Society for American Archaeology
Extending the Phytolith Evidence for Early Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) and Squash (Cucurbita
sp.) in Central New York
Author(s): John P. Hart, Hetty Jo Brumbach and Robert Lusteck
Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Jul., 2007), pp. 563-583
Published by: Society for American Archaeology
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EXTENDING THE PHYTOLITH EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MAIZE
(Zea mays ssp. mays) AND SQUASH (Cucurbitasp.)
IN CENTRAL NEW YORK
John P. Hart,Hetty Jo Brumbach,and RobertLusteck
The timing of the adoptions of maize and squash across eastern North America has been a topic of long-standing interest
among archaeologists and paleoethnobotanists.Theuse offlotation for macrobotanicalremainsbeginningin the 1960s and
1970s coupled with the application of accelerator mass spectrometrydating beginning in the 1980s has led to substantial
revisions of knowledge about the history of these crops in the region. A complementarysource of evidencefor the crops'
histories in the easternNorthAmericacomesfrom opalphytoliths.Analysis ofphytolith assemblages recoveredfrom charred
food residueshas shown that maize and squash were being used in central New Yorkwell before the macrobotanicalrecord
indicates. In combinationwith previously analyzed samples, 16 additional residue assemblages help to clarify the history
of maize and squash in central New York.The results indicate that maize and squash were being used in New Yorkby 2270
B.R and 2945 B.R, respectively.
Elfechamientode las adopciones del maiz y la calabaza a traves del este de Norte Americaha sido un topico de interespor
muchotiempopara arqueologosypaleobotdnicos.La utilizaciondel metododeflotacion para restosmacrobotdnicoscomenzo
en los 1960s y 1970s, emparejocon la aplicacion delfechamientopor Aceleradorde Espectrometrode Masa, el cual comenzo
en los 1980s, esto ha llevado a revisionessubstancialesen el conocimientoacerca de la historiade estos cultivosen la region.
Unafuente complementariade evidenciapara las historias de los cultivos en el este de Norteamericaprovienedefitolitos de
opalo. Andlisis de colecciones defitolitos en residuosde alimentoshan demostradoque el maiz y la calabazafueron utilizados en el centrode Nueva Yorkmuchoantes de lo que el recordmacrobotdnicoindica. En combinacioncon muestraspreviamenteanalizadas, 16 colecciones de residuosadicionales ayudana clarificar la historia del maiz y la calabaza en el centro
de Nueva York.Los resultadosindican que el maiz y la calabazafueron utilizadosen Nueva Yorken 2270 B.R y 2945 B.R,
respectivamente.
the histories of agricultural
crops has been an important focus of
Determining
archaeologicaland paleoethnobotanical
researchin easternNorthAmericafordecades(e.g.,
AschandHart2004;BlakeandCutler2001;Crawford and Smith 2003; Ford 1985; Fritz 1990;
Gilmore1931; Green 1994; Hart,ed. 1999; Keegan 1987;Minnis2003; Riley et al. 1990; Scarry
1993; Smith 1992; Woods 1992; Yarnell 1964).
The flotationrevolutionbeginning in the 1960s
revi(ChapmanandWatson1993)ledto substantial
sionsin ourknowledgeof cropsandtheirhistories
in easternNorthAmericathroughthe systematic
remains(e.g., Struever
recoveryof macrobotanical
1962).Theflotationrevolutionwasenhancedin the
1980s with the adventof acceleratormass spectrometry(AMS) dating,which allows directdating of key cropremains(e.g., Adair2003; Conard
et al. 1984; Crawfordet al. 1997;Fritzand Smith
1988;Hartet al. 2002; Riley et al. 1994).
However,becauseof the vagariesof macrobotanical preservation,a complete understandingof
crophistoriesrequirescomplementarysourcesof
evidence(Hardet al. 1996;Hart1999a).One such
John P. Hart Researchand Collections Division, New YorkState Museum, 3140 CulturalEducationCenter,Albany,NY
12230. (jph_nysm@mail.
nysed.gov)
Hetty Jo Brumbach Departmentof Anthropology,Universityat Albany,SUNY, Arts & Sciences Building, Room 237,
1400 WashingtonAve., Albany,NY 12222. ([email protected])
Robert Lusteck Departmentof Anthropology,Universityof Minnesota,395 HubertH. HumphreyCenter,301 19thAve.
S., Minneapolis,MN 55455. ([email protected])
AmericanAntiquity,72(3), 2007, pp. 563-583
Copyright©2007 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology
563
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564
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
AMERICANANTIQUITY
source of evidence comes from opal phytoliths
(Pearsall 1982; Rovner 1983). Analysis of phytolithsto helpbuildregionalcrophistorieshasbeen
done extensively in Centraland South America
(e.g., Pearsall1978; Pearsallet al. 2003; Piperno
2004; Pipernoet al. 1985; Pipernoand Flannery
2001; Piperno and Pearsall 1998; Piperno and
Stothert2003; StallerandThompson2002;Thompson 2006). Fewerstudieshave focused on eastern
NorthAmerica (e.g., Bozarth 1987, 1990, 1993;
Thompsonet al. 1994), especiallyeast of the MississippiRiver(Starnaand Kane 1983).
Recently,using methodsandtechniquesdeveloped by Robert Thompson, we have begun to
explorethe potentialof phytolithsrecoveredfrom
directlyAMS datedcooking residuesadheringto
theinteriorof potterysherdsto obtainbetterunderstandingsof the historiesof maize (Zea mays ssp.
mays) and othercrops such as squash(Cucurbita
sp.) in centralNew York(Hartet al. 2003; Thompson et al. 2004). Ourpreliminaryresultsfromfive
sites have shown thatcooking residuesfrom this
regionareproductivesourcesof phytolithassemblages and implied that maize and squash were
being used muchearlierin centralNew Yorkthan
the macrobotanicalrecordhas suggested.
Ourpreviousresultsindicatedmaize use in the
regionfrom 1960 ± 28 B.P. (cal 2a 39 B.C.-A.D.
119)through1221± 16B.P.(cal2a A.D. 718-880),
and squashfrom the 1515 ± 27 B.P. (cal 2a A.D.
434-613) through 1228 ± 42 B.P. (cal 2a A.D.
681-889), both well beforethe earliestconfirmed
macrobotanicalevidencein the region(Hartet al.
2003; Thompsonet al. 2004). Ourimmediategoal
for the currentprojectwas to extendthe temporal
coverage.We soughtto extendouranalysisso that
we hada more-or-lesschronologicallycontinuous
series of samples from the end of the prehistoric
sequence, when maize and squashare known to
havebeenstaplecrops(AschandHart2004;Engelbrecht2003;FunkandKuhn2003), to earliertimes
when the use of maize in New Yorkhad only previously been speculatedon but not documented
throughthe verifiedrecoveryof maize macrobotanical remains(e.g., Ritchie 1944, 1969; Ritchie
and Funk 1973; see Hart and Brumbach2003).
This would also extendto times when squashhad
been identifiedthoughmacrobotanicalremainsin
adjacentstatesbutnotin New York(HartandAsch
Sidell 1997).
Forthepresentstudy,we analyzedanadditional
21 residuesamplesof which 16 (76.2 percent)producedphytolithassemblages.This bringsthe total
numberof samplesanalyzedto 33, 24 (72.7 percent) of which have producedphytolith assemblages.Theseassemblagescome from 12 sitesthat
spana periodof some 2,500 years,fromamongof
theearliestassemblagesof potteryin theNewYork
Stateuntilthelastcenturiesbeforemassivechanges
in Native Americanlifeways that resulted from
interactionswithEuropeans.Theresultsshowthat
maize was being used in New Yorkby 2270 ± 35
B.P. (cal 2a 399-208 B.C.) and squashby 2905 ±
35 B.P. (cal 2a 1256-998 B.C.).
Methods and Techniques
AMSDating
Residuesamplingwas done underlow magnification (generally lOx) using a dissection probe to
carefullyremovetheresiduefromeachsherd'sinterior surface.The amountof residue sampledfor
AMS assay has ranged from 4.0 to 56.7 mg.
Approximately1 mg of carbonfollowingpretreatment is needed to obtain an AMS date. Carbon
yields, following standardchemicalpretreatments
at the Illirois StateGeologicalSurvey(ISGS)Isotope GeochemistrySection,rangedfrom 18.5percent to 61.64 percent (Table 1). As these high
carbonyields becameevident,in general,we submittedsmallersamplesforAMS datingin the present project than we did in the earlierprojects.
andtargetprepaFollowingchemicalpretreatments
ration,ISGS submittedthe samplesto the Oxford
RadiocarbonAcceleratorUnit (ISGS nos. below
A0452) or LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory (ISGS nos. A0452 andabove)for assay.
Wecalibratedall of theresulting14Cages,along
with those obtained earlier, with CALIB 5.0
(Reimeret al. 2004; StuiverandReimer1993). In
ouranalysisof theresultswe relyprimarilyon calibrated2a ranges.Wealso reportthe medianprobabilityfor each date.Telfordet al. (2004; also see
Stuiveret al. 2005) demonstratethat the median
of the
probabilityis a morereliablerepresentation
calibratedradiocarbondate than are calibration
curveintercepts.For datesfrom the same site not
significantlydifferentfrom one anotherat the 95
percentlevel of confidence,we calculatedpooled
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REPORTS
565
Table 1. Residue SampleAMS-DatingData.
Scaccia
Vinette
Vinette
Felix
Fortin2
Vinette
Vinette
NYSM Phytoliths ISGS
Catalog # Present? Lab #
71492
Yes
A0541
No
40047
A0456
40031-2
Yes
A0500
40701-21
Yes
A0505
46238-26
Yes
A0410
40046
Yes
A0455
40135
Yes
A0452
Wickham
Wickham
Wickham
Simmons
Westheimer
Westheimer
Fortin2
Fortin2
40291-3
40170
40290-5
40518-1
44533-67
44608
46238-16
46232-80
Site
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
-25.8
-29.1
-28.1
-30.0
-29.0
-29.8
-29.3
C yield
(% dry)
18.50
33.60
48.00
56.60
55.70
40.80
43.30
2905±35
2510±35
2270±35
2205±30
1995±35b
1990±40
1940±35
A0454
A0194
A0453
A0542
A0498
-30.4
-29.0
-28.0
-28.7
-25.9
55.80
58.05
49.40
37.80
28.80
1695±35
1648±47
1635±35
1620±35
1600±35
A0406
A0407
-29.0
-29.0
59.70
53.30
1525±35
1505±35
513C
C14B.P.
Cal 2o B.C./A.D. (relative area)
Source3
1256-1235 B.C. (.027), 1215-998 B.C. (.973)
1
790-519 B.C. (1.00)
2
399-349 B.C. (.446), 313-208 B.C. (.554)
1
376-197 B.C. (1.00)
1
90-72 B.C. (.024), 59 B.C- A.D. 80 (.976)
2
930 B.C.-A.D. 86 (.987), 106-119 (.013)
2
35-28 (.015), 24-10 B.C. (.027),
2
2 B.C.-A.D. 130 (.958)
A.D. 255-418 (1.00)
1
A.D. 259-295 (.077), 321-537 (.923)
3
A.D. 339-536 (1.00)
1
A.D. 349-368 (.033), 379-540 (.967)
1
A.D. 393-544 (1.00)
1
A.D. 432-605 (1.00)
A.D. 435-491 (.154), 509-517 (.014),
529-639 (.832)
Felix
Yes
40788-3
A0497
-27.2
47.60
1575±35
A.D. 413-561 (1.00)
Felix
40690-9
Yes
A0503
-27.9
50.40
1525±40
A.D. 428-612 (1.00)
Felix
40647-1
No
A0504
-27.4
33.60
1520±35
A.D. 432-610 (1.00)
Felix
40727-19
Yes
A0499
-27.3
36.80
1430±40
A.D. 559-662 (1.00)
Felix
40652-18
No
A0502
-26.7
54.50
1405±40
A.D. 570-674 (1.00)
Felix
40677-9
Yes
A0506
-26.3
26.30
1315±50
A.D. 637-783 (.947), 787-822 (.037),
842-860 (.016)
Wickham
40525-1
Yes
A0190
-28.1
61.64
1425±45
A.D. 552-667 (1.00)
Wickham
n/a
40194
A0195
-29.7
61.20
1450±43
A.D. 542-658 (1.00)
Simmons
40518-2
Yes
A0501
-29.7
51.00
1390±35
A.D. 594-683 (1.00)
41119-5
Yes
A0225
-26.4
53.85
1470±43
A.D. 443-450 (.008), 462-483 (.026),
Kipp Island
533-656 (.966)
41119-2
n/a
A0226
-26.5
56.34
1461±43
A.D. 469-478 (.008), 535-659 (.992)
Kipp Island
41119-8
Yes
A0227
-27.0
55.87
1428±41
A.D. 559-663 (1.00)
Kipp Island
42729-5
n/a
A0228
-26.1
59.74
1260±39
A.D. 668-831 (.918), 836-869 (.082)
Kipp Island
Wickham
40525-8
Yes
A0191
-25.8
1228±42
50.35
A.D. 681-889 (1.00)
Hunter'sHome 48580-110
Yes
A0192
-26.7
50.92
1231±44
A.D. 678-889 (1.00)
Hunter'sHome 48580-115
n/a
A0193
-27.2
53.57
1286±40
A.D. 655-783 (.934), 788-818 (.047),
842-859 (.018)
Hunter'sHome 41356-6
n/a
A0197
-27.5
47.12
1247±48
A.D. 670-884 (1.00)
Hunter'sHome 48584-1
Yes
A0198
-27.8
25.99
1211+46
A.D. 682-897 (.965), 921-944 (.034)
Hunter'sHome
41797
Yes
A0196
-24.9
53.51
1138±40
A.D. 779-794 (.040), 801-988 (.960)
Yes
Street
48217-10
A0229
-26.1
45.98
1043±40
A.D. 892-1042 (.990), 1107-1117 (.010)
Haner
n/a
n/a
A0235
-18.1
54.99
781±42
A.D. 1176-1285 (1.00)
No
A0528
-20.7
48.30
445±40
A.D. 1408-1516 (.950), 1596-1618 (.050)
Smith-Pagerie 44728-13
45738-43
Yes
A0523
-23.6
57.70
Klock
480±40
A.D. 1327-1342 (.025), 1394-1475 (.975)
42826-2
Yes
A0522
-20.8
53.30
425±40
A.D. 1417-1522 (.853), 1574-1626 (.147)
Garoga
aSources:(1) Hartand Brumbach(2005; phytolithanalysis this study), (2) Thompsonet al. 2004; (3) Hartet al. 2003.
Considered too early for context (Thompsonet al. 2004).
mean dates using Ward and Wilson's (1978)
methodas implementedin CALIB5.0.
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
sherd.Any soil adheringto the surfaceof residues
was removedpriorto sampling.The organicmaterial of each residue sample was dissolved with
Phytoliths
heated nitric acid in Thompson'slab at the UniThe methodsand techniquesused to extractand versity of Minnesota.This was followed by cenclassifyphytolithassemblagesfor the currentpro- trifugingat 3,000 RPM for 15 minutesand then
ject are the same as those describedin Hartet al. replacementof the nitricacid with distilledwater.
(2003:627). For the presentproject,between 12 Each samplewas then rinsedwith distilledwater
and42 mg of residuewas sampledfromeachsherd. five times and with alcohol twice. Ten drops of
The amountof residuesampleddependedin most each sample were placed on a microscopeslide
instanceson the amountof residuepresenton the andmountedwithPermount.A totalof 100 rondel
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566
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
phytoliths,characteristicof grass inflorescences
(Mulholland1993;Pearsallet al. 2003;Thompson
and Mulholland1994), were then examined for
each sample under magnification (400x) by
Thompson.Rondel phytolithsare shortcylinders
with roundedto oval bases (MulhollandandRapp
1992)thatareproducedin theglumesof maizeand
other grasses. Assemblages of rondel phytoliths
can be incorporated into foods when grass
seeds/kernelsareprocessed(ThompsonandMulholland 1994). Each rondelphytolithwas classified by Thompsonaccordingto the taxonomyhe
developed(Hartet al. 2003:627) buildingon previous workby MulhollandandRapp(1992). Also
recordedfor each phytolithwere the length and
width and aspectratio (length/width)of the inferior face of each phytolith.Lengths and widths
were categorizedby whole micronand the aspect
ratioin units of one-tenthmicron.The classificationsresultedin countdatafor eachtaxonomicand
(width,length,andratioaspect)catmorphometric
egory. These in turn were transformedinto proportionsfor use with the statisticaltechniques.
The basis of the analysis of rondelphytoliths
recoveredfrom cooking residues is comparison
with assemblagesfrom modernplants(Hartet al.
2003;Thompsonet al. 2004).Thedepositionof silica in maizeandteosinteglumesis geneticallycontrolled (Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; also see
Wanget al. 2005), as it presumablyis in theglumes
of other grass species. Rondel phytolith assemblages from maize and other grasses recovered
from cooking residues can be identified to the
specieslevel basedon statisticalcomparisonswith
rondelphytolithassemblagesfrommodernspecimens (Hartet al. 2003; Thompsonet al 2004). For
thepresentanalyseswe useda databaseof 36 modern comparativesamples(Table2) includingwild
rice (Zizaniaaquatica-3 samples;Zizaniapalustris-Asamples),littlebarley(Hordeumpusillum-3
samples),foxtailgrass(Setariaglauca-l sample),
gramagrass(Bouteloua curtipendula-l sample),
barnyardgrass (Echinochloamuricata-l sample)
and maize (Zea mays ssp. mays-23 samplesfrom
15 traditionalvarieties).Also used for some analyses were nine rondelassemblagesextractedfrom
charredmaizecobs recoveredfromarchaeological
sites in New YorkandPennsylvania.One hundred
rondelphytolithswere classifiedfor each comparative sampleby Thompsonusing the same taxon-
omy used for the residueassemblages.
Twostatisticaltechniqueswereusedto compare
residue and modernplant assemblages:squared
chord distances and cluster analysis using
UnweightedPairGroupMethodwith Arithmetic
Mean (UPGMA)linkagewith squaredchorddistances. The statistics were calculated using the
entiredata set includingthe taxonomicand morphometricdatawith MultiVariateStatisticalPackage (MVSP) version 3.1 (Kovach 1999). The
statisticaltechniquesallowedus to assessto which
modernplant rondel phytolith assemblageeach
residuederivedrondelphytolithassemblageis most
similar.We presentadditionalinformationon the
use of thesestatisticsin ourdiscussionof theresults.
Individualphytolithsproducedby theedibleportions of otherplantsmaybe identifiedto the genus
or species level. The rindsof cucurbits(squashes,
gourds)producedistinctivelyscallopedspherical
to oval phytolithshapes(Bozarth1987;Pipernoet
al.2002),whileediblesedges{Cyperussp.)produce
dimpledplate phytoliths(Ollendorf1992). Small
numbersof cucurbitandsedgephytolithshavebeen
foundin a numberof residuesas reportedin Hart
et al. (2003) andThompsonet al. (2004).
Twenty-oneadditionalresidue samples were
analyzedfor the currentproject.Of these, 16 producedphytolithassemblages.This bringsthe total
numberof analyzedsamplesto 33, from 12 sites
(Figure1), andthe totalnumberof analyzedsamples with phytolithassemblagesto 24, representing all of the sites sampled(Table2). Of this total,
21 hadrondelphytolithassemblagesthatcouldbe
subjectedto statisticalanalysis:10 fromthe previously publishedresults and 11 from the present
project.Theearliersamplesareincludedin thepresent analysis to take advantageof the expanded
databaseof comparativemodernsamples.
Results
AMSDates
The resultsof the AMS datingof residuesfor this
and previous projects, provided in Table 1, are
reviewedin detail in Hartand Brumbach(2005).
In summary,the 38 dates from 14 archaeological
sites (Figure 1) span a period of approximately
2,500 years,from2905 ± 35 B.P (cal2a 1256-998
B.C.; ISGS-A0541)at the Scacciasite to 425 ± 40
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REPORTS
567
Figure 1. General locations of New York archaeological sites mentioned in the text: (1) Scaccia, (2) Hunter's Home, (3)
Kipp Island, (4) Felix, (5) Wickham, (6) Simmons (7) Vinette, (8) Garoga, (9) Klock, (10) Smith-Pagerie, (11) Westheimer,
(12) Fortin 2, (13) Street, (14) 211-1-1, (15) Haner (from Hart and Brumbach 2005).
is a squaredchorddistancematrixfor 23 assemblages from 15 moderntraditionalmaize varieties
and 15 assemblages from 6 indigenous grass
species with seeds knownto havebeen consumed
prehistorically in northeasternNorth America
(Crawfordand Smith 2003). The lowest indigenous grassdistancevaluesfor the variousmodern
maizeassemblagesrangefrom1.332to 3.605 times
greaterthan the lowest value for anothermaize
assemblage.This means that each maize assemblage is moresimilarto anothermaize assemblage
thanit is to an indigenousgrass assemblage.Figure 2 is a dendrogramof a clusteranalysis using
the modern indigenous grass and maize assemblages. It clearly shows the maize assemblages
(nos. 16-39) clusteringseparatelyfromthe indigeGrass PhytolithAnalysis
nous grass assemblages (nos. 1-15). Bouteloua
If ourmethodsandtechniqueswork,thenwe expect curtipendula(no. 1),Echinochloamuricata(no.2),
that rondel phytolith assemblages from modern and Setariaglauca (no. 6) do not clusterwith the
maize cobs will be distinguishablefrom modern other indigenousgrasses, but they do not cluster
indigenousgrassinflorescenceassemblages.Table3 withmaize.Theseresultsshowhow modernmaize
B.R (cal 2a A.D. 1417-1626; ISGS-A0522)at the
Garogasite.Thedatescoverthepottery-producing
periodof centralNewYorkprehistoryuntilapproximately 1000 B.R The 550-year gap in coverage
betweenapproximately1000 B.R and 450 B.R is
explainedby our primaryresearchfocus on the
time before macrobotanical remains of crops
becomeevidentin the archaeologicalrecordof the
region.In addition,thereis a paucityof sherdsin
the New York State Museum's collections with
enoughresidueforbothdatingandphytolithanalysis fromthat550-yearperioddespitethe presence
of largecollectionsof potteryfromnumeroussites.
The dates providea chronologicalframeworkfor
the phytolithanalysis.
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AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
568
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
Table 2. ComparativeSample Proveniences.
Samplesa
Zizania aquatica
Zizania aquatica
Zizania aquatica
Zizaniapalustris
Zizaniapalustris
Zizaniapalustris
Zizaniapalustris
Hordeumpusillum
Hordeumpusillum
Hordeumpusillum
Setaria glauca
Bouteloua curtipendula
Echinochloamuricata
ArikaraFlint
Chapalote
CherokeeFlour
DakotaFlint
Devil's Lake Sioux Flint
IroquoisFlour
MandanWhite Flint A
MandanWhite Flint B
MandanBlack FlourA
MandanBlack Flour B
MandanBlue FlourA
MandanBlue Flour B
MandanBlue Flour C
MandanClay Red A
MandanClay Red B
MandanRed FlourA
MandanRed Flour B
MandanSweet CornA
MandanSweet Corn B
MandanSweet Corn C
MandanYellow Flour
NorthernFlint
Shoepeg Dent
Briggs Run 1
Briggs Run 2
Gnagey 3-1
Gnagey 3-2
Klock Site 1
Klock Site 2
Peck 2
RoundtopSite
Snell Site
Provenience
Source
ModernIndigenousGrasses
Lake George, NY
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
Lake Erie, ON
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
Ohio
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
Clay County,MN
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
KoochichingCounty,MN
HubbardCounty,MN
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
Mille Lacs County,MN
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
NYS Museum Herbarium(NYSM 3 129)
Illinois
Iowa
Thompson,collected 1989
NYS Museum Herbarium(Moore 2044)
Georgia
Iowa
Thompson,collected 1989
NYS Museum Herbarium(A 18272, Young 1397)
New York
NYS MuseumHerbarium(House 23843)
New York
ModernZea mays
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Tennessee
GaryCrites, Universityof Tennessee
Tennessee
GaryCrites, Universityof Tennessee
Fred Schneider,grown in 1988
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Jane Mt Pleasant,grown in 2001
New York
Wisconsin
Universityof Wisconsin Herbarium
Wisconsin
Universityof Wisconsin Herbarium
Wisconsin
Universityof Wisconsin Herbarium
Wisconsin
Universityof Wisconsin Herbarium
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Wisconsin
Universityof Wisconsin Herbarium
Wisconsin
Universityof Wisconsin Herbarium
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1988, 1993
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1988, 1993
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1988, 1993
North Dakota
Fred Schneider,grown in 1993
North Dakota
Nora Reber,HarvardUniversityHerbarium
Unknown
Unknown
Universityof MinnesotaHerbarium
ArchaeologicalZea mays
New YorkState Museum
Briggs Run Site, NY
New YorkState Museum
Briggs Run Site, NY
CarnegieMuseumof NaturalHistory
Gnagey 3 Site, PA
CarnegieMuseum of NaturalHistory
Gnagey 3 Site, PA
New YorkState Museum
Klock Site, NY
New YorkState Museum
Klock Site, NY
Peck 2 Site, PA
CarnegieMuseumof NaturalHistory
New YorkState Museum
RoundtopSite, NY
New York State Museum
Snell Site, NY
phytolithassemblagescan be distinguishedstatisticallyfrommodernindigenousgrassassemblages.
If the methodsand techniqueswork properly,
then we expect thatphytolithassemblagesrecoveredfromarchaeologicalmaize cobs will be most
similarto modernmaize cob assemblages.Sam-
ples of nine archaeologicalmaize cobs were analyzed. Six of the cobs from New Yorksites were
previouslyreportedin Hartet al. (2003).Theyrange
in age from approximately700 B.R to 300 B.R
Threeothercobs are fromtwo sites in southwestern Pennsylvania,which have AMS dates from
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570
AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
Figure 2. Cluster analysis results of modern maize and indigenous grass phytolith assemblage data. Sample numbers correspond to those used in Table 3. In this and/or subsequent cluster diagrams, aZm= archaeological Zea mays ssp. mays,
Bc= Bouteloua curtipendula, Em= Echinochloa muricata, Hp= Hordeumpusillum, R=residue, S= Setaria glauca, Za=
Zizania aquatica, Zm=Zea mays ssp. mays, and Zp= Zizaniapalustris.
earlyhistorictimes,approximately360 B.P.to 200
B.R (Means2005). Meansconsiderseach of these
dates too late for their contexts,which, based on
otherAMS dates from the sites, are 615 B.R for
the two Gnagey3-2 samplesand 367 B.R for the
Peck 2-2 sample(Means2005:55-56).
Table4 is a squaredchorddistancematrixfor
the nine archaeologicalmaize cobs and the modern maize and indigenousgrass rondel phytolith
assemblages.Foreachof the archaeologicalmaize
cobs the lowest squaredchorddistanceis a modern maize sample.These squaredchord distance
values are 2.277 to 4.423 times less thanthe lowest valueforanindigenousgrass.Thisindicatesthat
eachprehistoricmaizerondelphytolithassemblage
is mostsimilarto a modernmaizeassemblage.Figure 3 is the results of the cluster analysis. The
archaeological maize cob assemblages (nos.
61-69) clusterwith the modernmaize cob assemblages (nos. 16-39). These results indicate that
changes in maize cob morphologythroughtime,
as well as charringandburialforhundredsof years,
do not affectthe abilityof ourmethodsto properly
identify maize from prehistoricphytolithassemblages. The two MandanRed Clay maize assemblages(nos. 21 and22) clusterwiththe indigenous
grass assemblagesin this analysis.This suggests
thatsome maize assemblagesmay be mistakenas
indigenous grass assemblages in some analyses
(TypeI error).In sum,the resultsindicatethatrondel phytolithassemblagesfrom maize cobs, both
modernand archaeological,can be differentiated
from those recovered from modern indigenous
grassinflorescences.
A squaredchorddistancematrixfortheresidue
and modern maize and indigenous grass rondel
phytolithassemblagesis presentedin Tables5a and
5b. The residueassemblagesareorderedfromleft
to right in descending chronologicalorder.The
lowestsquaredchorddistancevalueforallbutthree
residueassemblagesis witha modernmaizeassemblage. These values generallyfall within or close
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
REPORTS
571
Table4. SquaredChordDistance Matrixfor ArchaeologicalMaize and ModernMaize
and IndigenousGrassPhytolithAssemblages^
Peck
Gnagey Gnagey Briggs Briggs
2
3.2
3.1
Run 1 Run 2 Klock 1 Klock 2 Snell Roundtop
Samplesb
(61)
(62)
(63)
(64)
(65)
(66)
(67)
(68)
(69)
3.071
3.797
3.781
2.633
2.248
3.589
3.126
3.096
2.406
(I) Bouteloua curtipendulaNY
2.364
2.364
2.488
2.687
3.727
2.157
2.521
2.042
3.517
(2)EchinochloamuricataNY
2.827
1.632
1.264
2.810
3.722
2.126
2.842
2.573
3.763
Q)HordeumpusillumIL
2.508
1.526
1.411
2.708
3.686
2.091
2.799
2.530
3.727
(4)HordeumpusillumlA
2.911
1.761
1.350
2.930
3.836
2.262
2.996
2.714
3.803
(5) Hordeumpusillum GA
4.415
3.625
3.338
4.688
5.526
4.163
4.840
4.190
5.515
(6) Setaria glaucalA
4.239
3.233
3.129
4.285
5.108
3.957
4.738
3.847
5.206
(7) Zizania aquatica OH
3.690
2.948
2.607
3.948
4.607
3.406
4.167
3.667 4.650
{%)Zizania aquatica NY
3.897
2.717
2.450
3.649
4.754
3.319
4.082
3.369 4.647
{9) Zizania aquatica ON
3.455
2.467
2.391
3.452
4.523
2.882
3.732
2.828 4.470
(10) Zizaniapalustris KC, MN
3.806
2.636
2.757
3.779
4.963
3.178
4.079
3.185 4.878
(II) Zizaniapalustris CL, MN
3.484
2.488
2.413
3.449
4.416
2.967
3.747
2.906 4.423
(\2) Zizaniapalustris HB, MN
3.570
2.565
2.463
3.570
4.585
3.142
3.882
3.147 4.624
(\3) Zizaniapalustris ML, MN
3.705
2.674
2.558
3.665
4.758
3.304
4.005
3.275 4.647
(14) Zizaniapalustris RE
3.706
2.765
2.659
3.873
4.856
3.407
4.208
3.302 4.815
(15) Zizania palustris HE
1.001
.595
.639
1.119
1.828
1.084
.817
1.602
,661
(16) MandanYellow Flour
1.378
1.445
1.461
1.358
1.770
1.569
1.476
1.864
(17) MandanWhite Flint A
,916
1.821
1.515
1.551
1.924
2.492
1.829
2.024
1.397 2.485
(18) MandanWhite Flint B
1.018
1.543
1.086
.872
1.535
,996
,579
,555
,875
(19) MandanBlack FlintA
1.137
.662
.577
1.228
1.715
1.029
1.164
1.027
1.815
(20) MandanBlack Flint B
2.160
1.432
1.181
2.061
3.061
1.635
2.268
1.297 2.810
(21) MandanClay Red A
1.224
2.093
.897
1.897
3.015
1.409
2.108
1.384 2.799
(22) MandanClay Red B
1.463
1.046
,578
,865
,925
,839
,602
,572
,851
(23) MandanSweet CornA
1.457
1.654
1.015
1.124
1.157
.744
1.386
,772
,805
(24) MandanSweet CornB
1.717
1.779
1.228
1.373
1.412
,857
,947
,902
(25) MandanSweet CornC
,744
1,205
.722
.742
.815
1.211
,869
,622
,731
,965
(26) MandanBlue Flour 1
1.090
.757
.733
1.359
2.001
1.075
1.180
.848
1.988
(27) MandanBlue Flour 2
1.483
1.125
1.156
1.584
1.730
1.391
1.572
1.108 2.032
(28) MandanBlue Flour 3
1.124
1.207
1.012
1.052
1.047
.811
1.109
1.101
,991
(29) MandanRed FlourA
1.741
1.821
1.463
1.392
,906
,991
,260
,874
,544
(30) MandanRed Flour B
1.185
1.013
1.046
1.446
1.773
1.185
1.296
1.892
,962
(31) ArikaraFlint
1.204
.781
.791
1.172
1.661
1.207
.671
1.528
,872
(32) Devil's Lake Sioux Flint A
1.460
1.304
1.303
1.210
1.659
1.318
1.455
1.657
,976
(33) Devil's Lake Sioux Flint B
1.312
1.565
1.695
1.088
1.545
1.565
1.365
1.389
1.462
(34) DakotaFlint
1.314
1.210
1.401
1.404
1.503
1.362
1.318
1.130
1.584
(35) NorthernFlint
1.582
1.907
1.958
1.466
1.158
1.855
1.604
1.392
1.380
(36) IroquoisWhite Flour
1.336
1.849
1.860
1.137
1.439
1.552
1.224
1.399
1.393
(37) Dent
.894
1.561
1.537
,794
,589
,638
,638
,908
,630
(38) CherokeeFlour
1.242
1.081
.583
.833
1.869
.853
1.108
.652
1.556
(39) Chapalote
4.090
2.617
2.277
3.138
2.958
Lowest Grass/LowestMaize
3.473
4.407
3.241 4.423
aBoldedvalues are smallest values for indigenousgrass and maize. Underlinedvalues are at or below the cutpointof 1.259
(see text for explanation).
bNumberscorrespondto those used in Figure 3.
to the range for smallest squaredchord distance
valueestablishedfor the archaeologicalmaizecob
assemblages (.544-. 839). This includes the
youngest(Klock 45738-43, .557; Garoga428262, .569; Street48217-10, .569) andoldest (Vinette
40135, .698; Vinette40046, .805; Vinette400312, .690) residueassemblages.The lowest squared
residues
chorddistancevaluesfortheearliest-dated
correspondingto maize are 1.521 to 3.060 times
less thanthelowestvaluefora moderngrassassemblage, withinthe rangefor modernmaize assemblages(1.332-3.605);theratiofortheearliest-dated
Vinettesample(40031-2) is 2.696, withintherange
established for the archaeological maize cobs
(2.277-4.407). These resultssuggestthatmaize is
the, or the primary,grass responsiblefor the ron-
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572
AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
Figure 3. Cluster analysis results of modern and archaeological maize and indigenous grass phytolith assemblage data.
Sample numbers correspond to those used in Table 4.
del assemblagesfrommost of the residues.
The squared chord distance matrix for the
archaeologicalmaize cob assemblagesallows us
to identify a cut point (Overpecket al. 1985) for
classifyingrondelphytolithassemblagesextracted
from cooking residuesas maize. An examination
of Table4 indicatesthatthe lowest distancefor an
archaeologicalcob assemblagecorrespondingto a
modern indigenous grass assemblage is 1.264
(Gnagey3.1/HordiumpusillumIL). As shown in
Figure4 this value falls well within the distribution of distancevalues for archaeologicalagainst
modernmaize assemblages.Using 1.259 as a cut
pointin the analysisof residueassemblagesminimizes Type II errors,misidentifying non-maize
assemblagesas maize, at the sacrifice of potentiallyincreasingTypeI errors,misidentifyingmaize
assemblagesas non-maizeassemblages.A less conservativecut point would increasethe chance of
Type II errors.Given that the methodsand techniquesused in our analyseshave not been widely
Figure 4. Distribution of squared chord distance values for
archaeological maize phytolith assemblages versus modern maize and indigenous grasses phytolith assemblages.
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REPORTS
573
Table5a. SquaredChordDistance Matrixfor Residue and ModernMaize and IndigenousGrass PhytolithAssemblages.3
Klock
(40)
45738-43
Samples11
Street
Garoga
(41)
(42)
42826-2 48217-10
Hunters
Home
Hunters
Home
Simmons Simmons Wickham Wickham
(43)
48580-110
(44)
48584-1
(45)
40518-2
(46)
40518-1
(47)
40525-1
(48)
40525-8
4.151
2.762
1.592
1.546
1.602
3.089
2.797
2.059
2.532
2.661
2.672
2.375
2.287
2.282
2.544
4.216
3.280
1.457
1.431
1.497
2.538
2.235
1.672
1.952
2.752
2.560
2.154
2.049
1.894
2.169
1.162
1.786
1.635
1.157
1.054
1.005
(1) BoutelouacurtipendulaNY
(2) EchinochloamuricataNY
(3) Hordeumpusillum IL
(4) Hordeumpusillum IA
(5) Hordeumpusillum GA
(6) Setaria glauca IA
(7) Zizaniaaquatica OH
(8) Zizaniaaquatica NY
(9) Zizania aquatica ON
{\0) Zizaniapalustris KC, MN
(\ I) ZizaniapalustrisCL, MN
(\2) Zizaniapalustris UB, MN
(13) Zizaniapalustris ML, MN
(14) Zizaniapalustris RE
(15) Zizania palustris HE
3.749
2.341
1.325
1.406
1.381
2.695
2.402
2.193
1.952
2.427
2.447
2.061
2.126
2.002
2.247
3.625
2.480
1.884
1.815
1.991
3.675
3.353
2.897
2.940
2.753
2.960
2.697
2.733
2.866
2.909
3.393
2.231
2.030
1.879
2.278
3.328
2.693
2.895
2.418
2.382
2.544
2.136
2.148
2.190
2.334
3.952
2.718
1.566
1.391
1.560
3.180
2.584
2.233
2.388
2.512
2.706
2.372
2.328
2.258
2.444
4.817
3.565
1.695
1.511
1.698
2.442
2.182
1.527
2.236
2.854
2.699
2.390
2.066
1.969
2.268
3.103
2.062
2.055
1.963
2.260
3.586
3.189
3.192
2.839
2.594
2.864
2.542
2.680
2.643
2.741
5.266
3.102
1.847
1.779
1.935
1.434
(16) MandanYellow Flour
(17) MandanWhite Flint A
(18) MandanWhite Flint B
(19) MandanBlack FlintA
(20) MandanBlack Flint B
(21) MandanClay Red A
(22) MandanClay Red B
(23) MandanSweet CornA
(24) MandanSweet CornB
(25) MandanSweet Corn C
(26) MandanBlue Flour 1
(27) MandanBlue Flour2
(28) MandanBlue Flour 3
(29) MandanRed FlourA
(30) MandanRed FlourB
(31) ArikaraFlint
(32) Devil's Lake Sioux Flint A
(33) Devil's Lake Sioux Flint B
(34) DakotaFlint
(35) NorthernFlint
(36) IroquoisWhite Flour
(37) Dent
(38) CherokeeFlour
,965
1.524
1.081
/737
ML
1.278
1.238
LQ28
,839
.717
J07
,569
.937
.888
1.480
2.015
2.288
1.043
,692
1.106
.821
1.191
2.007
2.110
1.009
,668
,829
1.163
1.882
,932
1.157
1.654
2.250
1.271
.984
1.425
1.819
1.118
2.003
2.165
1.020
.899
2.107
2.955
2.555
2.134
2.011
1.709
1.564
2.800
3.425
3.716
2.665
2.519
2.715
3.564
3.852
2.789
2.439
2.825
3.163
2.611
3.729
4.000
2.513
2.170
,788
,884
1.029
,577
i>05
1.163
1.048
1.065
1.699
1.886
.569
.902
1.537
1.380
/734
,978
/758
.875
1.330
1.345
1.381
1.538
.604
.915
2.924
3.127
2.650
2.686
2.617
1.613
1.621
4.030
4.510
5.066
3.715
3.167
3.405
4.619
4.945
3.626
3.390
3.275
3.618
3.933
4.694
4.159
3.187
2.946
,941
1.493
2.222
2.500
1.308
1.457
1.459
1.969
2.576
1.548
1.144
1.648
2.113
1.449
2.235
2.535
1.384
1.015
1.900
2.786
2.431
1.951
1.871
1.459
1.369
2.399
3.027
3.407
2.497
2.426
2.494
3.114
3.355
2.594
2.138
2.566
2.803
2.354
3.301
3.443
2.370
1.870
2.010
.966
3. 250
.208
1.643
1.045
,557
J02
,658
1.519
2.115
2.401
1.148
(39) Chapalote
,866
1.285
1.858
2.310
1.454
1.050
1.438
1.826
1.751
2.282
2.088
1.049
1.105
,889
.728
1.041
1.537
1.103
1.642
1.804
.703
.830
,687
/776
1.553
2.063
1.060
1.099
.941
1.366
1.409
1.476
1.729
.869
1.071
Lowest Grass/LowestMaize
2.379
3.190
3.302
,659
,696
1.138
1.043
1.054
1.650
1.680
,764
,672
,969
1.107
1.520
,335
1.486
,729
1.036
,921
,571
,537
,675
.713
aBoldedvalues are smallest values for indigenousgrass and maize. Underlinedvalues are at or below the cutpointof 1.259 (see text for
explanation).
bNumbersin parenthesescorrespondto those used in Figure5.
appliedandestablished,we wouldrathererron the
side of cautionin classifyingresidue-derivedphytolithassemblagesas maize.
Using the 1.259 valueas the cutpoint, 15 of the
21 assemblagesareidentifiedas maize (Tables5 a
and 5b). Of those assemblagesnot identifiedas
maize, Simmons405 18-1 is most similarto wild
rice, with the lowest distancevalue (.335) corresponding to Zizania aquatica. Two samples,
Hunter'sHome 48584-1 and Wickham40525-8,
have no values below the cut point, suggesting
mixed assemblages(Hartet al. 2003) or origination fromeithermaize relatedto a modernvariety
not yet sampledor from an indigenousgrass not
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574
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°3
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REPORTS
575
Figure 5. Cluster analysis results of modern maize, indigenous grass, and residue phytolith assemblage data. Sample
numbers correspond to those used in Table 3. 5a and 5b.
yet sampled.Thethreeremainingsamples,Fortin2
46238-16, Fortin246238-26, and Vinette40046,
havevaluesbelow the cutpointfor bothmaizeand
Hordeumpusillum.In all threecases, however,the
lowestvaluecorrespondsto a modernmaizeassemblage. Another sample, Kipp Island 41119-5,
althoughhavingthreevalues below the cut point
to maize,hasa ratioof lowestindigecorresponding
nousgrassto lowestmaizevalueof only 1. 183. This
is the lowest ratio of those samples identifiedas
maize.
Resultsof theclusteranalysisareshownin Figure 5. The maize (nos. 16-39) and most of the
residues(nos.40-60) formone largecluster,while
the indigenousgrasses(nos. 1-15) andfourof the
residues(Wickham40525-8 [no. 48], KippIsland
41119-5 [no.54], Hunter'sHome48584-1 [no.44],
andSimmons40518-1 [no. 46]) fall in otherclusters.Theclusteranalysisindicatesthatthephytolith
assemblagesfrom samplesFortin246238-16 (no.
55), Fortin246238-26 (no. 56), andVinette40046
(no. 49) aremost similarto modernmaize assemblages.
Of the sample assemblages clustering away
from the modern maize assemblages, Simmons
405 18-1(no.46) clusterswithwildrice(nos.7-15)
as would be expectedfromthe squaredchorddistance values. Hunter'sHome 48584-1 (no. 44),
Kipplsland41119-5(no.54), andWickham405258 (no. 48) fall into a clusterwith one wild rice and
the little barleyassemblages.The results suggest
thesearemixedassemblagesand/orwe do nothave
ananalogin ourcomparativecollectionof samples
fromindigenousgrassesor maize varieties.
Non-GrassPhytoliths
Otherphytolithswerealso identifiedin some of the
residuesamples.Most significantly,cucurbitphytoliths (Figure 6), probably corresponding to
Cucurbitasp., were recoveredfrom the Scaccia
71492 residue,which produceda date of 2905 ±
35 B.P. (cal 2c 1256-998 B.C.). Cucurbitphy-
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AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
576
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
Figure 6. Cucurbitasp. phytolith recovered from Scaccia
71492 (bar=20um. Original magnification 400X).
Figure 7. Small, scalloped phytolith recovered from
Hunter's Home 41797 (bar=20um. Original magnification
400X).
tolithswere also recoveredfromFortin246238-16
as reportedin Thompsonet al. (2004), and from
Wickham 40525-1 and 40525-8, Kipp Island
41 119-5 and41 119-8, andHunter'sHome 485841 as reportedin Hartet al. (2003). Small,scalloped
phytoliths with a morphology consistent with
cucurbits(Figure 7) were recovered from Felix
40701-21, Westheimer44533-67, and Hunter's
Home41797. Sedge (Cyperussp.) phytolithswere
recoveredfrom Fortin246238-16 as reportedin
Thompsonet al. (2004), and Wickham40525-1
andKippIsland411 19-8 as reportedin Hartet al.
(2003).
AMS datedmacrobotanicalremainsin the region.
However,thephytolithevidenceindicatesthatearly
maizewas morewidely spreadgeographicallythan
is indicatedby the macrobotanicalevidence.
As a whole,thephytolithevidencesuggeststhat
maizewas commonlyused in centralNew Yorkby
A.D. Thisis consistentwith
calibratedfifth-century
earlierspeculationsby some(e.g.,RitchieandFunk
1973:369) about the use of maize in New York
evidencesuggested,butwell
beforemacrobotanical
earlierthandates suggestedby others(e.g., Gallinat 1967:4;Snow 1995:71).Thereis a gap in the
phytolithevidenceformaizeof overthreecenturies
betweenthe 1960 ± 35 B.P. (cal 2a 39 B.C.-A.D.
119) Vinettedate and the 1600 ± 35 B.P. (cal 2a
A.D. 393-544) date from Westheimer.Given the
generallackof samplesfromtheinterveningperiod
of time we cannotassign any significanceto this
gap. The Vinette date is consistentwith regional
chronologyand site stratigraphy(Hartand Brumbach 2005), andit falls betweendateson macrobotanical remains from Holding in Illinois and
IcehouseBottomin TennesseeandEdwinHarness
in Ohio.Thereis a similargap in time betweenthe
Holdingdatein Illinoisandthe nextyoungestdate
remainsatIcehouseBoton maizemacrobotanical
tom in Tennessee.
The 2270 ± 35 B.P.(cal 2a 399-208 B.C.) date
at Vinette, however, is earlier than the earliest
directly dated maize macrobotanicalremains in
easternNorthAmericafrom Holding (2077 ± 70
B.P.,cal 2a 116 B.C.-A.D. 52; Riley et al. 1994).
This result suggests maize was presentin central
New Yorkup to eight centuriesbeforethe earliest
Discussion
The cumulativeresults of the phytolith analysis
summarizedherealongwiththosepreviouslypublishedarepresentedin Table6 alongwiththedirect
dates obtainedon the same residuessampledfor
phytolithanalysis(see HartandBrumbach2005).
These resultshave importantimplicationsfor the
historiesof maize and squashin centralNew York
specificallyandeasternNorthAmericangenerally.
Maize
The chronology of phytolith evidence for early
maizein NewYorkis combinedin Table7 andFigure8 withthatforpre-1000 B.P.maizefromdirectly
datedmacrobotanicalmaize remainsin northeasternNorthAmerica.Withthe exceptionof the earliest datefromtheVinettesite, the datesassociated
withtherondelphytolithassemblagesidentifiedas
maizefall withinthe temporalrangeof the directly
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REPORTS
577
Table6. Summaryof PhytolithAnalysis Results.
Site
Cal 2o range (median probability)3
Scaccia
1256 (1096) 998 B.C.
Vinette 1
790 (638) 519 B.C.
Vinette 1
399 (296) 208 B.C.
Felix Zone 5
376 (285) 197 B.C.
Vinette2
39 B.C. A.D. (40) 119b
Wickham2
A.D. 263 (39 1) 430b
Simmons
A.D. 349 (448) 540
Westheimer2
A.D. 393 (475) 544
Felix Zone 4
A.D. 432 (5 10) 575b
Fortin2 zone 3
A.D. 434 (557) 613b
Wickham3
A.D. 568 (619) 655b
A.D. 600 (630) 655b
Kipp Island3
Simmons
A.D. 594 (645) 683
Felix Zone 4
A.D. 608 (646) 668b
Wickham3
A.D. 681 (792) 889
HuntersHome
A.D. 7 18 (805) 880b
Street
A.D. 892 (994) 1117
Klock
A.D. 1327 (1431) 1475
A.D. 1417 (1465) 1626
Garoga
A.D. 1408 (1448) 1618
Smith-Pagerie
aCALIB5.0 (Stuiveret al. 1998).
bPooledmean of multipledates (Wardand Wilson 1978).
Phytolith results
Squash
No phytoliths
Maize
Squash?
Maize
No phytoliths
Wild rice
Maize
Maize
Maize, squash, sedge
Maize, wild rice?, squash, sedge
Maize, wild rice, squash, sedge
Maize
Maize, squash?
Wild rice, maize?, sedge
Maize, wild rice, squash
Maize
Maize
Maize
No phytoliths
macrobotanicalevidencefor this cropin southern (1730 ± 85 B.R, cal 2a A.D. 136-423; Ford1987)
Ontario(1570 ± 90 B.R, cal 2c A.D. 345-648; and Tennessee (1775 ± 100 B.R, cal 2a A.D.
Crawfordet al. 1997), and five to six centuries 25-532; ChapmanandCrites 1987).
beforetheearliestmacrobotanical
remainsin Ohio
Of particularinterestis thatthe earlydatefrom
Table 7. EarlyMaize Evidence from NortheasternNorthAmerica.
Dated Material 14CAge B.P.
Site/Location
Cal. 2c rangea Median probability8
NY
residue
1043 ± 40
A.D. 892-1 117
A.D. 994
Street,
21 1-1-1, NY
maize
1050 ± 50
A.D. 884-1150
A.D. 985
GrandBanks, ON
maize
1060 ± 60
A.D. 782-1 152
A.D. 973
maize
A.D. 66 1- 1116
1150 ± 100
A.D. 876
Forster,ON
1221 ± 16b
HuntersHome, NY residues
A.D. 718-880
A.D. 805
1228 ± 42
residue
A.D. 68 1-889
A.D. 792
Wickham,NY
maize
1250 ±80
A.D. 650-968
A.D. 778
GrandBanks, ON
maize
1270 ± 100
A.D. 607-979
A.D. 767
Meyer,ON
residue
A.D. 594-683
1390 ±35
A.D. 645
Simmons, NY
residues
1392 ±26b
A.D. 608-668
A.D. 646
Felix, NY
residues
1423 ± 20b
A.D. 600-655
A.D. 630
Kipp Island,NY
A.D. 568-655
residues
1438 ±31b
A.D. 619
Wickham,NY
maize
1450 ± 350
172 B.C.-A.D. 1263
A.D. 564
Crane,IL
residues
1515 ±27b
A.D. 434-613
Fortin2, NY
A.D. 557
A.D. 432-575
residues
1541 ± 23b
A.D. 510
Felix, NY
GrandBanks, ON
maize
1551 ± 78b
A.D. 345-648
A.D. 501
Westheimer2, NY
residue
1600 ±35
A.D. 393-544
A.D. 475
Edwin Harness,OH maize
1730 ± 60b
A.D. 136-423
A.D. 307
Icehouse Bottom, TN maize
1775 ± 100
A.D. 25-532
A.D. 245
residues
1960 ± 28b
39 B.C.-A.D. 119
A.D. 40
Vinette,NY
maize
2037 ±41b
166 B.C.-A.D. 52
45 B.C.
Holding, IL
residue
2270 ± 35
399-208 B.C.
296 B.C.
Vinette, NY
aCALIB5.0 (Stuiveret al. 1998).
bPooledmean of multipledates (Wardand Wilson 1978).
Source
This study
Cassedy and Webb (1999)
Crawfordand Smith (2003;
Crawfordand Smith (2003;
Hartet al. (2003)
Hartet al. (2003)
Crawfordand Smith (2003;
Crawfordand Smith (2003;
This study
This study
Hartet al. (2003)
Hartet al. (2003)
Conardet al. 1984
Thompsonet al. (2004)
This study
Crawfordand Smith (2003;
This study
Ford (1987)
Chapmanand Crites (1987
Thompsonet al. (2004)
Riley et al. (1994)
This study
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578
AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
Figure 8. Calibrated date probability distributions for pre-A.D. 1000 maize evidence in northeastern North America corresponding to Table 7. Black plots are for dates on residues with phytolith assemblages identified as maize. Gray plots
are direct dates on maize macrobotanical remains. (Produced with OxCal 3.10 [Brock Ramsey 2005]).
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REPORTS
Vinetteis contemporarywith the wood charcoal
datesof 2325 ± 75 B.R (cal 2a 751-198 B.C.) and
2290 ± 60 B. P. (cal 2c 749-106 B.C.) associated
with maize macrobotanicalremainsat the Meadowcroft Rockshelterin southwest Pennsylvania
(AdovasioandJohnson1981).Also of note is that
theearliestVinettedateis approximately500 years
youngerthan Ritchie's (1969) estimateddate for
theWraysite in New York(c. 2800 B.R). Excavations at this site in the 1930s yielded what was
describedas a 2.54 cm-longsegmentof maizecob
(Ritchie 1944:126). Unfortunately,several years
later the object was found to have disintegrated
beyondrecognition(Ritchie 1969:189) and is no
longer present in the site's collection at the
RochesterMuseum and Science Centerwhere it
wasoriginallycurated.TheVinettedateis alsocontemporaneouswith or youngerthandates associatedwithpollenidentifiedas maizefroma number
of locationsin southeasternNorthAmerica:Lake
Shelby,Alabama (ca. 3500 B.P.; Fearn and Liu
1995); FortCenter,Florida(ca. 2500 B.R; Sears
1982); B.L. Bigbee, Mississippi (ca. 2400 B.R;
Whitehead and Sheehan 1985); and Dismal
Swamp,Virginia(ca. 2200 B.R;Whitehead1965).
Themacrobotanical
remainsfromMeadowcroft
andthe pollen fromthe varioussites in the Southeast are generally treatedwith skepticism (e.g.,
Crawfordet al 1997;Eubanks1997;Smith 1992),
andwe fullyexpectthattheearlyphytolithevidence
from Vinette will be treatedskepticallypending
additionalsupportingevidence.A directAMS date
on the Meadowcroftmaize would go a long way
towardresolvingthe statusof such ancientmaize
in easternNorthAmerica(Crawfordet al. 1997).
Cucurbits
The identificationof cucurbitphytolithsfrom the
Scaccia site (2905 ± 35 B.R, cal. 2c 1256-998
B.C.) should not be controversialbecause of the
establishmentof cucurbitin
macrobotanical-based
easternNorthAmericaatevengreaterantiquity,by
7100 B.R in the Midwest (Asch and Hart2004;
Smith 1992). Directly AMS dated cucurbitrind
fragmentsestablishthepresenceof Cucurbitapepo
gourds at the MemorialPark site, Pennsylvania
(HartandAsch Sidell 1997) andthe Sharrowsite,
Maine(PetersenandAsch Sidell 1996) duringthe
sixth millenniumB.R In addition, 10 rind fragmentsfromapparentlyedible squashes,identified
579
as Cucurbitapepo, were recoveredat the Memorial Parksite froma featurecontainingMeadowood
bifaces.An AMS assay on one of these fragments
yielded a dateof 2625 ± 45 B.R (cal. 2c 903-596
B.C.; Hart and Asch Sidell 1997), only slightly
youngerthanthe residuedatefrom Scaccia.More
recentlyMonaghanet al. (2006:219)reportanAMS
dateof 2820 ± 40 B.R (cal. 2c 1115-854 B.R) on
a squash seed from Michigan,contemporaneous
withthe Scacciaresiduedate.Theidentificationof
cucurbitphytolithsat Scaccia, then, extends our
knowledgeof the early use of presumablyedible
squashesinto centralNew York.The residuesproducinglaterdatesthatcontainedcucurbitphytoliths
helpto establishthecontinuedpresenceof thiscrop
in centralNew Yorkwell before the earliestmacrobotanicalevidenceataroundcal.A.D. 1300 (Hart
1999b).Italso suggeststhatmaizeandsquashwere
being cooked,andpresumablygrowntogetherfor
hundredsof years priorto the widespreaduse of
the commonbean (Phaseolusvulgaris)at the end
of the calibratedthirteenth-century
A.D. basedon
directdatesof macrobotanicalremains(Hartet al.
2002; HartandScarry1999).Thereis no phytolith
evidenceforthecommonbean- thepodsof which
producehook-shapedphytolithsthat can be distinguishedfrom hookedformsproducedby other
plants (Bozarth 1990)- in the cooking residues
analyzedto date.
Conclusion
Theinvestigationof crophistorieshasbeena major
researchfocus for many archaeologistsand paleoethnobotanists
workingin easternNorthAmerica.
Improvedmacrobotanicalrecoverymethods and
the introductionof AMS dating during the late
twentiethcenturyresultedin much firmerunderstandingsof those histories.However,given the
additional
vagariesof macrobotanical
preservation,
sources of evidence are needed to build regional
cropchronologies.One such sourceof datais opal
phytoliths.Theresearchsummarizedhereandelsewhere (Hartet al. 2003; Thompsonet al. 2004)
demonstratesthatphytolithassemblagesrecovered
fromdirectlyAMS datedcharredcookingresidues
can be importantsourcesof evidencefor crophistories.Suchevidencecanbe obtainedfromcurated
collectionsin museumsas well as fromcollections
generated during new excavations. Phytolith
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580
AMERICANANTIQUITY
assemblagesfromcookingresidues,whichto date
have been exploitedin easternNorthAmericafor
crophistoryevidenceonly in NewYork,Minnesota
(Thompsonet al. 1994), and severalstates in the
Southeast (Lusteck 2006) have the potential to
enhance our understandings of crop histories
throughoutthe East.
The resultsof our analysesindicatethatmaize
andsquash,two of thecropsthatdominatedNative
Americanagriculturethroughoutmuchof eastern
NorthAmericalatein prehistory,werebeinggrown
and consumedin New Yorkfor at least two millennia before the adventof writtenhistoryin the
region with the Europeanentrada.This long historyof use andcumulativeagriculturalknowledge
and experience was not imagined among some
archaeologistsin the Northeastjust a few years
ago. Rather,the crops'introductionsin the region,
throughthe migrationof agriculturistsfrom elsewhere or adoption by indigenous groups, were
thought to have resulted in major changes in
regional subsistence-settlement systems (e.g.,
Snow 1995).Otherarchaeologistsspeculatedabout
the presenceof maizein New Yorkat earliertimes
(e.g. RitchieandFunk1973),butlackeddirectevidence for its presence.
Giventheresultsin NewYork,we anticipatethat
phytolithanalysis of cooking residues will push
back the date of maize introduction/usein other
areasof easternNorthAmericaas well. The intensive flotation(5340 litersof soil) andidentification
effortsat Holding(Riley et al. 1994), suggestthat
the timingof maize may not changeas drastically
in west-centralIllinoisas it hasin centralNewYork.
However,we suspectit will in otherareasgiventhat
the level of flotationsamplinghas been less thanit
was at Holding.
Despite the adoptionof flotationrecoveryand
AMS datingof key cropremainsin NewYork,published directAMS dateson maize macrobotanical
remains are still no earlier than ca. A.D. 1000
(CassedyandWebb1999), while the earliestwellestablisheddateforsquashmacrobotanical
remains
in New Yorkis ca. A.D. 1300 (Hart 1999b). The
A.D. 1000 dateis coincidentwith the initiationof
northernIroquoiantraits in the traditionalNew
York culture history (e.g., Ritchie 1969; Snow
1995;Tuck1978;butsee HartandBrumbach2003,
2005; Starnaand Funk 1994). Crop histories at
much greatertime depth, suggested by residue-
[Vol. 72, No. 3, 2007]
derivedphytolithassemblages,indicatethatintroductionsof maize and squashdid not have immediate major consequences for subsistence and
settlementsystemsin theregion.Rather,thesetwo
crops apparentlycontributedto subsistencesystems for well over a millenniumbefore evidence
is found for compact villages, longhouses, and
intensivemaize-bean-squashagriculture,traitstraditionally associated with northern Iroquoian
speakers(Snow 1995). Our results suggest that
these crops were one componentof diversesubsistence systems, only much later becoming the
subsistencefocusasrecordedby Europeans,related
by northernIroquoiantradition,andinferredfrom
the late prehistoricarchaeologicalrecord(Engelbrecht2003). Thereasonsforthe intensificationof
use amongsomepopulationsareaddeddimensions
to researchprogramsfocused on the laterprehistory of the region.
Whilethephytolithevidenceforearlymaizeand
squashin centralNewYorkpresentedheresuggests
differenthistoriesfor the cropsthanthe macrobotanicalrecord,those historiesare far from settled.
What is clear is thatrelying on single sourcesof
evidence for crop historiesin a given region and
buildingmodelsof prehistoricsubsistenceandsettlementsystemsthereon,as has been done in New
York and elsewhere, is problematical.While we
needadditionalphytolithdata,buildingon thetemporalandspatialdistributionsof the analysesdone
to date, other sources of evidence are needed to
complement the phytolith evidence. For maize,
thesemightincludeisotopicanalysesof theapatite
andcollagencomponentsof humanteethandbone
(e.g., Harrisonand Katzenberg2003; Kelly et al.
2006), isotopic analysis of lipids recoveredfrom
potterysherds(e.g., Reberet al. 2004), and/orthe
recoveryof starchgrainsfromsecurecontexts(e.g.,
Messner and Dickau 2005; Pipernoet al. 2000).
Whilemacrobotanical
remainscanprovidecritical
evidenceforthehistoriesof bothmaizeandsquash
(e.g., Crawfordet al. 1997; HartandAsch Sidell
1997), they shouldno longerbe viewed as standalone sourcesof evidencefor those histories.
Acknowledgments.Most of the funding for the research
reportedin this article came from a grantby the New York
State Biodiversity Research Institute. Other funding came
from the New York State Museum and the University at
Albany-SUNY. Robert Thompson did the phytolith extraction and classification. We thank Daniel Cassedy and an
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
REPORTS
anonymous reviewer for their comments, corrections, and
suggestions. The abstract was translatedinto Spanish by
AmarilysLa SantaMorales.
581
AmericanJournalof Botany84:113-1322.
Engelbrecht,William
2003 Iroquoia:TheDevelopmentof a Native World.Syracuse UniversityPress,Syracuse.
Eubanks,Mary
1996 Reevaluationof the Identificationof AncientMaize
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