Yucca plant and Yucca moth
Yucca Plant
Most species of yucca have thick, waxy skins to prevent loss of water through evaporation, called transpiration in
plants, and they frequently store water in thick roots. Some yuccas store water in thick, fleshy leaves; other species
drop their leaves during drought to prevent the loss of water through transpiration. Dead leaves collecting against
the trunk of the Joshua tree help protect it from the sun. The channeled leaves of a Mojave yucca direct dew and
rainfall water to their roots.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8605942_adaptations-yucca-plant.html#ixzz1m209UREE
Most species of yucca have thick, waxy skins to prevent loss of water through evaporation, called transpiration in
plants, and they frequently store water in thick roots. Some yuccas store water in thick, fleshy leaves; other species
drop their leaves during drought to prevent the loss of water through transpiration. Dead leaves collecting against
the trunk of the Joshua tree help protect it from the sun. The channeled leaves of a Mojave yucca direct dew and
rainfall water to their roots.
http://www.desertusa.com/animals/yucca-moth.html
In this mutualistic symbiotic relationship, the yucca plant (Yucca whipplei) is pollinated exclusively by Tegeticula
maculata, a species of yucca moth that in turn relies on the yucca for survival. Yucca moths tend to visit the
flowers of only one species of yucca plant. In the flowers, the moth eats the seeds of the plant, while at the same
time gathering pollen on special mouth parts. The pollen is very sticky, and will easily remain on the mouth parts
when the moth moves to the next flower. The yucca plant also provides a place for the moth to lay its eggs, deep
within the flower where they are protected from any potential predators. The adaptations that both species
exhibit characterize coevolution because the species have evolved to become dependent on each other.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
One of the most extraordinary partnerships between an insect and the plant that it pollinates is that of the yucca
and the yucca moth. They are so interdependent that one cannot live without the other. Actually, there are a
number of species of yucca, each with its corresponding partner, a species of Tegeticula or Parategeticula moth.
This mutually beneficial relationship probably started as a relationship of exploitation with the moth feeding on
the yucca. This is still the case with a number of close relatives of Tegeticula, members of the Prodoxidae family.
The yucca moth is a non-descript, small, whitish moth that blends well with the color of the yucca blossoms where
it spends most of its brief adult life. A very distinctive feature of Tegeticula is the absence of the long tongue,
characteristic of most moths and butterflies. Instead, it has tentacles around its mouth that serve a very important
function and make possible its job as a pollinator.
The adult yucca moth does not need to feed because it is so short lived. However, the female gathers pollen, which
it holds under its chin with the help of the tentacles. Males and females emerge from their cocoons in the spring in
synchrony with the blossoming of the species of yucca with which they are partners. They meet and mate on the
yucca blossoms and then the job of the females starts.
She visits the anthers of the flower and scrapes the pollen from several of them shaping it into a large lump. Then
she leaves in search of another inflorescence, not just another flower in the same bunch but in a different plant
altogether, assuring in this manner the cross pollination of the yucca.
When she arrives at a new plant, she inspects the flowers and chooses the ones that are at the right stage. She also
checks if there are already eggs laid in the flower’s ovary. She can detect the smell of other female moths with her
antennae and, if another one has been there already, she searches for another flower. This is good for the plant
and for the future babies because, if too many eggs were laid in one flower ovary, the flower would abort and the
larvae would starve. She lays her eggs in the ovary, no more than a handful; once again, if she laid too many eggs,
the flower would abort.
Afterwards she goes to the stigma of the flower and carefully removes some pollen from under her chin and
deposits it on the stigma. Now the flower will produce a fruit and enough seeds to feed the larvae as well as
ensure the reproduction of the plant.
In a few weeks, the larva is fully-grown. It drops to the ground; it buries itself and makes a cocoon. It will stay
underground until the next spring. However, some pupae remain dormant for more than a year. If the yucca fails
to bloom one year because of weather conditions, there will still be yucca moths around.
Yuccas are used as ornamentals well beyond their original geographic range. The yucca moths have managed to
follow the yucca and have enlarged their range east and north as far as the east coast and Alberta and Ontario in
Canada.
http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/yucca_moths.shtml
Acacia tree and Acacia ant
African ants and acacia trees get along great: The ants live in the acacia's special swollen thorns and pay the tree
"rent" by attacking leaf-eating insects. But the ants steer clear of bees and other insects that pollinate the acacia's
flowers, allowing the tree to reproduce, which in turn keeps alive the symbiotic relationship. Now scientists know
why the ants turn up their feelers at pollinators: The tree exudes a chemical that tells ants to keep away. The
findings, reported in Nature, show how a plant has evolved a way to thwart a potential conflict with a symbiotic
insect. Studying acacia trees in Tanzania, ecologists Pat Willmer of theUniversity of St. Andrews in Fife, the United
Kingdom, and Graham Stone of the University of Oxford observed that Crematogaster ants seem to avoid crawling
over young, fresh flowers but not older ones that had already been pollinated. They were puzzled until they
realized that on rainy days, "the effect seemed to disappear," Willmer recalls, and the ants would patrol new
flowers as well. Thinking the young flowers might be making a water-soluble repellent, Willmer rubbed a young
flower on an old one. The ants avoided that older flower. The researchers are still trying to identify the warning
compound, although they speculate that pollen from the acacia blossom might be it. The bottom line, says
Willmer, is that "the plants can manipulate the insects to do what they want."
The temporary repellent is particularly ingenious because it ends up maximizing the number of seeds the acacia
can produce. After pollination, when the repellent wears off, the renewed presence of the ants protects the
developing seeds from being eaten, says Ted Schultz, an entomologist at the Smithsonian Institution's National
Museum of Natural History inWashington, D.C. This work is among the first to demonstrate conflict resolution in
plant-animal interactions, he adds. "But there are probably all sorts of conflicts and controls [in such symbiotic
relationships]. This is probably just the tip of the iceberg."
http://web.fccj.org/~dbyres/ant1.html
The ants act as a defense mechanism for the tree, protecting it against harmful insects, animals or humans that
may come into contact with it. The ants live in the hollowed-out thorns for which the tree is named. In return, the
tree supplies the ants with protein-lipid nodules called Beltian bodies from its leaflet tips and carbohydrate-rich
nectar from glands on its leaf stalk. These Beltian bodies have no known function other than to provide food for
the symbiotic ants. The aggressive ants release an alarm pheromone and rush out of their thorn "barracks" in great
numbers. According to Daniel Janzen, livestock can apparently smell the pheromone and avoid these acacias day
and night. Getting stung in the mouth and tongue is an effective deterrent to browsing on the tender foliage.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_cornigera
Mighty acacia trees tower and spread across the African skies. Little ants scramble about as a protective army.
Without each other, they’re nothing.
That’s what ten years of research is confirming. Scientists have known for a long time about the symbiotic
relationship between the big trees and the little bugs. The trees give the ants a place to live. The ants bite and
pester large animals that try to eat the tree’s leaves and limbs.
But what happens when the conditions get reversed?
After ten years of study, we’re starting to get some answers.
With the numbers of large animals in Africa in decline, researchers thought they’d try to find out, on a limited
scale, what the impact would be of fewer creatures bothering the acacia tree.
Fences were set up around some trees that prevented large animals from feasting on the trees.
Even after just a few years, the trees were looking rather ragged and their growth rates slowed down. What was
going on?
The trees no longer had need to take care of the ants. They didn’t produce as much nectar that the ants feed on
and they had fewer, smaller thorns for the ants to live in. Consequently, the ants started to abandon the trees for
other locations, giving way to other insects that were damaging the trees.
While the original “mutualism” relationship developed over a long period of time, researchers point out that it can
break down in a quick amount of time.
Researchers are going to take this experiment to one more level. They’re going to “reverse” the reverse process on
some of the fenced trees, taking the fences down and seeing how quickly, if at all, the ants come back to the trees
if the large animals start eating the trees’ greens.
http://www.sciencebuzz.org/blog/got_my_back_acacia_trees_ants_help_each_other
Fungus and Algae
Lichens are composed of a mixture of fungi and algae. In each “species” of lichen, the alga and fungus
are so closely intertwined that whole lichens are classified as species, rather than the component
fungus/alga. The type of fungus and alga are species-specific. The alga does photosynthesis and
produces sugars for fuel for both. The fungus attaches the whole lichen to its substrate (tree, rock) and
holds in water needed by the algae.
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio303/coevolution.htm
The body (thallus) of most lichens is quite different from those of either the fungus or alga growing
separately, and may strikingly resemble simple plants in form and growth. The fungus surrounds the
algal cells, often enclosing them within complex fungal tissues unique to lichen associations. In many
species the fungus penetrates the algal cell wall, forming penetration pegs or haustoria similar to those
produced by pathogenic fungi. Lichens are poikilohydric, capable of surviving extremely low levels of
water content. However, the re-configuration of membranes following a period of dehydration requires
several minutes at least. During this period a “soup” of metabolites from both the mycobiont and
phycobiont leaks into the extracellar spaces. This is readily available to both bionts to take up essential
metabolic products ensuring a near perfect level of mutualism. Other epiphytic organisms may also
benefit from this nutrient rich leachate. This phenomenon also points to a possible explanation of lichen
evolution from its original phycobiont and mycobiont components with its subsequent migration from
an aquatic environment to dry land.
The algal or cyanobacterial cells are photosynthetic, and as in plants they reduce atmospheric carbon
dioxide into organic carbon sugars to feed both symbionts. Both partners gain water and mineral
nutrients mainly from the atmosphere, through rain and dust. The fungal partner protects the alga by
retaining water, serving as a larger capture area for mineral nutrients and, in some cases, provides
minerals obtained from the substrate. If a cyanobacterium is present, as a primary partner or another
symbiont in addition to green alga as in certain tripartite lichens, they can fix atmospheric nitrogen,
complementing the activities of the green alga.
Algal and fungal components of some lichens have been cultured separately under laboratory
conditions, but in the natural environment of a lichen, neither can grow and reproduce without a
symbiotic partner. Indeed, although strains of cyanobacteria found in various cyanolichens are often
closely related to one another, they differ from the most closely related free-living strains. The lichen
association is a close symbiosis: It extends the ecological range of both partners and is obligatory for
their growth and reproduction in natural environments. Propagules (diaspores) typically contain cells
from both partners; although the fungal components of so-called "fringe species" rely instead on algal
cells dispersed by the “core species.”
Lichen associations may be considered as examples of mutualism, commensalism or even parasitism,
depending on the species. Cyanobacteria in laboratory settings can grow faster when they are alone
rather than when they are part of lichen. The same, however, might be said of isolated skin cells growing
in laboratory culture, which grow more quickly than similar cells that are integrated into a functional
tissue. However, from the work of Coxson mutualism would appear to best summarise our current
knowledge.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichen
On land the algae have a unique role as pioneer organisms. They grow on bare rock, providing there is
moisture. The rock weathers and crumbles. The algae die. The mineral contribution of the rock and the
organic remains of the algae lead to formation of soil. This pioneering activity therefore paves the way
for more demanding plants to invade. A succession such as this is precisely what would have occurred
when the islands of the Caribbean first emerged from the sea.
http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/FPAS/bcs/bl14apl/algae1.htm
Bumble bee and Bucket Orchid
Bucket orchids are an excellent example of coevolution and mutualism, as the orchids have evolved
along with orchid bees and both depend on each other for reproduction.
The relatively rare bucket orchid, Coryanthes, behaves almost like an animal at pollination time. This
remarkable ability is essential to its survival.
Coryanthes has a steep-sided flower. Two glands extend over the center of the "bucket" and secrete a
clear fluid into the flower after it opens. Just above the pool of fluid inside the bucket, a tunnel opens to
the outside of the bucket. At the end of the tunnel are the flower's pollen and stigma.
When it opens, the flower sends out a strong, sweet odor that can attract male bees from over five
miles away. The male bees collect a waxy material on the flower's surface that they later use in mating
rituals. As the number of bees collecting this substance off the flower's surface increase, so does the
likelihood that, in the excitement, one of them will fall into the pool below. When this happens, the
sticky fluid makes it impossible for the bee to make its out of the "top" of the bucket-shaped flower.
However, the tunnel provides an easy exit. But as the bee nears the tunnel's end, the flower drops down
a projection from the tunnel's ceiling, holding the bee for about ten minutes before freeing him. While
the bee is held, the flower glues two packets of pollen to the bee. If it should happen that the bee
already has pollen packets, this activity delivers the pollen to the stigma, and pollination is complete.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tM6QrF3qXK8&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1&safe=a
ctive
Flowers need to be pollinated. Pollination is the process of moving the pollen grain from the anther of a
stamen to the stigma of a carpel. There are a few flowers that can self-pollinate all on their own, but this
limits them to inbreeding. Most species rely upon some kind of pollination vector to accomplish
pollination. The vector can be any agent that can move pollen from anther to stigma.
There is evidence of water and wind as the pollination vector in certain species, but many species do not
depend upon the random or downstream-only pollination pathways offered by these vectors. Indeed
such vectors are only useful in situations where large populations of a very limited number of species
are present.
Most flowers have evolved to use a "smart bomb" or "magic bullet" vector...animals! These vectors have
sensory organs to locate flowers, they have locomotion to get them to the flowers in spite of large
spaces between individuals, and they have enough intelligence to remember that they can depend upon
a reward if they visit one particular species repeatedly.
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/ibc99/koning/pollenadapt.html
The Orchidaceae originated as terrestrial forest under-story herbs approximately 100 million
years ago. The transition to an epiphytic canopy habitat required adaptations in plant morphology.
Orchids have specialized adaptations in the roots, stems, leaves, and seed. Epiphytic orchids have no
vascular connection to the host tree. The host only supplies support in a habitat that has more sunlight
than the forest floor. Orchids absorb required nutriments from the surface of the host and rainwater.
Orchid roots function as anchorage for the plant, photosynthesis, and water and nutrient uptake
and storage. These adventitious roots typically arise from the rhizome. Orchid roots have a spongy
layer of cells outside the exodermis known as the velamen that functions for temporary water storage.
These cells rapidly absorb rainwater (and nutrients) and hold it until it can be translocated across the
exodermis into the vascular system. Roots of epiphytic orchids are exposed to the light and the cells in
the roots contain functioning chloroplasts. This is why wet orchid roots appear green in color. Velamen
can also be found in Aroids that are adapted to an epiphytic habit.
Epiphytic orchids often have enlarged portions of the stem called pseudobulbs, which are used
for water and carbohydrate storage. The pseudobulb may form in one internode or it can consist of
several internodes. The pseudobulbs swell or shrink as moisture is stored or withdrawn. This
adaptation allows orchids to flourish in areas with seasonal rainfall where the plants experience months
without rainfall. The pseudobulbs and leaves have a thick cuticle to reduce moisture loss.
The leaves of a plant are the primary photosynthetic organs that are sometimes modified for
water storage. Some orchids have thick succulent leaves and no pseudobulbs. Orchids have a modified
photosynthetic pathway as an adaptation to the dry canopy habitat. The opening of the stomata to take
up carbon dioxide is always connected with large losses of water. To inhibit this loss, Crassulacean acid
metabolism (CAM) has a mechanism that allows the uptake of carbon dioxide during the night when
relative humidity is higher. The prefixed carbon dioxide is stored in the vacuoles and is used during the
daytime for photosynthesis.
Orchid seed are adapted for wind disbursal. The dust-like seed consist of a tiny embryo and a
net-like testa. The seed lack endosperm, the 3N tissues that typically feed a developing embryo. In
orchids when germination occurs a mycorrhizal fungi penetrates the testa and feeds the embryo. This
symbiotic relationship also occurs in the seed germination of terrestrial orchid species.
Although Orchidaceae is a member of the monocotyledons, the embryo lacks a cotyledon.
However orchids do have the general characteristics of other members of the lower Asparagales:
mycorrhizal relationships, simultaneous microsporogensis, sympodial growth, inferior ovary, sepal
nectaries, and lateral inflorescences.
http://www.selby.org/learningandgrowing/articles/orchid-adaptations-epiphytic-lifestyle
Bees don’t see red, but do see yellow, blue, and UV. Thus, bee-pollinated flowers are mostly yellow or
blue with UV nectar guides (landing patterns) to guide the bee. They usually have a delicate, sweet
scent, and a small, narrow floral tube to fit the tongue-length of that species of bee. The flowers are
sturdy and irregularly-shaped with a specifically-designed landing platform. For example, snapdragons
will only open for a bee of the right weight.
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio303/coevolution.htm
Butterfly and Daisy
Butterfly
1. Butterflies range in size from a tiny 1/8 inch to a huge almost 12 inches.
2. Butterflies can see red, green, and yellow.
3. Some people say that when the black bands on the Woolybear caterpillar are wide, a cold winter
is coming.
4. The top butterfly flight speed is 12 miles per hour. Some moths can fly 25 miles per hour!
5. Monarch butterflies journey from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about
2,000 miles, and return to the north again in the spring.
6. Butterflies cannot fly if their body temperature is less than 86 degrees.
7. Representations of butterflies are seen in Egyptian frescoes at Thebes, which are 3,500 years
old.
8. Antarctica is the only continent on which no Lepidoptera have been found.
9. There are about 24,000 species of butterflies. The moths are even more numerous: about
140,000 species of them were counted all over the world.
10. The Brimstone butterfly (Gonepterix rhamni) has the longest lifetime of the adult butterflies: 910 months.
11. Some Case Moth caterpillars (Psychidae) build a case around themselves that they always carry
with them. It is made of silk and pieces of plants or soil.
12. The caterpillars of some Snout Moths (Pyralididae) live in or on water-plants.
13. The females of some moth species lack wings, all they can do to move is crawl.
14. The Morgan's Sphinx Moth from Madagascar has a proboscis (tube mouth) that is 12 to 14
inches long to get the nectar from the bottom of a 12 inch deep orchid discovered by Charles
Darwin.
15. Some moths never eat anything as adults because they don't have mouths. They must live on
the energy they stored as caterpillars.
16. Many butterflies can taste with their feet to find out whether the leaf they sit on is good to lay
eggs on to be their caterpillars' food or not.
17. There are more types of insects in one tropical rain forest tree than there are in the entire state
of Vermont.
18. In 1958 Entomologist W.G. Bruce published a list of Arthropod references in the Bible. The most
frequently named bugs from the Bible are: Locust: 24, Moth: 11, Grasshopper: 10, Scorpion: 10,
Caterpillar: 9, and Bee: 4.
19. People eat insects – called "Entomophagy"(people eating bugs) – it has been practiced for
centuries throughout Africa, Australia, Asia, the Middle East, and North, Central and South
America. Why? Because many bugs are both protein-rich and good sources of vitamins, minerals
and fats.
20. Many insects can carry 50 times their own body weight. This would be like an adult person
lifting two heavy cars full of people.
21. There are over a million described species of insects. Some people estimate there are actually
between 15 and 30 million species.
22. Most insects are beneficial to people because they eat other insects, pollinate crops, are food
for other animals, make products we use (like honey and silk) or have medical uses.
23. Butterflies and insects have their skeletons on the outside of their bodies, called the
exoskeleton. This protects the insect and keeps water inside their bodies so they don’t dry out.
http://www.thebutterflysite.com/facts.shtml
Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen,
tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are
important as pollinators for some species of plants although in general they do not carry as much pollen
load as bees. They are however capable of moving pollen over greater distances. Flower constancy has
been observed for at least one species of butterfly. As adults, butterflies consume only liquids which are
ingested by means of their proboscis. They sip water from damp patches for hydration and feed on
nectar from flowers, from which they obtain sugars for energy as well as sodium and other minerals vital
for reproduction. Several species of butterflies need more sodium than that provided by nectar and are
attracted by sodium in salt; they sometimes land on people, attracted by the salt in human sweat. Some
butterflies also visit dung, rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. In many species,
this mud-puddling behaviour is restricted to the males, and studies have suggested that the nutrients
collected may be provided as a nuptial gift along with the spermatophore, during mating.
Butterflies use their antennae to sense the air for wind and scents. The antennae come in
various shapes and colours; the hesperids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most
other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensory organs known as
sensillae. A butterfly's sense of taste, 200 times stronger than humans, is coordinated by
chemoreceptors on the tarsi, or feet, which work only on contact, and are used to determine whether
an egg-laying insect's offspring will be able to feed on a leaf before eggs are laid on it. Many butterflies
use chemical signals, pheromones, and specialized scent scales (androconia) and other structures
(coremata or 'Hair pencils' in the Danaidae) are developed in some species.
Vision is well developed in butterflies and most species are sensitive to the ultraviolet spectrum.
Many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of UV reflective patches. Color vision may be
widespread but has been demonstrated in only a few species.
Some butterflies have organs of hearing and some species are also known to make stridulatory and
clicking sounds.
Monarch butterflies
Many butterflies, such as the Monarch butterfly, are migratory and capable of long distance
flights. They migrate during the day and use the sun to orient themselves. They also perceive polarized
light and use it for orientation when the sun is hidden. Many species of butterfly maintain territories
and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch
on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have
courtship flight displays. Basking is an activity which is more common in the cooler hours of the
morning. Many species will orient themselves to gather heat from the sun. Some species have evolved
dark wingbases to help in gathering more heat and this is especially evident in alpine forms.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly
Daisies:
 grow low to the ground so they are not affected by mowing
 have white petals surrounding the central anthers (producing pollen) to attract insects
 have flowers that grow taller than surrounding plants to attract insects
 must supply food as a reward for the pollinator
 have to advertise the presence of food to attract visitors
 must have a way of putting pollen on the pollinator so it is transferred to the next plant/flower.
http://test.field-studiescouncil.org/documents/projects/sitp/sessions/pid/PTID%20Adaptations%20of%20a%20daisy%20fact%2
0sheet.pdf
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A Daisy is a perennial whose evergreen leaves form a basal tuft or a rosette.
Daisy flower plant has a prostrate fashion or a growing habit of spreading.
Daisies can be propagated by division in spring or through sowing seeds in spring or late autumn.
English Daisy is a serious weed in the northwest United States.
The Daisy flowers open at dawn and are visited by many small insects.
Daisies are used by children to make daisy chains.
The Daisy's leaves are edible and can be used in salads.
http://www.theflowerexpert.com/content/growingflowers/flowersandgeography/daisies
Sword-billed Hummingbirds and Trumpet Vine
Hummingbird
The sword-billed hummingbird (Enisfera enisfera) is very aptly named, as its bill can grow up to 4 inches
long, which is longer than its body. Because of this, the bird cannot preen with its bill and instead will
groom its feathers with its feet. To ease neck strain while perched, sword-billed hummingbirds often
hold their bills straight up. These unique birds can be found in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and
Venezuela.
http://birding.about.com/od/birdprofiles/ig/Exotic-Hummingbird-Pictures/Sword-BilledHummingbird.htm
Hummingbirds are birds that comprise the family Trochilidae. They are among the smallest of birds,
most species measuring in the 7.5–13 cm (3–5 in) range. Indeed, the smallest extant bird species is a
hummingbird, the 5-cm to about 20-mm Bee Hummingbird. They can hover in mid-air by rapidly
flapping their wings 12–80 times per second (depending on the species). They are also the only group of
birds able to fly backwards. Their English name derives from the characteristic hum made by their rapid
wing beats. They can fly at speeds exceeding 15 m/s (54 km/h, 34 mi/h).
Hummingbirds drink nectar, a sweet liquid inside certain flowers. Like bees, they are able to
assess the amount of sugar in the nectar they eat; they reject flower types that produce nectar that is
less than 10% sugar and prefer those whose sugar content is stronger. Nectar is a poor source of
nutrients, so hummingbirds meet their needs for protein, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, etc. by
preying on insects and spiders.
Most hummingbirds have bills that are long and straight or nearly so, but in some species the bill shape
is adapted for specialized feeding. Thornbills have short, sharp bills adapted for feeding from flowers
with short corollas and piercing the bases of longer ones. The Sicklebills' extremely decurved bills are
adapted to extracting nectar from the curved corollas of flowers in the family Gesneriaceae. The bill of
the Fiery-tailed Awlbill has an upturned tip, as in the Avocets. The male Tooth-billed Hummingbird has
barracuda-like spikes at the tip of its long, straight bill.
The two halves of a hummingbird's bill have a pronounced overlap, with the lower half
(mandible) fitting tightly inside the upper half (maxilla). When hummingbirds feed on nectar, the bill is
usually only opened slightly, allowing the tongue to dart out and into the interior of flowers. Like the
similar nectar-feeding sunbirds and unlike other birds, hummingbirds drink by using protrusible grooved
or trough-like tongues. Hummingbirds do not spend all day flying, as the energy cost would be
prohibitive; the majority of their activity consists simply of sitting or perching. Hummingbirds feed in
many small meals, consuming many small invertebrates and up to twelve times their own body weight
in nectar each day. They spend an average of 10–15% of their time feeding and 75–80% sitting and
digesting.
Hummingbirds are specialized nectarivores and are tied to the ornithophilous flowers they feed
upon. Some species, especially those with unusual bill shapes such as the Sword-billed Hummingbird
and the sicklebills, are co-evolved with a small number of flower species.
Many plants pollinated by hummingbirds produce flowers in shades of red, orange, and bright pink,
though the birds will take nectar from flowers of many colors. Hummingbirds can see wavelengths into
the near-ultraviolet, but their flowers do not reflect these wavelengths as many insect-pollinated
flowers do. This narrow color spectrum may render hummingbird-pollinated flowers relatively
inconspicuous to most insects, thereby reducing nectar robbing. Hummingbird-pollinated flowers also
produce relatively weak nectar (averaging 25% sugars w/w) containing high concentrations of sucrose,
whereas insect-pollinated flowers typically produce more concentrated nectars dominated by fructose
and glucose.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummingbird
Trumpet Vine
The Trumpet Creeper, Campsis radicans 'flamenco', is a rapid growing, clinging vine that produces
orange trumpet shaped flowers in the summer months that attract hummingbirds and butterflies. It is
also known as the Trumpet Vine and is a tough vine for hot and dry sites. The invasive nature of this
plant makes it hard to get rid of but also very hardy.
The abundant sprays of trumpet-shaped orange flowers cover this deciduous vine for an extra long
bloom season. Trumpet Creepers are often grown with multiple trunks. This plant flowers best in a full
sun location. The rapid growth makes it an excellent plant for covering fences or arbors.
http://www.naturehills.com/product/trumpet_creeper.aspx
The trumpet vine or trumpet creeper is large and woody. It is a native of the southeastern United
States. The flower comes in colors ranging from orange to red. The plant can grow to 10 meters in
height, but may be as short as 3 meters. The flowers are very attractive to hummingbirds, but many
types of birds like to nest in the thick leaves. The plant is very hardy and difficult to get rid of. As it
grows, it puts out huge numbers of tendrils that grab onto every available surface. When planted next
to a tree, the vine will “climb” the tree and may dismember it in the process.
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Trumpet_vine
Red squirrel, Lodgepole Pine, and Crossbill birds
Red Squirrels are smallish creatures, with reddish fur and a long bushy tail. Their special features or
adaptations allow them to successfully find shelter and food in woodlands like Balloch Wood.
The bushy tail is perhaps the most obvious feature, essential for balance and communication and is
often held up and over the squirrel’s back. In fact, the Latin name for the red squirrel is Sciurus vulgaris
which originates from the Greek word ‘skiouros’ meaning ‘shade tail’.
Young red squirrels are called kittens, and are born blind and hairless. They are born in nests called
dreys in spring and summer and need to eat well so that they are fit and well for the winter months.
Squirrels get up at dawn to spend the daylight hours foraging for food, making use of the many types of
food which the forest has to offer, from tree bark and fungi in winter to insects and tree sap in summer.
They are well known for hoarding food to prepare for the winter months when supplies are low. These
food reserves of tree seeds and nuts are buried in autumn and utilised throughout the winter and
spring.
In the summer months squirrels often have a snooze around mid-day inside their drey which is also a
secure and safe place for overnight rest. That means squirrel spotting in the middle of a hot sunny
summers’ day is often unrewarded!
Unlike some other mammals, squirrels don’t hibernate and remain active throughout the winter. One of
the best times to see squirrels is during the months of January and February when their courtship chases
take place and the trees are without leaves making squirrels easy to spot!
Yet red squirrels are an endangered species. Although they are the only native species of squirrel in the
UK, they are not the only species resident here. Grey squirrels from North America were brought here
over 100 years ago and were released into parks and gardens across the country.
Due to their ability to feed more efficiently in broad leaved and mixed woodlands they have pushed red
squirrels out of many woodlands in England, Wales and central Scotland and now outnumber them by
almost twenty to one. This, combined with disease and tree felling, has led to a dramatic drop in red
squirrel numbers over the last 50 years.
Fortunately grey squirrels find it fairly difficult to survive in large conifer forests where large seeded
broadleaved trees like beech and oak are minimal – a climate in which red squirrels thrive.
Greys, being almost twice the size of red squirrels, need to spend much more time than reds foraging for
food in order to reach their daily energy requirements.
Conifer cones have very small seeds and a fraction of the energy of an acorn, a bit like comparing a
chocolate button to a mars bar! For this reason efforts to conserve the red squirrel are focussed on the
large spruce dominated conifer plantations which are so common in this part of the world, for example
the Galloway Forest Park managed by Forestry Commission Scotland.
With appropriate habitat management, these large forests could become important future refuges for
the red squirrel as greys become more widespread.
http://www.creetown-walks.co.uk/wildlife-red-squirrels.asp
Lodgepole Pine
Lodgepole pine is known for its long, slender trunk and high, thin crown. The average mature size is 24
inches in diameter and 70 feet high, although trees only 5 inches in diameter are often 50 feet high.
Both male and female cones are found on the same tree, but are separate. The male cones are in large,
orange-red clusters. The seed cones (female cones), are yellow-brown in color, average about 1 ½ inches
in length. The tips of the cone scales near the cone apex are armed with sharp prickles, while the tips of
the basal scales are usually knoblike. Cones are larger on one side near the base (asymmetrical). They
frequently cling to the twigs in a closed condition for several years, a condition described as
"serotinous."
Small, thin-shelled seeds, about 1/16 inch in length with terminal wings ½ inch long. Cones require heat
to melt resin and release seeds, or fire kills the tree and prevents water from reaching the cones.
Needle-like in bundles of two. These leaves vary in color between yellow-green and dark green. They
average 2 inches in length and are usually twisted, hence the scientific name contorta. Buds are
resinous, dark brown in color, and about ¼ inch long.
Twigs are stout and dark in color, thickly covered with leaves that remain on the twigs for about 5 years.
Bark is very thin, rarely exceeding ½ inch, which tends to reduce the tree's resistance to fire. The bark is
generally not rigid, but scaly. The scales are brown to gray and loosely attached. The wood is rather
hard, brittle, and straight grained.
Lodgepole pine is adapted to high mountain slopes at elevations usually above 6,000 feet. Reproduction
is best attained in areas that have been cleared either by man's activity or as a result of fire.
Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine produces serotinous cones which do not open at maturity because they
are sealed shut by a resinous bond between the cone scales. These cones remain on the tree for years
and require temperatures between 113 and 140 degrees F (45-60 C) to melt the resin and release the
seed. In nature, only forest fires generate temperatures of this magnitude within a tree's crown.
Lodgepole pine grows on a wide variety soils but grows best on moist, medium-textured soils derived
from granitic, shale, or coarse-grained lava parent materials.
extension.usu.edu/range/woody/lodgepolepine.htm
Crossbill Bird
Crossbill bird of the genus Loxia, in the finch family. Its bill, crossed at the tips, is specialized for pulling
apart pine cones and picking out the seeds. Crossbills are found in the evergreen forests of the Northern
Hemisphere, as far south as NW Africa and Guatemala. Two species occur in the United States. The red
crossbill ( L. curvirostra ) is found in Europe and in N and central Asia as well as in North America. Males
have orange to dull red plumage, with black wings. The white-winged crossbill ( L. leucoptera ) occurs in
northern Russia and in North America; the male of this species is rosy red and both sexes are marked
with white wing bars. Females of both species are olive-gray and yellow; they lay three to four pale
green, brown-spotted eggs, in well-formed nests built in trees. Crossbills are not considered migratory,
but they shift their breeding grounds erratically, probably in response to the availability of pine cones.
Sometimes they suddenly appear in large numbers in areas where they were formerly rarely seen.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/crossbill.aspx
Old World Swallowtail and Fringed Rue
Common Yellow or Oldworld Swallowtail
The common yellow or oldworld swallowtail butterfly is a common butterfly which is found across
Europe, Africa and Asia. It prefers wet and marshlands as its home and has a life span of up to one
month.
This swallowtail is recognizable by its black and light-yellow body with a red-and-blue ‘eye’ print upon its
wings. They have a tail-like extension on their hind wings and produce green, black and orange
caterpillars. Their wingspan is approximately 3.7 inches (95 mm).
The food the common yellow swallowtail butterfly will eat changes as it transforms from being a
caterpillar. As a caterpillar, they only eat very specific plants, most preferably milk parsley although they
will also eat carrot, fennel and angelica. When they reach adulthood they mainly exist upon the nectar
of flowers. They have a long extendable tongue which they use to drink nectar from thistles and milk
parsley plants most commonly.
They mate during the summer, usually from the end of May onwards and they lay their eggs upon the
upper leaves of the milk parsley plant. After approximately two weeks the eggs will hatch and the
newborn caterpillars are said to resemble bird droppings! As mentioned they develop into larger colored
creatures and to warn off predators they have a couple of ingenious techniques. Firstly, they can shoot
out a pair of horns from their head to appear threatening and secondly they can produce a secretion
which smells so strong it can cause predators to flee. As adults they develop different techniques to
keep predators away. The combination of “eyes” on their wings and long tail like appendages confuses
predators, mainly birds. This is because the birds can confuse the tail-like appendages with the
swallowtails antennae and give them more of a chance of escaping!
Common yellow swallowtail butterflies are becoming less common as the supply of milk parsley
decreases. Although they aren’t reliant upon it they prefer to use it to feed, hatch their eggs and many
other uses. With the loss of the milk parsley plant, we are also losing the swallowtail butterfly.
This swallowtail is a favorite of butterfly collectors in countries such as England where butterfly
collecting is popular.
http://www.factzoo.com/insects/common-yellow-oldworld-swallowtail-butterfly.html
Fringed rue is an odd-looking flower which can have four or five scoop-shaped petals with a fringe of
fine, long hairs around the edges. The divided leaves have a strong and unpleasant smell when crushed.
When not in flower, this woody, evergreen shrub has a somewhat blue-grey overall appearance.
http://www.first-nature.com/flowers/ruta_chalepensis.php
Rue
Rue is the common name for various members of the family Rutaceae, a large group of plants distributed
throughout temperate and tropical regions and most abundant in South Africa and Australia. Most species
are woody shrubs or small trees; many are evergreen and bear spines. The family is characterized by the
presence of glands producing an essential oil, and the foliage, fruits, and flowers are noticeably aromatic
and fragrant. The aromatic principle is widely utilized for flavorings, perfume oils, and medicines. Chief in
importance are the citrus fruits, source of numerous extracted oils but best known as a major tropical-fruit
industry, rivaled only by the banana and, to a lesser extent, the pineapple. Also of value medicinally are
angostura bark and the rues (both now more commonly used for flavoring) and the poisonous jaborandi.
Leaves of the latter (Pilocarpus spp. Brazil) are the source of pilocarpine, used to treat glaucoma. Several
species of the Rutaceae yield lumber used for cabinetwork, e.g., the orange and the species called
satinwood. The prickly ash, native to North America, is used in domestic brews and is often planted as a
fragrant garden ornamental, as are the citrus trees and the varieties of dittany or fraxinella (Dictamnus
alba), Old World woody perennials with a strong, lemon-like aroma. The name rue is properly restricted to
the shrubby herbs of the genus Ruta, ranging from the Mediterranean to E Siberia. The common rue of
history and literature is R. graveolans, which has greenish-yellow flowers and blue-green leaves
sometimes variegated, with a very strong odor and a bitter taste. The leaves are now sometimes used in
flavorings, beverages, and herb vinegars and in the preparation of cosmetics and perfumes. In medieval
times rue was much used as a drug; its use as a condiment was thought to prevent poisons from affecting
the system. Rue was strewn about law courts in parts of Great Britain as a preventive against diseases
carried by criminals. It was sometimes associated with witches but also symbolized grace, repentance,
and memory. Shakespeare in Richard II refers to it as the "sour herb of grace." The family Rutaceae is
classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Sapindales.
http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/rue
The four-year old plant is well-established and has not been transplanted during this period. I purchased
it as a seedling and the only maintenance has been mulching and removing dead branches. When the
stalks became too long to bear its weight, they were pruned a few inches above the root level, and new
sprouts would start growing right away.
Rue is an evergreen shrub about 80 cm (3 ft) tall, with individual round stalks that shoot up right from
the base. Some of them split in two, but most are single stems, with a cluster of leaves at the distal end
of the stem – about three quarters from the base. Some stems are tall and slender, measuring between
60-80 cm (2-3 ft). The stalks are hard, with a diameter ranging from 6-10 mm (2-4 in) covered with scars
at regular intervals, showing where leaves that have fallen off used to grow. The bark and leaves have a
similar aroma. When broken, the bark shows a very thin, dry, paper-like external layer that has a sandy
color which can easily be peeled off with a nail. Immediately underneath, the next layer is light green,
soft and moist, and can be peeled off as well. The next layer is somewhat dryer and of a faded green,
almost white. This layer is very tough and dry, and cannot be peeled off. I tried to break it open with my
nails and was able to split it. This rather “hard shell” showed a very soft and well protected white
compact core, with a consistency that reminded me of bread dough. What called my attention was the
fact that these layers were completely different from one another both in color and consistency, in spite
of being extremely thin, and the drier layer enveloped the softer one. The region that bears leaves has a
completely different tone, a light green that matches the leaves, and the color transition from green to
beige is abrupt. Also, this “green” area is rather soft and juicy. It seems to me that when the leaves fall
off, there is no longer a need for so much softness and moisture, thus the bark becomes tough and
changes to this sandy shade. Tiny new leaves grow at the very end of the stems and look like very
delicate lacework when they first appear. In spite of being hard and tough, the long stem is quite flexible
and sways to the wind.
The whole orientation of the plant is upward. The stalks seem to try to reach the sky, while the roots
attach it firmly to the ground. It is well rooted, although I have not been able to observe the root
system. I held it close to the base and tried to pull the plant, but it offered great resistance.
The bright yellow fringed flowers with protruding stamens are star-like, and grow in clusters, facing
straight up. The central flower has five petals, while all other have four. The rounded petals are initially
curled around the center and slowly open up, forming a protective shield for the light green, four/fivelobbed ovary, which gradually swells up, until the petals are no longer necessary and drop. The ovary,
with 4-5 chambers, continues growing until it reaches a size between 0,5 – 1 cm (.2 – .4 in), becoming
brown as it matures, eventually opening up to reveal 4-5 tiny black seeds in its interior. I observed this
process from August to December 2007, and documented it with pictures, some of which are shown in
this paper.
The leaf colors range from green-grayish to a bluish green with a velvety touch. The rounded small
leaves are disposed symmetrically on the upper part of the stem. They are very light and bright green
when young, turning into a green-grayish tone as they get older, eventually becoming brown at the tips
and falling off. Some older leaves are covered with a white soft layer underneath the blade. I am not
sure whether this is a natural feature of the plant or a parasite of the plant I observed. The leaves are
symmetrically distributed on each individual stem, to the right and left and at the tip. They have a
central grayish vein and many smaller secondary veins deriving from the main vein. Some leaves remind
me of a heart shape.
One of the most striking features of this plant is indeed the strong, aromatic, bitter or acrid scent, but
once you get used to it, it can be very soothing and comforting. I have had personal experiences with
that. Whenever I feel upset, mashing a few leaves with my fingers and smelling them makes me feel
better. The taste of the leaves is quite bitter and the berries taste similar, but stronger and a little hot.
http://www.flowersociety.org/rue-plant-study.html
Star Orchid and Giant Hawk Moth
What are those big, beautiful, fragrant flowers with the odd petal in the middle that you’ve seen in
corsages and wedding bouquets? Why, orchids, of course! Simply saying the name ignites images of
dazzling colors and shapes. The amazing variety of species (about 25,000 worldwide) staggers the
imagination.
From the moccasin-like lady’s slippers to the bespeckled oncidiums or the intricate little babyboot
orchids, these extravagant flowers are just variations on one basic theme that defines the orchid family.
One Basic Theme
Truly awe-inspiring, this bouquet of flower variations makes it possible for different orchids to be
adapted to different types of insect pollination. By “adapted,” I refer to structures precisely suited to
accomplish specific functions, such as specific chemicals that attract male wasps to a fly orchid. Most
other flowers separate these parts. Another unusual feature of orchids is that the third petal, called the
labellum or “lip,” is more elaborate than the other two. The lip sits on the lower side of the flower,
where it serves as a landing platform for pollinating insects. Instead of powdery pollen like other
flowers, orchids hold together their pollen in two waxy bundles (called the pollinia), which are attached
to a sticky pad.
When an insect lands on the lip in search of nectar, its mouth or body brushes the sticky pad, and the
pollinia are glued to the insect. When the insect lands on a different flower, the receptor on the new
flower’s central column snatches the pollen bundles.
Without this cross-fertilization between different flowers, the seeds couldn’t develop. And it’s essential
that more than just one seed develop at a time. Orchids store seeds in seed capsules, which cannot
mature unless most of the seeds are fertilized. Since these capsules contain thousands or even millions
of seeds (orchids have the smallest known seeds), getting all that pollen transferred at one time is vitally
important.
Simplicity of Adaptations
With everything stuck on one single column, orchids seem to have “less structure” with which to
accomplish pollination—at first glance, anyway. In fact, it has a more complex, more efficient basic
structure to transport the large number of pollen grains from one flower to another flower. This design
is also more adaptable than most other flowers.
The breathtaking spectrum of orchids arises largely through simple variations in a few features, such as
petal size and shape, coloration, curvature, growth rates, fragrances, and development of ridges, ruffles,
lobes, and nectar pockets. Demonstrating this plasticity, orchids are well known for wide crosses that
seamlessly blend stunning differences from several species into a single flower.
Eye-Popping Examples of Adaptations
Fly Orchid. In the photo of the fly orchid, what do you see? If it is an insect sitting on a flower, you are
wrong. It’s the orchid itself!
The column and lip form the head and body of the insect, and the two remaining petals suggest the
antennae. The flower produces an odor otherwise produced by females of certain digger wasps. The
flowers are ready to be pollinated precisely when the male wasps are ready to mate but before the
females are. The chemical attracts the male wasp to the flower, which physically resembles the female
well enough for the male to attempt to mate with the orchid. In the process, the pollinia stick to the
wasp’s head. By the time the wasp leaves in search of another “female,” the stalk of the pollinia dries
out and positions the pollinia so that it can be deposited when the wasp reaches the next flower.
Spurs. Many orchids have a tubular lobe, called a “spur,” on the back of the lip that fills with nectar.
Butterflies and moths, with their long coiled “soda straw” mouths, feed on the nectar. In particular,
night-flying hawk moths are attracted to white or pale yellow-green flowers that are visible at night. It is
common to find orchids with spurs two, three, or four inches long because many moths have mouths
that long when uncurled.
The real champion of long spurs is Angraecum sesquipedale, the comet orchid of Madagascar. Its spur is
about 12 inches long, though some have been found up to 16 inches. At the time Charles Darwin was
shown the comet orchid, no one knew what creature did the pollinating. Based on the idea of
adaptation, Darwin predicted that a Malagasy hawk moth would be found with an equally long mouth.3
Though people scoffed at him, the moth was actually discovered in 1903.
The fly orchid simulates the smell and appearance of a female wasp to attract male wasps for
pollination. Only one moth—the Malagasy hawk moth—has a tongue long enough to draw nectar from
the long spur of the comit orchid of Madagascar. The spur is 12-16 inches long. The lady slipper
temporarily traps pollinating insects inside its large lip. Pollen sticks to the insect as it exits the back of
the slipper.
Trap of the Lady’s Slipper. One type of orchid temporarily traps the pollinating insect. The lip of the
lady’s slipper orchid is a complex “one-way street.” Nectar inside attracts small bees, wasps, or flies that
enter through the large opening of the “slipper.” Once inside, however, the bee can’t easily fly back out.
Trying to climb up the smooth inner walls and curled edge, the pollinator usually falls to the floor of the
“slipper.” Here it finds traction on hairs that direct it to two windows in the back of the slipper. To get to
the holes, it must first squeeze past the pollen receptor (which grabs any pollinia on the bee, and pick up
new pollinia as it slips out the exit hole). The dimensions of each passageway match the size of the
insect species that visits that species of orchid.
www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v4/n1/orchids
The Giant Hawk Moth has an 8-inch tongue that allows it to drink the nectar from the long bell-shaped
Star Orchid.
Orchid plants, members of a vast and ancient family, enchanted Darwin late in life and intrigue us still,
more than a century later. With over 20,000 species in the wild today, each astonishingly adapted to its
habitat and its pollinator in shape, size, color or fragrance, orchids embody life's richness. And it is that
richness that Darwin's work allows us to understand.
Two centuries after Darwin's birth his insights remain fresh and vital. As a young man, he dared to ask
how the natural world came to look as it does. How can we explain the amazing diversity of life all
around us? And his answer—it had happened through evolution by natural selection—only increased
his sense of wonder. "There is," he said, "a grandeur in this view of life," a life in which "endless forms
most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved."
A PREDICTION
Darwin first saw this astonishing orchid from Madagascar, Angraecum sesquipedale, in 1862. Its footlong green throat holds nectar—the sweet liquid that draws pollinators—but only at its very tip.
"Astounding," Darwin wrote, of this strange adaptation. "What insect could suck it?" He predicted that
Madagascar must be home to an insect with an incredibly long feeding tube, or proboscis. Entomologists
were dubious: no such insect had ever been found there.
Charles Darwin died in 1882, and more than 40 years later, his insight was confirmed. A naturalist in
Madagascar discovered the giant hawk moth, which hovers like a hummingbird as its long, whip-like
proboscis probes for the distant nectar. The moth's scientific name, Xanthopan morganii praedicta,
honors the prediction of the scientist who never saw it, but whose theory told him that it must exist.
http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/endless
Moths live in a wide variety of habitats around the world. They usually go unnoticed, except when flying
erratically around your porch light, a streetlight, or other source of light during the darkness of night.
Perhaps you notice their handiwork when you find small holes in a woolen garment stored in your closet
or you find your tomato plants consumed by a hungry tomato hornworm.
Most moths work the night shift, unlike their “respectable cousins” the butterflies, which are out during
the daytime, and glorified in prose, poetry, and art. Unfortunately, we usually vilify moths because of
their association with the dark of night and our innate fear of darkness and things that go bump in the
night. Do you remember the monsters under your bed?
They get little respect, except from the relatively few scientists and naturalists who are passionate about
their study and who study moths and their ways. Moths represent a biological storehouse of interesting,
dramatic, and unusual behaviors, some with roles as pollinators, and others as food for other animals.
All have interesting stories to tell if we will only take the time to stop, look, listen and smell the hidden
world of moths and their flowers. Planting moonlight or a fragrance garden is a sure way to enjoy not
only these wonderful blossoms, but also their nocturnal pollinators, especially the giant hawk moths.
Highly magnified hawk moth scales (Manduca sp.) viewed with a Leica Z6 microscope. Like mammalian
fur, or feathers on a bird, these long tapering scales trap air and keep these giant moths warm. Hawk
moths shiver to warm up, and maintain high body temperatures (often 40 degrees Centigrade) to fly on
cool nights.
The pink-spotted hawk moth (Agrius cingulata) visiting a blossom of Datura at the Arizona-Sonora
Desert Museum.
Estimated populations of 11,000 moths are known to occur in the United States. Around the world,
another 160,000 species of moths have been catalogued. A staggering 200,000 or more species of moths
may exist, just waiting to be discovered. The number of moths far outnumbers the number of world’s
species of butterflies (17,500 species). Not all moths are a drab brown or white. Many moths come
clothed in a myriad of colors and patterns, some brighter than those flashy butterflies, and just as
interesting. Like butterflies, minute scales cover the wings of moth, making them slippery to the touch. If
you have ever held or tried to catch a butterfly or moth, the “powder” or “dust” that comes off on your
fingers is their scales.
Some of the largest moths in the world belong to the hawk moth or Sphingid family within the order
Lepidoptera (the animal order that includes butterflies and moths). These magnificent animals have long
narrow wings and thick bodies. They are fast flyers and often highly aerobatic. Many species can hover
in place. Some can briefly fly backwards or dart away. Hawk moths are experts at finding sweet-smelling
flowers after dark. They are especially fond of Datura (Jimpson weeds), Mirabilis (Four O’clocks), and
Peniocereus (Queen-of-the-night cactus) blossoms. These flowers are highly fragrant with long floral
tubes concealing pools of thin but abundant nectar.
Adult hawk moth (Manduca rustica) with its proboscis (tongue) fully extended. These moths are super
tankers that fly from blossom to blossom. They are especially fond of the fragrant flowers of sacred
Datura in the southwest deserts.
Hawk moths have the world’s longest tongues of any other moth or butterfly (some up to 14 inches
long). Charles Darwin knew of the star orchids (Angraecum spp.) from Madagascar that had nectar spurs
over a foot in length. Darwin was ridiculed by other scientists of his day for predicting that these orchids
would be pollinated by hawk moths. After his death, hawk moths with tongues long enough to sip of the
nectar produced by the star orchids were discovered on the island of Madagascar.
The caterpillars (larvae) of hawk moths are the familiar green hornworms or tobacco worms, familiar to
gardeners who plant tomatoes. Since some hawk moths are minor crop pests, aerial application of
pesticides to protect crops sometimes affects their numbers. With the populations of all the sphinx
moths affected by this agricultural practice there are fewer sphinx moths that pollinate rare plants, like
the famous Queen-of-the-night cactus or the sacred Datura, which live in northern Mexico and along the
border in the desert southwest.
Moths pick up pollen on their legs and wings when they visit flowers and deposit pollen (accidentally) on
subsequent floral visits. Two kinds of small moths (Yucca moths and the Senita cactus moth) actually
pick up pollen and jam a pollen ball onto the stigmas of their flowers in order to assure food, the
resulting immature seeds, for their caterpillars. They are some of the only insects to pollinate flowers
“purposefully”.
www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/...of-the.../hawk_moths.shtml
Giant Saguaro Cactus and Lesser Long-tongued Bat
Each cactus flower lasts for only one night each spring. The flower’s large size, white color, strong scent
and abundant nectar attract the bats. The bats lap up the nectar while pollen sticks to their faces. As
they feed, they transfer the pollen from flower to flower.
Saguaros are covered with protective spines, white flowers in the late spring, and red fruit in
summer.
Saguaros are found exclusively in the Sonoran Desert.

Most of the saguaros roots are only 4-6 inches deep and radiate out as far from the plant as
it is tall. There is one deep root, or tap root that extends down into the ground more than 2
feet.

After the saguaro dies its woody ribs can be used to build roofs, fences, and parts of
furniture. The holes that birds nested in or "saguaro boots" can be found among the dead
saguaros. Native Americans used these as water containers long before the canteen was
available.
http://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/Saguaro%20Cactus.php
The Lesser Long-Tongued Bat
Relatively small among bats, members of this species have a total length of 6 to 7 centimetres (2.4 to 2.8
in), a forearm around 3.5 centimetres (1.4 in) long, and weigh from 7 to 12 grams (0.25 to 0.42 oz);
females are slightly larger than males. The tail is 6 to 9 millimetres (0.24 to 0.35 in) long, with the first
half being embedded within the uropatagium, which is also partially supported by well developed
calcars. The body is covered with thick hair that is dark brown to almost black in colour.
As the common name for the species suggests, the muzzle is slender and elongated, although not
unusually so among glossophagine bats, and is tipped with a triangular nose-leaf. The ears are rounded,
with curved folds along either edge, and a large tragus. The tongue is remarkably long, and can be
extended even when the bat's jaws are closed, because of a wide gap between the front teeth, reaching
up to 50% of the animal's entire body length. The tip of the tongue bears a small patch of bristles, which
presumably helps the bat lap up nectar. The teeth are somewhat variable in form, but only the canines
are prominent, with all the remaining teeth being small and delicate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_long-tongued_bat
The lesser long-nosed bat is on the endangered species list, so if you have a mind to leave some nectar
out at night you may help these little fellows survive. If you turn out all the lights and watch out the
window on a night of bright moonlight, you may be able to see these bats. Ours come in mid- to lateAugust, arriving shortly after sunset, generally about 8 p.m. Arizona time. (Binoculars can help even at
night, especially if you are looking for the bats silhouetted against a cloudy sky.) These bats are an
amazing sight, flying swiftly and quite silently. The hummingbirds don't seem to mind sharing as long as
you refill the feeders promptly at dawn.
http://www.discoverseaz.com/Wildlife/LN_bats.html
Angraecoid Orchid and African Moth
What are those big, beautiful, fragrant flowers with the odd petal in the middle that you’ve seen in
corsages and wedding bouquets? Why, orchids, of course! Simply saying the name ignites images of
dazzling colors and shapes. The amazing variety of species (about 25,000 worldwide) staggers the
imagination.
From the moccasin-like lady’s slippers to the bespeckled oncidiums or the intricate little babyboot
orchids, these extravagant flowers are just variations on one basic theme that defines the orchid family.
One Basic Theme
Truly awe-inspiring, this bouquet of flower variations makes it possible for different orchids to be
adapted to different types of insect pollination. By “adapted,” I refer to structures precisely suited to
accomplish specific functions, such as specific chemicals that attract male wasps to a fly orchid. Most
other flowers separate these parts. Another unusual feature of orchids is that the third petal, called the
labellum or “lip,” is more elaborate than the other two. The lip sits on the lower side of the flower,
where it serves as a landing platform for pollinating insects. Instead of powdery pollen like other
flowers, orchids hold together their pollen in two waxy bundles (called the pollinia), which are attached
to a sticky pad.
When an insect lands on the lip in search of nectar, its mouth or body brushes the sticky pad, and the
pollinia are glued to the insect. When the insect lands on a different flower, the receptor on the new
flower’s central column snatches the pollen bundles.
Without this cross-fertilization between different flowers, the seeds couldn’t develop. And it’s essential
that more than just one seed develop at a time. Orchids store seeds in seed capsules, which cannot
mature unless most of the seeds are fertilized. Since these capsules contain thousands or even millions
of seeds (orchids have the smallest known seeds), getting all that pollen transferred at one time is vitally
important.
Simplicity of Adaptations
With everything stuck on one single column, orchids seem to have “less structure” with which to
accomplish pollination—at first glance, anyway. In fact, it has a more complex, more efficient basic
structure to transport the large number of pollen grains from one flower to another flower. This design
is also more adaptable than most other flowers.
The breathtaking spectrum of orchids arises largely through simple variations in a few features, such as
petal size and shape, coloration, curvature, growth rates, fragrances, and development of ridges, ruffles,
lobes, and nectar pockets. Demonstrating this plasticity, orchids are well known for wide crosses that
seamlessly blend stunning differences from several species into a single flower.
Eye-Popping Examples of Adaptations
Fly Orchid. In the photo of the fly orchid, what do you see? If it is an insect sitting on a flower, you are
wrong. It’s the orchid itself!
The column and lip form the head and body of the insect, and the two remaining petals suggest the
antennae. The flower produces an odor otherwise produced by females of certain digger wasps. The
flowers are ready to be pollinated precisely when the male wasps are ready to mate but before the
females are. The chemical attracts the male wasp to the flower, which physically resembles the female
well enough for the male to attempt to mate with the orchid. In the process, the pollinia stick to the
wasp’s head. By the time the wasp leaves in search of another “female,” the stalk of the pollinia dries
out and positions the pollinia so that it can be deposited when the wasp reaches the next flower.
Spurs. Many orchids have a tubular lobe, called a “spur,” on the back of the lip that fills with nectar.
Butterflies and moths, with their long coiled “soda straw” mouths, feed on the nectar. In particular,
night-flying hawk moths are attracted to white or pale yellow-green flowers that are visible at night. It is
common to find orchids with spurs two, three, or four inches long because many moths have mouths
that long when uncurled.
The real champion of long spurs is Angraecum sesquipedale, the comet orchid of Madagascar. Its spur is
about 12 inches long, though some have been found up to 16 inches. At the time Charles Darwin was
shown the comet orchid, no one knew what creature did the pollinating. Based on the idea of
adaptation, Darwin predicted that a Malagasy hawk moth would be found with an equally long mouth.3
Though people scoffed at him, the moth was actually discovered in 1903.
The fly orchid simulates the smell and appearance of a female wasp to attract male wasps for
pollination. Only one moth—the Malagasy hawk moth—has a tongue long enough to draw nectar from
the long spur of the comit orchid of Madagascar. The spur is 12-16 inches long. The lady slipper
temporarily traps pollinating insects inside its large lip. Pollen sticks to the insect as it exits the back of
the slipper.
Trap of the Lady’s Slipper. One type of orchid temporarily traps the pollinating insect. The lip of the
lady’s slipper orchid is a complex “one-way street.” Nectar inside attracts small bees, wasps, or flies that
enter through the large opening of the “slipper.” Once inside, however, the bee can’t easily fly back out.
Trying to climb up the smooth inner walls and curled edge, the pollinator usually falls to the floor of the
“slipper.” Here it finds traction on hairs that direct it to two windows in the back of the slipper. To get to
the holes, it must first squeeze past the pollen receptor (which grabs any pollinia on the bee, and pick up
new pollinia as it slips out the exit hole). The dimensions of each passageway match the size of the
insect species that visits that species of orchid.
www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v4/n1/orchids
Moths
Industrial Melanism

Industrial melanism is a classic example of adaptation, and a classic case took place in the British
Isles involving the moth species Biston betularia. The coloring of the peppered moth, so called
for its dark mottling, allows it to rest during the day undetected by predators on lichen-covered
trees. During the 19th century, however, in areas where severe air pollution killed off the lichen,
solid black peppered moths began appearing; within a century they made up 90 percent of the
local population. With the lichens gone, the mottled peppered moths stood out against the tree
bark and fell prey to birds. Individual moths with darker coloration were more apt to survive and
pass on that trait, evolving eventually into the solid black form.
Flight Aerodynamics

Moths have adaptations that make them incredible fliers. Narrow wings and streamlined
abdomens give these moths the ability to fly rapidly and for sustained periods of time. Hawk
moths are the strongest fliers of any moth; some species can fly as fast as 30 mph, while others
can hover over flowers much like hummingbirds.
Camouflage and Mimicry

Moths that can blend into their surroundings during rest have a distinct advantage for survival
from predation, as exhibited by the peppered moth. This adaptation is known as camouflage.
Another moth adaptation is mimicry, which confuses or frightens off predators. Moths that are
automimics have evolved markings such as wing patterns that look like large eyes; this tricks
predators into thinking the moth is a much larger animal. Batesian mimics adapt their
appearance to resemble another moth species that is dangerous or unpalatable to predators.
Birds or other predators confuse the mimic species for the toxic or untasty species and won't
attack.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8288620_adaptations-moths.html
Fig Tree and Wasp
Fig Tree
The importance of the fig tree lies in the fact that it can withstand severe climatic conditions in arid and
semi arid regions with a low rainfall resulting in low soil humidity, high temperature and high soil
calcium carbonate content. It grows on even rocks and gravel. The tree is not affected by moderately
cold winters.
http://ressources.ciheam.org/om/pdf/c13/96605643.pdf
The fig tree has been around since the earliest recorded history. It has been a staple for many
populations both rich and poor. It has become the symbol of abundance, fertility and sweetness. The fig
tree is part of the Moraceae family along with mulberries, and its common name is Fig in English, Higo in
Spanish, Figue in French, Feige in German and Fico in Italian.
1. Characteristics
o
The fig tree is a deciduous tree. The fruit of the fig tree are the seeds within inverted flowers.
The fig tree typically grows between 10 to 30 feet tall, but can grow as tall as 50 feet. Their
abundance of leaves and fruit make them great shade trees as little sun passes through their
branches. They need plenty of room around them due to their size and their root system will
travel beyond the reach of the branches. As of 2010, a wild fig tree in South Africa holds the
record for the deepest tree roots amongst all trees with roots reaching down 400 feet.
Care
o
Fig trees require a fair amount of water and full sunlight to ripen the fruit of the tree.
Insufficient water will cause the leaves to turn yellow and fall off. Though they require full sun,
the bark is sensitive to excessive heat and may require a whitewash if exposed. Pruning is only
required during the first few years of the tree's life, and heavy winter pruning can result in a loss
of fruit production. Pests are attracted to either the roots or the fruit, so some pest control is
required including keeping the ground clear of fallen fruit.
History
o
The fig most likely originated in Asia Minor. The fig tree was first recorded on the tablets of
Lagash in 2738-2371 BC and it appears in ancient Greek and Egyptian records. It was first
cultivated in India in the 14th century, and is now grown worldwide. The fig appears throughout
the Bible beginning with Adam and Eve, who used fig leaves to cover themselves.
Health Benefits
o
Figs are higher in fiber than any other common fruit or vegetable, and they also contain iron,
calcium and potassium. Figs are a natural mild laxative and have been used as such since the
Ancient Egyptians. The fruit has also been used as a mouth cleaner and to relieve chest
congestion. The black fig pulp has been used as an ingredient in facial masks to tighten the skin.
The juice from the leaves has been used on insect bites and stings, corns and warts. External use
of the juice is not recommended for everyone as sensitive skin can develop ulcerations.
Miscellaneous Facts
o
Fig trees are very adaptable as demonstrated in the dense Philippines rain forests where the
fruit grows off the trunk instead of the branches. Figs have been used as a coffee substitute,
and, due to its high alkalinity, it is eaten as an aid to those who wish to quit smoking. The fig was
first used in a commercial product in 1892 in Fig Newtons cookies.
http://www.ehow.com/about_6390465_interesting-fig-trees.html
Wasp
Interesting & Amazing Information About Wasps

The wasp is known for its poisonous sting, which can be very painful. Wasp stings can also be
fatal as some people are allergic to them. The stung area can swell and form a lump that takes a
few days to soothe.

An interesting thing about wasps is that when these insects die, they release a smell (called a
pheromone). This smell warns the other wasps of the lurking danger and is an indicator that
help is needed.

Just like many other species of insects, wasp is known to be a social animal. As many as 10,000
wasps are believed to inhabit one nest. The queen wasp, who is the only breeding female, builds
the nest using a papery substance made of chewed wood and plants.

Wasps are predated upon by different animals, which can include birds, amphibians, reptiles
and various species of mammal. This is despite of their bright colors, which can serve to deter
the predators.

Wasps, being omnivorous animals, eat a mixture of plants and other animals. They prefer to eat
sweeter plants and feed on nectars, fruits and honey. However, they also eat insects and even
large caterpillars.

Wasps are believed to become very aggressive during the months from August to October.
During this period, their food preference shifts from insects to food and garbage. This is also the
time when they can come in contact with humans and attack them.

Since wasps predate on caterpillars, they are considered as beneficial to farmers. They could
comb the whole area to find food and pick caterpillars, which can damage the crops.

Wasps are active only during the daylight and they can be usually found resting in their nests
during the night time. If one wants to eradicate the wasps permanently, night time is considered
to be the best.

All female wasps are not fertile and the first group of wasps to be born is one of sterile wasps.
The queen wasp is helped by some fertile wasps in increasing the population of the nest in the
beginning. The other fertile wasps lay eggs in the beginning but eventually become sterile, when
there are enough wasps in the nest.
http://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/facts-about-wasps-7317.html
California Buckeye and butterflies
The California buckeye, Aesculus californica, begins to bloom in April or May, depending on location and on the
duration of the winter rains. The tree is perhaps about ten to twelve feet tall when it grows in the full sun of
chaparral. Chaparral is a plant community adapted to the summer-dry, winter-wet Mediterranean climate of
Coastal Range California. In moister areas, such as the canyons and ravines of the Coast Range, the California
buckeye may grow larger, perhaps reaching a height of 25 feet. The tree has a rounded crown and a spreading
habit.
The inflorescences of the California buckeye range from white to pink in color. Some people say they smell good,
but some say their smell is unpleasant. In any case, they are composed of many florets each with long stamens
that hang out of the flower, and arranged in a spike about five or six inches long. The leaves of the buckeye tree
are palmate, long serrate ovals of dark green above and a paler green below. The juvenile foliage is often downy,
especially on the underside, but becomes smoother with maturity.
The flowers, fruit, and seeds of the California buckeye are poisonous. Various tribes of Native Americans, whom
the Spanish called collectively Costanoans (which may be translated as "coastal dwellers"), exploited this attribute
when they placed the seeds in pools of water to stun fish, which they then gathered, cooked, and ate. When some
"Costanoan" tribes could not find other food, they reportedly leached the poison out of the seeds with repeated
soaking and boiling, and then cooked and ate them.
Because of the poison, the USDA suggests that honeybees not be allowed to gather nectar from California buckeye
trees. Deer do eat the young shoots, without apparent harm, and squirrels do gather and store the ripe seeds,
which resemble chestnuts in appearance. The California buckeye is a member of the horse-chestnut family.
Because it essentially does not rain at all in California in the summer, the ground dries out. At some point in the
summertime, the dryness of the soil reaches a point that signals the California buckeye to begin shedding its
leaves. This is obviously an adaptation to the particular climate, like the thick waxy moisture-retaining leaves of
many other members of the chaparral plant community. The California buckeye becomes leafless months sooner
than other local deciduous florae, with the precise timing of its leaf fall dependent upon weather. The gray-barked
tree often appears to be dead to people unfamiliar with local conditions, until sufficient winter moisture causes it
to leaf out again in late fall or early winter.
http://www.helium.com/items/1065641-the-california-buckeye
Butterfly
1.
Butterflies range in size from a tiny 1/8 inch to a huge almost 12 inches.
2.
Butterflies can see red, green, and yellow.
3.
Some people say that when the black bands on the Woolybear caterpillar are wide, a cold winter is
coming.
4.
The top butterfly flight speed is 12 miles per hour. Some moths can fly 25 miles per hour!
5.
Monarch butterflies journey from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 2,000 miles,
and return to the north again in the spring.
6.
Butterflies cannot fly if their body temperature is less than 86 degrees.
7.
Representations of butterflies are seen in Egyptian frescoes at Thebes, which are 3,500 years old.
8.
Antarctica is the only continent on which no Lepidoptera have been found.
9.
There are about 24,000 species of butterflies. The moths are even more numerous: about 140,000 species
of them were counted all over the world.
10. The Brimstone butterfly (Gonepterix rhamni) has the longest lifetime of the adult butterflies: 9-10
months.
11. Some Case Moth caterpillars (Psychidae) build a case around themselves that they always carry with
them. It is made of silk and pieces of plants or soil.
12. The caterpillars of some Snout Moths (Pyralididae) live in or on water-plants.
13. The females of some moth species lack wings, all they can do to move is crawl.
14. The Morgan's Sphinx Moth from Madagascar has a proboscis (tube mouth) that is 12 to 14 inches long to
get the nectar from the bottom of a 12 inch deep orchid discovered by Charles Darwin.
15. Some moths never eat anything as adults because they don't have mouths. They must live on the energy
they stored as caterpillars.
16. Many butterflies can taste with their feet to find out whether the leaf they sit on is good to lay eggs on to
be their caterpillars' food or not.
17. There are more types of insects in one tropical rain forest tree than there are in the entire state of
Vermont.
18. In 1958 Entomologist W.G. Bruce published a list of Arthropod references in the Bible. The most
frequently named bugs from the Bible are: Locust: 24, Moth: 11, Grasshopper: 10, Scorpion: 10,
Caterpillar: 9, and Bee: 4.
19. People eat insects – called "Entomophagy"(people eating bugs) – it has been practiced for centuries
throughout Africa, Australia, Asia, the Middle East, and North, Central and South America. Why? Because
many bugs are both protein-rich and good sources of vitamins, minerals and fats.
20. Many insects can carry 50 times their own body weight. This would be like an adult person lifting two
heavy cars full of people.
21. There are over a million described species of insects. Some people estimate there are actually between 15
and 30 million species.
22. Most insects are beneficial to people because they eat other insects, pollinate crops, are food for other
animals, make products we use (like honey and silk) or have medical uses.
23. Butterflies and insects have their skeletons on the outside of their bodies, called the exoskeleton. This
protects the insect and keeps water inside their bodies so they don’t dry out.
http://www.thebutterflysite.com/facts.shtml
Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen,
tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are
important as pollinators for some species of plants although in general they do not carry as much pollen
load as bees. They are however capable of moving pollen over greater distances. Flower constancy has
been observed for at least one species of butterfly. As adults, butterflies consume only liquids which are
ingested by means of their proboscis. They sip water from damp patches for hydration and feed on
nectar from flowers, from which they obtain sugars for energy as well as sodium and other minerals vital
for reproduction. Several species of butterflies need more sodium than that provided by nectar and are
attracted by sodium in salt; they sometimes land on people, attracted by the salt in human sweat. Some
butterflies also visit dung, rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. In many species,
this mud-puddling behaviour is restricted to the males, and studies have suggested that the nutrients
collected may be provided as a nuptial gift along with the spermatophore, during mating.
Butterflies use their antennae to sense the air for wind and scents. The antennae come in
various shapes and colours; the hesperids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most
other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensory organs known as
sensillae. A butterfly's sense of taste, 200 times stronger than humans, is coordinated by
chemoreceptors on the tarsi, or feet, which work only on contact, and are used to determine whether
an egg-laying insect's offspring will be able to feed on a leaf before eggs are laid on it. Many butterflies
use chemical signals, pheromones, and specialized scent scales (androconia) and other structures
(coremata or 'Hair pencils' in the Danaidae) are developed in some species.
Vision is well developed in butterflies and most species are sensitive to the ultraviolet spectrum.
Many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of UV reflective patches. Color vision may be
widespread but has been demonstrated in only a few species.
Some butterflies have organs of hearing and some species are also known to make stridulatory and
clicking sounds.
Monarch butterflies
Many butterflies, such as the Monarch butterfly, are migratory and capable of long distance
flights. They migrate during the day and use the sun to orient themselves. They also perceive polarized
light and use it for orientation when the sun is hidden. Many species of butterfly maintain territories
and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch
on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have
courtship flight displays. Basking is an activity which is more common in the cooler hours of the
morning. Many species will orient themselves to gather heat from the sun. Some species have evolved
dark wingbases to help in gathering more heat and this is especially evident in alpine forms.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly
Passiflora plant and Heliconius butterfly
Passiflora plant (passion flower)
The passion flowers have a unique structure, which in most cases requires a large bee to effectively
pollinate. In the American tropics, wooden beams are mounted very near passionfruit plantings to
encourage carpenter bees to nest. The size and structure of flowers of other Passiflora species is
optimized for pollination by hummingbirds, bumble bees, wasps or bats, while yet others are selfpollinating. The Sword-billed Hummingbird with its immensely elongated bill has co-evolved with certain
passion flowers.
Yellow Passion Flower pollen is apparently the only pollen eaten by the unusual bee. However, these
bees simply collect the pollen, but do not pollinate the flowers. Passiflora species are important sources
of nectar for many insects. The leaves are used as food plants by the larva of the swift moth and many
longwing butterflies. Well-known species among the latter are the American Sara Longwing and the
Asian Leopard Lacewing.
To prevent the butterflies from laying too many eggs on any single plant, some passion flowers bear
small colored nubs which resemble the butterflies' eggs and seem to fool them into believing that more
eggs have already been deposited on a plant than actually is the case. Also, many Passiflora species
produce sweet nutrient-rich liquid from glands on their leaf stems. These fluids attract ants which will
kill and eat many pests that they happen to find feeding on the passion flowers.
www.altmd.com/Articles/Passionflower--Encyclopedia-of-Alternative-Medicin
Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata ) is a creeping perennial vine with white, purple-tinged flowers and
orange berries that grows to a height of up to 30 ft (9 m). First used by Native Americans and the Aztecs
of Mexico as a sedative, passionflower has been a popular folk remedy for centuries in Europe and
North America. Other names for passionflower include maypop, granadilla, passion vine, and apricot
vine. The herb, which is generally used today to alleviate anxiety and insomnia , received its curious
name from the Spanish conquistadors. While there are over 400 species belonging to the genus
Passiflora, the variety used for medicinal purposes is called incarnata, which can be translated
"embodied." The plant is obtained primarily from the southern United States, India, and the West Indies,
though passionflower also grows in Mexico as well as Central and South America. Only the parts of the
plant that grow above the ground are used as a drug, in fresh and dried form.
Some investigations of passionflower have been conducted in humans; in addition, animal and other
studies suggest that the herb has sedative, anxiolytic, and antispasmodic properties. The German
Commission E, considered an authoritative source of information on alternative remedies, reported that
passionflower appears to reduce restlessness in animals. In a 1988 study involving rats that was
published in a German journal of pharmacology, passionflower was shown to prolong sleep, reduce
motor activity, and protect the rodents from convulsions. Despite findings such as these, researchers
have been unable to identify the herb's active ingredients. Attention has focused on flavonoids
(medicinal passionflower contains up to 2.5% of these chemicals); maltol; and harmala alkaloids such as
harman, harmine,
harmaline, and harmalol. (The Germans attempted to use harmine as a truth serum during World War II
because of the chemical's reputation for inducing a euphoria-like state.) Some researchers speculate
that it is the interaction, or synergy, of several chemicals in passionflower that is responsible for the
herb's therapeutic effects.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/passionflower.aspx
Butterfly
24. Butterflies range in size from a tiny 1/8 inch to a huge almost 12 inches.
25. Butterflies can see red, green, and yellow.
26. Some people say that when the black bands on the Woolybear caterpillar are wide, a cold winter
is coming.
27. The top butterfly flight speed is 12 miles per hour. Some moths can fly 25 miles per hour!
28. Monarch butterflies journey from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about
2,000 miles, and return to the north again in the spring.
29. Butterflies cannot fly if their body temperature is less than 86 degrees.
30. Representations of butterflies are seen in Egyptian frescoes at Thebes, which are 3,500 years
old.
31. Antarctica is the only continent on which no Lepidoptera have been found.
32. There are about 24,000 species of butterflies. The moths are even more numerous: about
140,000 species of them were counted all over the world.
33. The Brimstone butterfly (Gonepterix rhamni) has the longest lifetime of the adult butterflies: 910 months.
34. Some Case Moth caterpillars (Psychidae) build a case around themselves that they always carry
with them. It is made of silk and pieces of plants or soil.
35. The caterpillars of some Snout Moths (Pyralididae) live in or on water-plants.
36. The females of some moth species lack wings, all they can do to move is crawl.
37. The Morgan's Sphinx Moth from Madagascar has a proboscis (tube mouth) that is 12 to 14
inches long to get the nectar from the bottom of a 12 inch deep orchid discovered by Charles
Darwin.
38. Some moths never eat anything as adults because they don't have mouths. They must live on
the energy they stored as caterpillars.
39. Many butterflies can taste with their feet to find out whether the leaf they sit on is good to lay
eggs on to be their caterpillars' food or not.
40. There are more types of insects in one tropical rain forest tree than there are in the entire state
of Vermont.
41. In 1958 Entomologist W.G. Bruce published a list of Arthropod references in the Bible. The most
frequently named bugs from the Bible are: Locust: 24, Moth: 11, Grasshopper: 10, Scorpion: 10,
Caterpillar: 9, and Bee: 4.
42. People eat insects – called "Entomophagy"(people eating bugs) – it has been practiced for
centuries throughout Africa, Australia, Asia, the Middle East, and North, Central and South
America. Why? Because many bugs are both protein-rich and good sources of vitamins, minerals
and fats.
43. Many insects can carry 50 times their own body weight. This would be like an adult person
lifting two heavy cars full of people.
44. There are over a million described species of insects. Some people estimate there are actually
between 15 and 30 million species.
45. Most insects are beneficial to people because they eat other insects, pollinate crops, are food
for other animals, make products we use (like honey and silk) or have medical uses.
46. Butterflies and insects have their skeletons on the outside of their bodies, called the
exoskeleton. This protects the insect and keeps water inside their bodies so they don’t dry out.
http://www.thebutterflysite.com/facts.shtml
Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen,
tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are
important as pollinators for some species of plants although in general they do not carry as much pollen
load as bees. They are however capable of moving pollen over greater distances. Flower constancy has
been observed for at least one species of butterfly. As adults, butterflies consume only liquids which are
ingested by means of their proboscis. They sip water from damp patches for hydration and feed on
nectar from flowers, from which they obtain sugars for energy as well as sodium and other minerals vital
for reproduction. Several species of butterflies need more sodium than that provided by nectar and are
attracted by sodium in salt; they sometimes land on people, attracted by the salt in human sweat. Some
butterflies also visit dung, rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. In many species,
this mud-puddling behaviour is restricted to the males, and studies have suggested that the nutrients
collected may be provided as a nuptial gift along with the spermatophore, during mating.
Butterflies use their antennae to sense the air for wind and scents. The antennae come in
various shapes and colours; the hesperids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most
other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensory organs known as
sensillae. A butterfly's sense of taste, 200 times stronger than humans, is coordinated by
chemoreceptors on the tarsi, or feet, which work only on contact, and are used to determine whether
an egg-laying insect's offspring will be able to feed on a leaf before eggs are laid on it. Many butterflies
use chemical signals, pheromones, and specialized scent scales (androconia) and other structures
(coremata or 'Hair pencils' in the Danaidae) are developed in some species.
Vision is well developed in butterflies and most species are sensitive to the ultraviolet spectrum.
Many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of UV reflective patches. Color vision may be
widespread but has been demonstrated in only a few species.
Some butterflies have organs of hearing and some species are also known to make stridulatory and
clicking sounds.
Monarch butterflies
Many butterflies, such as the Monarch butterfly, are migratory and capable of long distance
flights. They migrate during the day and use the sun to orient themselves. They also perceive polarized
light and use it for orientation when the sun is hidden. Many species of butterfly maintain territories
and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch
on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have
courtship flight displays. Basking is an activity which is more common in the cooler hours of the
morning. Many species will orient themselves to gather heat from the sun. Some species have evolved
dark wingbases to help in gathering more heat and this is especially evident in alpine forms.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly
Orchids and Meganosed fly
Orchids
What are those big, beautiful, fragrant flowers with the odd petal in the middle that you’ve seen in
corsages and wedding bouquets? Why, orchids, of course! Simply saying the name ignites images of
dazzling colors and shapes. The amazing variety of species (about 25,000 worldwide) staggers the
imagination.
From the moccasin-like lady’s slippers to the bespeckled oncidiums or the intricate little babyboot
orchids, these extravagant flowers are just variations on one basic theme that defines the orchid family.
One Basic Theme
Truly awe-inspiring, this bouquet of flower variations makes it possible for different orchids to be
adapted to different types of insect pollination. By “adapted,” I refer to structures precisely suited to
accomplish specific functions, such as specific chemicals that attract male wasps to a fly orchid. Most
other flowers separate these parts. Another unusual feature of orchids is that the third petal, called the
labellum or “lip,” is more elaborate than the other two. The lip sits on the lower side of the flower,
where it serves as a landing platform for pollinating insects. Instead of powdery pollen like other
flowers, orchids hold together their pollen in two waxy bundles (called the pollinia), which are attached
to a sticky pad.
When an insect lands on the lip in search of nectar, its mouth or body brushes the sticky pad, and the
pollinia are glued to the insect. When the insect lands on a different flower, the receptor on the new
flower’s central column snatches the pollen bundles.
Without this cross-fertilization between different flowers, the seeds couldn’t develop. And it’s essential
that more than just one seed develop at a time. Orchids store seeds in seed capsules, which cannot
mature unless most of the seeds are fertilized. Since these capsules contain thousands or even millions
of seeds (orchids have the smallest known seeds), getting all that pollen transferred at one time is vitally
important.
Simplicity of Adaptations
With everything stuck on one single column, orchids seem to have “less structure” with which to
accomplish pollination—at first glance, anyway. In fact, it has a more complex, more efficient basic
structure to transport the large number of pollen grains from one flower to another flower. This design
is also more adaptable than most other flowers.
The breathtaking spectrum of orchids arises largely through simple variations in a few features, such as
petal size and shape, coloration, curvature, growth rates, fragrances, and development of ridges, ruffles,
lobes, and nectar pockets. Demonstrating this plasticity, orchids are well known for wide crosses that
seamlessly blend stunning differences from several species into a single flower.
Eye-Popping Examples of Adaptations
Fly Orchid. In the photo of the fly orchid, what do you see? If it is an insect sitting on a flower, you are
wrong. It’s the orchid itself!
The column and lip form the head and body of the insect, and the two remaining petals suggest the
antennae. The flower produces an odor otherwise produced by females of certain digger wasps. The
flowers are ready to be pollinated precisely when the male wasps are ready to mate but before the
females are. The chemical attracts the male wasp to the flower, which physically resembles the female
well enough for the male to attempt to mate with the orchid. In the process, the pollinia stick to the
wasp’s head. By the time the wasp leaves in search of another “female,” the stalk of the pollinia dries
out and positions the pollinia so that it can be deposited when the wasp reaches the next flower.
Spurs. Many orchids have a tubular lobe, called a “spur,” on the back of the lip that fills with nectar.
Butterflies and moths, with their long coiled “soda straw” mouths, feed on the nectar. In particular,
night-flying hawk moths are attracted to white or pale yellow-green flowers that are visible at night. It is
common to find orchids with spurs two, three, or four inches long because many moths have mouths
that long when uncurled.
The real champion of long spurs is Angraecum sesquipedale, the comet orchid of Madagascar. Its spur is
about 12 inches long, though some have been found up to 16 inches. At the time Charles Darwin was
shown the comet orchid, no one knew what creature did the pollinating. Based on the idea of
adaptation, Darwin predicted that a Malagasy hawk moth would be found with an equally long mouth.3
Though people scoffed at him, the moth was actually discovered in 1903.
The fly orchid simulates the smell and appearance of a female wasp to attract male wasps for
pollination. Only one moth—the Malagasy hawk moth—has a tongue long enough to draw nectar from
the long spur of the comit orchid of Madagascar. The spur is 12-16 inches long. The lady slipper
temporarily traps pollinating insects inside its large lip. Pollen sticks to the insect as it exits the back of
the slipper.
Trap of the Lady’s Slipper. One type of orchid temporarily traps the pollinating insect. The lip of the
lady’s slipper orchid is a complex “one-way street.” Nectar inside attracts small bees, wasps, or flies that
enter through the large opening of the “slipper.” Once inside, however, the bee can’t easily fly back out.
Trying to climb up the smooth inner walls and curled edge, the pollinator usually falls to the floor of the
“slipper.” Here it finds traction on hairs that direct it to two windows in the back of the slipper. To get to
the holes, it must first squeeze past the pollen receptor (which grabs any pollinia on the bee, and pick up
new pollinia as it slips out the exit hole). The dimensions of each passageway match the size of the
insect species that visits that species of orchid.
www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v4/n1/orchids
Fly
The meganosed fly (Moegistorhynchus longirostris) of southern Africa, like its literary
counterpart, Pinocchio, has a bizarre appearance that reveals an underlying truth. Its proboscis,
which looks like a nose but is actually the longest mouthpart of any known fly, protrudes as
much as four inches from its head—five times the length of its bee-size body. In flight the
ungainly appendage dangles between the insect’s legs and trails far behind its body.
To an airborne fly, an elongated proboscis might seem a severe handicap (imagine walking
down the street with a twenty-seven-foot straw dangling from your mouth). Apparently, though,
the handicap can be well worth its aerodynamic cost. The outlandish proboscis gives the
meganosed fly access to nectar pools in long, deep flowers that are simply out of reach to
insects with shorter mouthparts.
But that poses a conundrum: why would natural selection favor such a deep tube in a flower?
After all, nectar itself has evolved because it attracts animals that carry pollen, the sperm of the
floral world, from one plant to another. And since pollinators perform such an essential service
for the flower, shouldn’t evolution have favored floral geometries that make nectar readily
accessible to the pollinators?
Yet the story of the long proboscis of the meganosed fly and the long, deep tubes of the flowers
on which it feeds is not quite so straightforward. There are subtle advantages, it turns out, to
making nectar accessible to only a few pollinators, and nature factors those advantages into the
evolutionary equation as well. In fact, the evolution of those two kinds of organisms, pollinator
and pollinated, presents an outstanding example of an important evolutionary phenomenon
known as coevolution. Coevolution can explain the emergence of bizarre or unusual anatomies
when no simple evolutionary response to natural selection is really adequate. It can help
conservationists identify species that could be vital in maintaining a given habitat. And it can
help naturalists investigating novel plants predict what kinds of animals might pollinate their
flowers.
Like all other long-nosed flies, the meganosed fly is the sole pollinator to a group of unrelated
plant species; such a group is known as a guild. The plant guild of the meganosed fly includes
species from a wide variety of plant families, including geraniums, irises, orchids, and violets.
Even though guild members may be only distantly related, all of them have roughly the same
characteristics. For example, plants in the long-nosed fly guild all have long, straight floral tubes
or spurs; brightly colored flowers that are open during the day; and no scent. The defining traits
of a guild together form what botanists call a pollination syndrome. For example, bird-pollinated
flowers are typically large, red, and unscented, whereas moth-pollinated flowers are more likely
to be long, narrow, white, and scented in the evening.
The most important trait in the pollination syndrome of the long-nosed fly (and indeed, in all
pollination syndromes of long-nosed insects) is a deep, tubular flower or floral spur. One of us
(Johnson) and Kim E. Steiner of the Compton Herbarium in Claremont, South Africa, studied the
orchid Disa draconis, a southern African plant with a deep, tubular floral spur. The two
investigators artificially shortened the spurs of some orchids in a habitat where the only
pollinators present were long-nosed flies. The plants whose spurs remained long got more
pollen, and were more likely to produce fruits, than the ones whose spurs were shortened.
Yet short floral spurs are not necessarily a reproductive disadvantage. Shorter spurs would make it
possible for a wider range of pollinators to access the nectar, if various potential
pollinators are present. Instead, longer spurs only seem to be an advantage when long-tongued
insects are the sole pollinators.
http://www.explorebiology.com/documents/EXCR_NatHist-FlowerAndFly.pdf
Leafcutter ants and Fungus
Leafcutter Ants
Leafcutter ants, a non-generic name, are any of 47 species of leaf-chewing ants.These species of
tropical, fungus-growing ants are all endemic to South, Central America, Mexico and parts of the
southern United States. Leafcutter ants "cut and process fresh vegetation (leaves, flowers, and grasses)
to serve as the nutritional substrate for their fungal cultivars."
The Acromyrmex and Atta ants have much in common anatomically; however, the two can be identified
by their external differences. Atta ants have three pairs of spines and a smooth exoskeleton on the
upper surface of the thorax, while Acromyrmex ants have four pairs and a rough exoskeleton.
Next to humans, leafcutter ants form the largest and most complex animal societies on Earth. In a few
years, the central mound of their underground nests can grow to more than 30 metres (98 ft) across,
with smaller, radiating mounds extending out to a radius of 80 metres (260 ft), taking up 30 to 600
square metres (320 to 6,500 sq ft) and containing eight million individuals.
Winged females and males leave their respective nests en masse and engage in a nuptial flight known as
the revoada. Each female mates with multiple males to collect the 300 million sperm she needs to set up
a colony.
Once on the ground, the female loses her wings and searches for a suitable underground lair in which to
found her colony. The success rate of these young queens is very low, and only 2.5% will go on to
establish a long-lived colony. To start her own fungus garden, the queen stores bits of the parental
fungus garden mycelium in her infrabuccal pocket, which is located within her oral cavity.
Their societies are based on an ant-fungus mutualism, and different species of ants use different species
of fungus, but all of the fungi the ants use are members of the Lepiotaceae family. The ants actively
cultivate their fungus, feeding it with freshly cut plant material and keeping it free from pests and molds.
This mutualistic relationship is further augmented by another symbiotic partner; a bacterium that grows
on the ants and secretes chemicals, - essentially the ants use portable antimicrobials. Leaf cutter ants
are sensitive enough to adapt to the fungi's reaction to different plant material, apparently detecting
chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus, the colony will no
longer collect it. The only two other groups of insects that utilize fungus-based agriculture are ambrosia
beetles and termites. The fungus cultivated by the adults is used to feed the ant larvae, and the adult
ants feed off the leaf sap. The fungus needs the ants to stay alive, and the larvae need the fungus to stay
alive.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafcutter_ant
Fungus
Fungi are not plants.
Living things are organized for study into large, basic groups called kingdoms. Fungi were listed in the
Plant Kingdom for many years. Then scientists learned that fungi show a closer relation to animals, but
are unique and separate life forms. Now, Fungi are placed in their own Kingdom.
It is a hidden kingdom. The part of the fungus that we see is only the “fruit” of the organism. The living
body of the fungus is a mycelium made out of a web of tiny filaments called hyphae. The mycelium is
usually hidden in the soil, in wood, or another food source. A mycelium may fill a single ant, or cover
many acres. The branching hyphae can add over a half mile (1 km) of total length to the mycelium each
day. These webs live unseen until they develop mushrooms, puffballs, truffles, brackets, cups, “bird’s
nests,” “corals” or other fruiting bodies. If the mycelium produces microscopic fruiting bodies, people
may never notice the fungus.
Most fungi build their cell walls out of chitin. This is the same material as the hard outer shells of insects
and other arthropods. Plants do not make chitin.
Fungi feed by absorbing nutrients from the organic material in which they live. Fungi do not have
stomachs. They must digest their food before it can pass through the cell wall into the hyphae. Hyphae
secrete acids and enzymes that break the surrounding organic material down into simple molecules they
can easily absorb.
Fungi have evolved to use a lot of different items for food. Some are decomposers living on dead organic
material like leaves. Some fungi cause diseases by using living organisms for food. These fungi infect
plants, animals and even other fungi. Athlete’s foot and ringworm are two fungal diseases in humans.
The mycorrhizal fungi live as partners with plants. They provide mineral nutrients to the plant in
exchange for carbohydrates or other chemicals fungi cannot manufacture.
You probably use fungal products every day without being aware of it. People eat mushrooms of all
shapes, sizes and colors. Yeasts are used in making bread, wine, beer and solvents. Drugs made from
fungi cure diseases and stop the rejection of transplanted hearts and other organs. Fungi are also grown
in large vats to produce flavorings for cooking, vitamins and enzymes for removing stains.
http://herbarium.usu.edu/fungi/funfacts/kingfact.htm