega(A)
Rosaceae
S
57
Rubus steudneri
Goraa(O)
Rosaceae
S
58
Rumex nervosus*
Embacho(A)
Polygonaceae
S
59
Salix mucronata(S. subserrata)
Alaltuu(O)
Salicaceae
T
60
Scefflera abyssinica
**
Araliaceae
T
61
Schinus molle
P
Qunde berbere(A)
Anacardiaceae
T
62
Solanum incanum
Hiddii(O) tunaye(A)
Solanaceae
H
63
Streospermum kunthianum
Washint(A)
Bignoniaceae
T
64
Triumfetta rhomboidea*
**
Tiliaceae
H
65
Vernonia amygdalina
Girawa (A)Eebicha(O) Asteraceae
S
Key (T = Tree, T/S = Tree/Shrub, S = Shrub, C=climber, **=Local name not identified, P =planted
species O=Species name in Afan Oromo, A= Species name in Amharic *=Species recorded outside
plots
103
Appendix Table 5. List of woody species collected from DLMF with their Density (D), Relative density (RD)
Frequency (F), relative frequency (RF) and Number of plots (NP) species recorded in
S. No
Species name
NP
FR
RF (%)
D
RD (%)
1
Acacia abyssinica
31
68.9
4.28
361.667
10.8808
2
Acacia etabacia
8
17.8
1.11
32.222
0.9712
3
Acokanthera schimperi
9
20
1.24
13.889
0.4185
4
Apodytes dimidiate
12
26.7
1.66
55
1.6577
5
Arundo donax
1
2.2
0.14
35.556
1.0717
6
Asparagus flagellaris
7
15.5
0.96
17.222
0.5191
7
Bersamaabyssinica subsp.abyssinica
13
28.9
1.85
31.667
1.1052
8
Brucea antidysenterica
4
8.9
0.55
15.556
0.4689
9
Buddleja polystachya
18
40
2.48
60
1.8083
10
Casuarina cunninghamiana
19
42.2
2.62
43.889
1.3228
11
Calpurina aurea
21
46.7
2.90
191.667
5.7771
12
Capparis tomentosa
14
31.1
1.93
52.222
1.5740
13
Carissa spinarum
34
75.6
4.69
317.778
9.5781
14
Cordia africana
11
24.4
1.51
24.444
0.7366
15
Crotona macrostachyus
21
46.7
2.90
60.556
1.8252
16
Dodena angustifolia
20
44.4
2.76
70
2.1096
17
Dombeya torrida subsp.torrida
10
22.2
1.38
32.222
0.9712
18
Dovyalis abyssinica
16
35.6
2.21
23.889
0.7200
19
Dracaena steudneri
10
22.2
1.38
17.222
0.5191
20
Ekebergia capensis
6
13.3
0.83
10.556
0.3180
21
Eucalptus camaldulensis
18
40
2.48
76.111
2.2940
22
Eucalptus globulus
23
51.1
3.17
136.111
4.1025
23
Euphorbia abyssinica
19
42.2
2.62
63.889
1.9257
24
Ficus carica/Ficus palmata/
8
17.8
1.11
15
0.4521
25
Ficus sur
5
11.1
0.69
5
0.1507
26
Ficus vasta
3
6.7
0.42
4.444
0.1338
27
Grewia ferruginea
13
28.9
1.79
31.667
0.9545
28
Hagenia abyssinica
8
17.8
1.11
12.778
0.3851
29
Hypericum revolutum
9
20
1.24
24.444
0.7368
30
Juniperus procera
38
84.4
5.24
278.889
8.4059
31
Justcia schimperiana
6
13.3
0.83
54.444
1.6409
32
Lippia adoensis
16
35.6
2.21
42.778
1.2894
33
Maesa lanceleota
3
6.7
0.42
11.111
0.3349
34
Mrysine africana
17
37.8
2.35
43.333
1.3061
35
Momordica foetida
10
22.2
1.38
27.222
0.8205
36
Nuxia congesta*
5
11.1
0.69
24.444
0.7368
37
Ocimum utricifolium/
2
4.4
0.27
2.778
0.0837
38
Ocimum lamifolium
12
26.7
1.66
34.444
1.0371
39
Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata
41
91.1
5.66
402.222
12.1233
40
Osyris quadripartita
19
42.2
2.62
39.444
1.1889
41
Phytolacca dodecandra
4
8.9
0.53
18.889
0.5693
42
Phoenix reclinata
2
4.4
0.27
10.556
0.3181
43
Rumexa nepalensis
15
33.3
2.07
50.556
1.5237
44
Podocarpus falcatus
14
31.1
1.93
29.444
0.8875
45
Premna schimperi
17
37.8
2.35
59.444
1.7917
46
Prunus africana
11
24.4
1.52
16.111
0.4856
47
Rhamnus prinoides
1
2.2
0.14
12.778
0.3851
48
Rhus glutinosa
13
28.9
1.79
37.222
1.1219
49
Rhus vulgaris
20
44.4
2.76
80.556
2.4280
50
Ricinus communis
3
6.7
0.42
10
0.3013
51
Rosa abyssinica
7
15.6
0.97
15.556
0.4689
52
Rubus steudneri
12
26.7
1.66
53.887
1.6242
53
Salix mucronata(S. subserrata)
1
2.2
0.14
1.111
0.0335
54
Schinus molle
11
24.4
1.52
31.667
0.9544
55
Solanum incanum
2
4.4
0.27
1.667
0.0502
56
Streospermum kunthianum
13
28.9
1.79
25
0.7535
57
Vernonia amygdalina
19
42.2
2.62
65.556
1.9759
104