Tijdschrift
Didactiek
B-wetenschappen
5 (1987)
nr.3
The future of research on cognitive structure
161
and
conceptual change
1
Richard T.White
Monash U n i v e r s i t y ,
Australië
A b o u t ten y e a r s ago t h e r e w a s a s u r g e in r e p o r t s of p r o b e s of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s . T h e s u r g e a p p e a r s to h a v e
o c c u r r e d s p o n t a n e o u s l y in s e v e r a l w i d e l y - s e p a r a t e d c o u n t r i e s . We
now
h a v e 'a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f f a s c i n a t i n g s t u d i e s , a n d
e n t h o u s i a s m f o r p r o d u c i n g m o r e s h o w s no s i g n o f d i m i n i s h i n g . T h i s
r e m a r k a b l e r e s e a r c h effort stimulates questions that themselves can
be t a r g e t s of r e s e a r c h , t h o u g h r e s e a r c h of a d i f f e r e n t t y p e f r o m
the p r o b e s t h e m s e l v e s .
T h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n I p r o p o s e f o r study i s , Why d i d the s u r g e
o c c u r w h e n i t d i d , s a y a b o u t 1976 w i t h e x a m p l e s o f e a r l y s t u d i e s
b e i n g t h o s e o f Z a ' r o u r (1976) a n d N u s s b a u m a n d N o v a k ( 1 9 7 6 ) ? A t
the t i m e r e s e a r c h w a s s t i l l d o m i n a t e d by C a m p b e l l a n d S t a n l e y ' s
(1963) d e s c r i p t i o n o f v a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d q u a s i - e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e s i g n s , so t h a t m o s t s t u d i e s i n v o l v e d c o m p l e x f a c t o r i a l e x p e r i m e n t s
in w h i c h e f f e c t s and i n t e r a c t i o n s of s e v e r a l b r i e f t r e a t m e n t s w e r e
e v a l u a t e d by c o m p a r i n g m e a n s c o r e s of b l o c k s of s u b j e c t s . T h e r e
a r e t h r e e p o i n t s to n o t e a b o u t t h o s e e x p e r i m e n t s . F i r s t , the s c o r e s
were
f r o m tests that w e r e much less s o p h i s t i c a t e d than
the
e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s a n d the s t a t i s t i c a ] m a n i p u l a t i o n s to w h i c h t h e y
w e r e s u b j e c t e d . M o s t l y t h e y c a m e f r o m p e n c i l - a n d - p a p e r t e s t s of
r e c a l l of f a c t s or p e r f o r m a n c e of s i m p l e a l g o r i t h m s ; o c c a s i o n a l l y
true problems w e r e used, and sometimes a f f e c t i v e measures w e r e
t a k e n . T h e r e t e n d e d t o be l i t t l e t h e o r y b e h i n d t h e c h o i c e o f i t e m s .
T h e i r n a t u r e a n d n u m b e r w e r e d e t e r m i n e d i n t u i t i v e l y o r to s u i t
m a n a g e r i a l c o n s t r a i n t s s u c h as t h e t i m e a v a i l a b l e . T h e y
were
m a r k e d r i g h t o r w r o n g a n d c u m u l a t i v e s c o r e s w e r e f o u n d by a d d i n g
1)
A r t i k e l g e p r e s e n t e e r d als ' i n v i t e d A d d r e s s ' v o o r de s p e c i a l
i n t e r e s t g r o u p ' C o g n i t i v e S t r u c t u r e a n d C o n c e p t u a l C h a n g e " , in
1987 t e W a s h i n g t o n , o p h e t j a a r l i j k s c o n g r e s v a n d e A m e r i c a n
Educational Research Association.
162
Cognitive
structure
and
conceptual
change
the n u m b e r c o r r e c t . T h e n a t u r e of e r r o r s a n d the t h i n k i n g b e h i n d
t h e m w e r e i g n o r e d . S e c o n d , the v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n s c o r e s in e a c h
c e l l of the e x p e r i m e n t w a s i g n o r e d e x c e p t as an e n t r y in s t a t i s t i c a l
t a b l e s . O f t e n l a b e l l e d ' e r r o r , it w a s s e e n as a n u i s a n c e r a t h e r t h a n
as a m a t t e r of p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e . T h i r d , a l t h o u g h the d e s i g n of the
s t u d i e s was c o m p l e x , the p s y c h o l o g i c a l m o d e l on w h i c h they w e r e
b a s e d w a s s i m p l e . U s u a l l y t h e r e w a s not m u c h m o r e to the m o d e l
than the n o t i o n that t e a c h i n g d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d the o u t c o m e , a
m o d e l t h a t e x c j u d e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the l e a r n e r s (other than
i n t e l l i g e n c e , a s m e a s u r e d by a s p e e d e d I Q t e s t ) a n d o f t h e c o n t e x t
in w h i c h they w e r e p l a c e d and w h a t they m a d e of it.
/"
In c o n t r a s t t o t h e C a m p b e l l a n d S t a n l e y s t y l e o f e x p e r i m e n t s ,
the p r o b e s of c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e w e r e s i m p l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , no
m o r e than a m e a s u r e w i t h o u t any e x p l i c i t or intended t r e a t m e n t .
H o w e v e r , the m e a s u r e s w e r e subtle and d e e p . A l t h o u g h s u r r m a r y
r e s u l t s for w h o l e g r o u p s w e r e r e p o r t e d , t h e r e was a p p r e c i a t i o n of
the
individual. The thinking
behind people's responses was
considered seriously.
Why d i d p e o p l e m a k e t h e s h a r p c h a n g e f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t s to
t h e p r o b e s ? In a n s w e r i n g t h a t q u e s t i o n i t i s n o t e n o u g h t o d i s c o v e r
r e a s o n s f o r the t u r n f r o m e x p e r i m e n t s ; w e n e e d to k n o w w h y t h e r e
w a s a t u r n to p r o b e s of c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . A f t e r a l l , t h e r e a r e
o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s to the e x p e r i m e n t s . A l s o it w o u l d be u s e f u l to
k n o w h o w t h i s s u r g e in i n t e r e s t
in p r o b i n g u n d e r s t a n d ing of
s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s c a m e a b o u t at rnuch the s a m e t i m e in the U n i t e d
States, Canada, A u s t r a l i a , New Zealand, B r i t a i n , F r a n c e , Sweden,
I s r a ë l , L e b a n o n , A u s t r i a , W e s t G e r m a n y a n d S o u t h A f r i c a . Was it
s p o n t a n e o u s ? O r w e r e t h e r e l i n k s t h a t c a n be t r a c e d b e t w e e n the
r e s e a r c h e r s ? In a n s w e r i n g t h i s s e t o f q u e s t i o n s w e n e e d t o c o n s i d e r
a n o t h e r : W h y d i d t h e r e s e a r c h n o t a p p e a r i n a l l c o u n t r i e s ? In m o s t ,
of c o u r s e , it
is b e c a u s e of g e n e r a l l a c k of i n v o l v e m e n t
in
e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h , but w h a t about an a d v a n c e d c o u n t r y
like
J a p a n ? W a s t h e r e a s i m i l a r o c c u r r a n c e t h e r e ? If n o t , w h y n o t ? If
s o , w h y is i t n o t b e t t e r k n o w n ? We c o u l d a l l s p e c u l a t e a b o u t t h e s e
i s s u e s , but it w o u l d be b e t t e r if s o m e o n e w e n t b e y o n d s p e c u l a t i o n
a n d d i d s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h on the q u e s t i o n s .
A n o t h e r p u z z l i n g q u e s t i o n i s , Why d i d e a r l i e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s n o t p r o l i f e r a t e l i k e the o n e s of
t h e 1 9 7 0 s ? M a r t o n ( n . d . ) d e s c r i b e s p r o b e s by S w e d i s h s c h o l a r s i n
the f i r s t y e a r s of t h i s c e n t u r y ; O a k e s (1945) u s e d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t
a r e so l i k e s o m e u s e d i n t h e l a t e 1970s t h a t G u n s t o n e a n d I, f o r
one p a i r of r e c e n t r e s e a r c h e r s , look l i k e p l a g i a r i s t s ; and a l t h o u g h
he a p p e a r s n o t to h a v e b e e n i n t e r e s t e d in o e d a g o g y , P i a g e t ' s
White
163
i n t e r v i e w w o r k w a s p u b l i s h e d s t e a d i l y f r o m t h e 1920s o n . T h e s e
e a r l i e r i n s t a n c e s c h a n g e t h e f o c u s o f t h e q u e s t i o n . It b e c o m e s , W h y
d i d not the S w e d i s h w o r k p e r s i s t ? Why d i d not O a k e s '
work
s t i m u l a t e s i m i l a r s t u d i e s f r o m many o t h e r p e o p l e ? Why d i d P i a g e t
h a v e l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e o n s c i e n c e e d u c a t o r s b e f o r e t h e I 9 7 0 s ? In
c o m m e n t i n g on a d r a f t of t h i s p a p e r , N o r t h f i e l d s u g g e s t e d to me
t h a t the r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s has f l o u r i s h e d
b e c a u s e i t is o f d i r e c t i n t e r e s t to t e a c h e r s a n d p r o v i d e s t h e m w i t h
practical
meanings
for
terms
s u c h as a c t i o n r e s e a r c h and
s c h o o l b a s e d c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e r e l e v a n c e of the r e s e a r c h
to t e a c h e r s m a i n t a i n s t h e i n t e r e s t o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s . T h a t m a y b e s o ,
but it w o u l d m e r e l y s h i f t the q u e s t i o n t o : Why d i d not t h e e a r l i e r
w o r k i n t e r e s t t e a c h e r s to t h e s a m e e x t e n t ?
M o s t o f us w h o h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d i n p r o b i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g
m a y not h a v e the s k i l l s t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d to t a c k l e q u e s t i o n s l i k e
t h o s e I h a v e b e e n p r o p o s i n g . We m a y n e e d t o b r i n g t h e m b e f o r e
h i s t o r i a n s a n d s o c i o l o g i s t s . W h o e v e r a n s w e r s t h e m , t h e r e is m u c h
to be g a i n e d f r o m t h e m . A u g u s t C o m t é m a d e a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t
w h e n h e s a i d ' A s c i e n c e c a n n o t be c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t a
k n o w l e d g e o f h o w it a r o s e " ( C o m t é , 1 8 3 0 - 1 8 4 2 / 1 8 5 5 , p . 4 3 ) . T h e
e n e r g y w i t h w h i c h w e p r o b e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a r r i e d us a l o n g f o r a
d e c a d e : n o w w e n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t we h a v e b e e n d o i n g , in
o r d e r t o j u d g e w ' e l l w h a t i t w o u l d b e b e s t f o r us to d o n e x t .
C e r t a i n l y w e h a v e b e e n v i g o r o u s i n o u r r e s e a r c h . In 1986 my
colleague
D i c k G u n s t o n e c h e c k e d the h o l d i n g of the M o n a s h
University library
f o r p u b l i c a t i o n s on c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e
and
c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e . H i s l i s t w a s not i n t e n d e d to be c o m p r e h e n s i v e ,
but it i n c l u d e s s e v e n b o o k s o r c o l l e c t i o n s of c o n f e r e n c e p a p e r s
( A r c h e n h o l d , D r i v e r , O r t o n & W o o d - R o b i n s o n , 1980; D r i v e r , 1983;
D r i v e r , G u e s n e óc T i b e r g h i e n , 1985; D u i t , J u n g & v o n R h ö n e c k , 1985;
H e l m & N o v a k , 1 9 8 3 ; O s b o r n e & F r e y b e r g , 1985; W e s t <5c P i n e s ,
1985), e l e v e n r e v i e w a r t i c l e s ( D r i v e r & B e l l , 1986; D r i v e r & E a s l e y ,
1978; D r i v e r & E r i c k s o n , 1983; F e n s h a m , 1984; G i l b e r t & W a t t s ,
1 9 8 3 ; M c C l o s k e y , 1 9 8 3 ; M c D e r m o t t , 1984; O s b o r n e , 1982; O s b o r n e &
S c h o l l u m , 1 9 8 3 ; O s b o r n e <5c W i t t r o c k , 1983, 1985), a n d m o r e t h a n a
h u n d r e d j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e a r e t h e n u m e r o u s a n d
v a l u a b l e i n - h o u s e p u b l i c a t i o n s of c e n t r e s a t the u n i v e r s i t i e s of
W a i k a t o , L e e d s , G ö t e b o r g , P a r i s and K i e l and a l a r g e n u m b e r of
unpublished conference
papers and d i s s e r t a t i o n s . The books,
a r t i c l e s , papers and dissertations report results obtained through a
variety
of p r o b e s , i n c l u d i n g c o n c e p t maps, Venn d i a g r a m s ,
pred i c t i o n - o b s e r vat i o n - e x p l a n a t i o n
tasks and
interviews
of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m a n y t o p i c s , a m o n g the most p o p u l a r b e i n g the
n a t u r e of m a t t e r , e n e r g y , m o t i o n , f o r c e , g r a v i t y , e l e c t r i c i t y , l i f e ,
164
Cognitive
structure
and c o n c e p t u a l
change
natural s e l e c t i o n , c h e m i c a l change, c o m b u s t i o n , floating and s i n k i n g ,
light and v i s i o n , and heat and t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h i s v o l u m e of w o r k s u g g e s t s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s . Why
w e r e these t o p i c s c h o s e n ? Was t h e r e s y s t e m a t i c c h o i c e ? W e r e the
r e s e a r c h e r s c o n s c i o u s of w h y they had p i c k e d e a c h t o p i c , w e r e t h e y
i n f l u e n c e d b y f a c t o r s t h a t c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d o r w a s it a l l e c l e c t i c , a
p i c k i n g up o f w h a t e v e r h a p p e n e d t o o c c u r t o t h e m ? W h y , f o r
i n s t a n c e , d i d we not f o c u s on m a g n e t i s m or s o u n d ? P e r h a p s
s o m e o n e s h o u l d w r i t e to a l l the r e s e a r c h e r s a s k i n g w h y they c h o s e
the t o p i c s they d i d .
A n i n t e r e s t i n g t e s t of o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
c o n t e n t a n d p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e w o u l d be to c h e c k w h e t h e r w e c a n
t a k e an u n r e s e a r c h e d t o p i c s u c h as m a g n e t i s m and p r e d i c t the
r a n g e of a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s t h a t we w i l l f i n d in a p o p u l a t i o n
a n d w h i c h c o n c e p t i o n s w i l l b e m o s t c o m m o n . If s o m e o n e w r o t e t o
u s , a s k i n g f o r o u r p r e d i c t i o n s , it w o u l d be i n t e r e s t i n g to see h o w
closely we agree w i t h each other, why we made those p r e d i c t i o n s ,
and how w e l l the p r e d i c t i o n s a c c o r d w i t h s u b s e q u s n t r e s u l t s .
P e r h a p s a p r i z e c o u l d be g i v e n at n e x t y e a r ' s m e e t i n g for the m o s t
a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n , and another
for
t ie m o s t sa c i s f a c t o r y
e x p l a n a t i o n of the d i s c r e p a n c v b e t w e e n p r e d i ' t i o n and o b s e r v a t i o n .
If t h e p r o b e s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t h d v e b e e n m a d e h a v e l e d to
p r i n c i p l e s t h a t e n a b l e a r c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s of c o m m o n a l t e r n a t i v e
conceptions, there
; o important
consequences for
curriculum
d e v e l o p m e n t . M o s t c u r r i c u l a a n d t e a c h i n g s e q u e n c e s in t e x t s a p p e a r
to be b a s e d on a . t a b u l a r a s a i m a g e of the l e a r n e r , a n d a m o d e l of
l e a r n i n g t h a t c o n s i d e r s only a d d i t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n
without
c o n c e r n f o r w h a t the l e a r n e r a l r e a d y b e l i e v e s . T h i s may not be
t h r o u g h l a c k of a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p r i o r k n o w l e d g e
but r a t h e r b e c a u s e of i n a b i l i t y to g u e s s w h a t r a n g e s t h a t k n o w l e d g e
is l i k e l y t o e n c o m p a s s . P e r h a p s w e c a n n o w m a k e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
about the t e a c h i n g of any t o p i c , e v e n those t h a t h a v e not yet been
r e s e a r c h e d . If w e c a n n o t y e t d o t h i s f o r u n r e s e a r c h e d t o p i c s , w e
n e e d t o c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r it w i l l e v e r b e p o s s i b l e . M u s t w e p r o b e
empirically each topic
in o r d e r to l i s t its l i k e l y
alternative
c o n c e p t i o n s ? It w o u l d b e b e t t e r
if o u r w o r k to d a t e c o u l d be
d i s t i l l e d into a t h e o r y of c o n t e n t .
If i t s h o u l d t u r n o u t t h a t w e c a n n o t p r e d i c t c o m m o n a l t e r n a t i v e
c o n c e p t i o n s , t h e r e i s n o n e e d f o r d e s p a i r - t h e n u m b e r o f t o p i c s is
f i n i t e , a n d t h e k e y o n e s i n s c i e n c e a r e n o t so n u m e r o u s a s t o m a k e
t h e t a s k i m p o s s i b l e . We w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o c o n s i d e r w h a t t h e
k e y t o p i c s a r e . T h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t is o f m o s t w o r t h w i l l v a r y w i t h
t i m e a n d p l a c e , of c o u r s e . A t p r e s e n t I w o u l d i m a g i n e t h a t c o n c e p t s
l i k e e n e r g y a n d e c o l o g y w o u l d be r a t e d h i g h l y , w h i l e in o t h e r s o c i a l
i
White
165
c i r c u m s t a n c e s s t a t i c s o r a s t r o n o m y m i g h t be m o r e i m p o r t a n t . T h e
c h o i c e is s u b j e c t i v e : b u t I s e e v a l u e in a d e b a t e a b o u t
what
k n o w l e d g e is o f m o s t w o r t h i n s c i e n c e , f o r t h a t d e b a t e c o u l d g u i d e
research and c u r r i c u l u m development.
A theory
of c o n t e n t ,
which would include principles
for
p r e d i c t i n g l i k e l y a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s , must m e r g e w i t h a theory
o f k n o w l e d g e . 1 u s e k n o w l e d g e in t h e s e n s e o f t h e
Information
s t o r e d i n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s m i n d , so t h a t f o r m e i t is s y n o n y m o u s
w i t h c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . We n e e d t o d e v e l o p f u r t h e r o u r n o t i o n s o f
c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . I w a s t r y i n g to do t h a t in an e a r l y a r t i c l e
( G a g n è <5c W h i t e , 1978) a n d s o m e c o n f e r e n c e p a p e r s ( W h i t e , 1979;
W h i t e <5c G u n s t o n e , 1 9 8 0 ) , b u t I f e a r t h a t I l e f t m y t h o u g h t s i n a
p r i m i t i v e s t a t e . N o v a k (1977) t r i e d t o d o i t , t o o , in r e f i n i n g o n
Ausubel's theory.
I do not h a v e c l e a r i d e a s about the f o r m that a t h e o r y of
content and c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e should t a k e . N o v a k ' s notions and
m i n e d i f f e r o v e r the u n i t f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g k n o w l e d g e , he f a v o u r i n g
concepts and I d i v e r s e s m a l l e r elements like
propositions,
a l g o r i t h m s , i m a g e s a n d e p i s o d e s ; b u t i n b o t h c a s e s t h e m o d e l is o f
an e s s e n t i a l l y s t a t i c c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e that c h a n g e s o n l y w h e n
n e w i n p u t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a r e r e c e i v e d . M o r e l i k e l y m e m o r y is n o t
s t a t i c but k i n e m a t i c , w i t h f l u i d , e v e r - c h a n g i n g c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n
frequently
reconstructed elements. A better
representation
of
c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e m i g h t be o n e t h a t c a p t u r e s t h a t
fluidity.
E v e n a b e t t e r m o d e l o f c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e w i l l n o t by i t s e l f
h e l p us t o p r e d i c t d i f f i c u l t i e s l e a r n e r s m a y h a v e w i t h s p e c i f i c
c o n t e n t , n o r a l l o w r e a d y d e d u c t i o n of a p p r o p r i a t e
remediation.
C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e d e s c r i b e d by M a r t o n ( n . d . ) f r o m a s t u d y
by D a g m a r N e u m a n on y o u n g c h i l d r e n ' s k n o w l e d g e of a r i t h m e t i c .
W h e n a l i t t l e g i r l w a s a s k e d ' I f y o u h a v e f o u r p e n c i l s in y o u r d e s k
and I g i v e you f i v e m o r e , how many w o u l d you then h a v e ? ' she
a n s w e r e d f i v e . W h e n she was a s k e d to e x p l a i n h e r a n s w e r she
r a i s e d f o u r f i g u r e s a n d s a i d ' Y o u h a v e f o u r , ' a n d then as she s a i d
' A n d then you h a v e f i v e m o r e ' she r a i s e d h e r t h u m b . F r o m t h i s and
p a r a l l e l examples Neuman inferred that c h i l d r e n confuse names for
f i n g e r s or o b j e c t s w i t h q u a n t i t i e s . When c o u n t i n g on t h e i r f i n g e r s
t h e y n a m e t h e f i r s t f i n g e r o n e , s e c o n d t w o , a n d so o n , so t h a t t h e
n u m b e r o f o b j e c t s b e c o m e s t h e n a m e o f t h e l a s t o n e in t h e s e r i e s .
Thus the l i t t l e g i r l w a s i n t e r p r e t i n g the s t a t e m e n t a b o u t b e i n g
g i v e n f i v e m o r e a s t h e a d d i n g o f a n o t h e r o n e to c o r r e s p o n d w i t h
h e r t h u m b . F o r f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h i s s o r t of s i t u a t i o n w e n e e d
a t h e o r y o f c o n t e n t a s w e l l as a t h e o r y o f m e m o r y . It m a y be t h a t
a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f m e m o r y is p o s s i b l e b u t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e o n e o f
c o n t e n t i m p o s s i b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e s h o u l d t r y to d e v e l o p o n e .
166
Cognitive
structure
and
conceptual
change
In f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t
of t h e o r y
we should add
affective
a s p e c t s t o c o g n i t i o n . We m i g h t i n c o r p o r a t e n o t i o n s o f c o n f i d e n c e
i n , o r c e r t a i n t y a b o u t , k n o w l e d g e . In p r o b i n g w h a t p e o p l e b e l i e v e
about a s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e or phenomenon r e s e a r c h e r s might also
ask t h e m h o w s u r e they a r e of the p r o p o s i t i o n s they put f o r w a r d ,
and why they b e l i e v e t h e m . P e r h a p s s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s a l r e a d y do
t h a t . T h i s p r o c e d u r e c o u l d p r o v i d e i n s i g h t s to the p r o b l e m of h o w
to g e t p e o p l e to a l t e r t h e i r
conceptions.
M o s t of o u r r e s e a r c h e f f o r t so f a r has b e e n d i r e c t e d to p r o b i n g
c o n c e p t i o n s . T h o u g h , a s I h a v e s a i d , a l o t h.as b e e n d o n e , t h e r e a r e
t w o w a y s i n w h i c h t h i s w o r k c o u l d b e e x t e n d e d . We h a v e t e n d e d t o
w o r k on c o n c e p t s l i k e ' l i f e " , ' f o r c e " and ' c h e m i c a l c h a n g e ' , r a t h e r
t h a n t o t a k e a s t a r g e t s p r o p o s i t i o n s l i k e ' t h e w o r l d is r o u n d " , a n
e x c e p t i o n t h a t w a s s t u d i e d by N u s s b a u m a n d N o v a k ( 1 9 7 6 ) . We m a y
get
different
insights
into c o g n i t i v e
structure
if w e
tackle
u n d e r s t a n d ing of p r o p o s i t i o n s . I s u g g e s t as e x a m p l e s ' G r e e n p l a n t s
m a k e t h e i r o w n f o o d " , ' W h i t e l i g h t is m a d e o f m a n y c o l o u r s " a n d
' A c i d s n e u t r a l i z e b a s e s " . T h e s e c o n d e x t e n s i o n is i n t o c o n c e p t s f r o m
subjects other than s c i e n c e . Not only would results for n o n - s c i e n c e
t o p i c s be i n t e r e s t i n g in t h e i r o w n r i g h t , but a l s o t h e y w o u l d be
b o u n d to p r o v i d e b r o a d e r i n s i g h t s on the l e a r n i n g of s c i e n c e o n e s .
T h e p r o b e s t h a t h a v e b e e n used in s c i e n c e c o u l d r e a d i l y be a p p l i e d
to c o n c e p t s s u c h a s ' p r o f i t " , ' c r i m e " a n d ' m u s i c a l f o r m " a n d t o
p r o p o s i t i o n s s u c h as ' p o w e r c o r r u p t s " a n d ' E n g l i s h w o r d s h a v e m a n y
or ig i n s " .
B e s i d e s p r o b i n g the n a t u r e of a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s , w e c a n
s t u d y t h e i r f o r m a t i o n a n d h o w to c h a n g e t h e m . C o m p a r e d w i t h the
a m o u n t of w o r k on p r o b i n g t h e r e has b e e n r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e r e s e a r c h
on f o r m a t i o n and c h a n g e .
We s h o u l d e x p l o r e
the s o u r c e s of a l t e r n a t i v e
conceptions.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e has b e e n s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r f o r m a t i o n f e w if
any r e s e a r c h e r s have asked students w h e r e they got t h e i r
ideas
from,
nor
have there
been longitudinal
studies tracing
the
e m e r g e n c e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of a c o n c e p t i o n . A t the v e r y l e a s t w e
s h o u l d a l t e r t h e b a l a n c e in t h e p r o b e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s s o
that more are done w i t h very young c h i l d r e n . A l s o , where a
p e r s o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n s d i f f e r f r o m t h o s e of e s t a b l i s h e d s c i e n c e we
should try
to d i s c o v e r
whether
they
arose from
incorrect
observations, different
interpretations
of c o r r e c t
observations,
erroneous
teaching, misinterpretation
of c o r r e c t
information,
i n c o n s i s t e n t l o g i c , or a d i f f e r e n t but i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t s y s t e m of
l o g i c . In t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n w e s h o u l d c a s t o f f o u r i n h e r i t a n c e f r o m
e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y of c o n s i d e r i n g the l e a r n e r as an i s o l a t e d
i n d i v i d u a l . H u m a n s a r e s o c i a l b e i n g s . We m u s t i n c o r p o r a t e s o c i a l
White
167
c o n t e x t in o u r t h i n k i n g , b e c a u s e c o g n i t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s a r e s o c i a l l y
determined.
K n o w i n g m o r e a b o u t h o w c o n c e p t i o n s f o r m s h o u l d h e l p us t o
f i n d out h o w to c h a n g e t h e m . T h e r e h a v e b e e n a t t e m p t s to c h a n g e
s t u d e n t s ' c o n c e p t i o n s ( e . g . G u n s t o n e , C h a m p a g n e & K l o p f e r , 1981;
H e w s o n , 1 9 8 2 ) , b u t i t t u r n s o u t t o be d i f f i c u l t . . T h e s t u d y by
G u n s t o n e , C h a m p a g n e a n d K l o p f e r (1981)
is d i s t u r b i n g :
after
w o r k i n g i n t e n s i v e l y w i t h 12 a b l e s e v e n t h - a n d e i g h t h - g r a d e r s w h o
i n i t i a l l y d i s p l a y e d p r e - G a l i l e a n v i e w s of f o r c e and m o t i o n , the
r e s e a r c h e r s w e r e a l m o s t c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e y h a d s u c c e e d e d in
g e t t i n g the s t u d e n t s to e x c h a n g e t h e i r o r i g i n a l v i e w s f o r N e w t o n i a n
conceptions. Unfortunately,
in the f i n a l s e s s i o n d e e p
probing
r e v e a l e d t h a t the p r e - G a l i l e a n b e l i e f s p e r s i s t e d a l o n g s i d e the a d d e d
Newtonian
k n o w l e d g e . A s w e l l as i n d i c a t i n g t h e
pedagogical
d i f f i c u l t y of b r i n g i n g a b o u t c h a n g e , t h i s r e s u l t c r e a t e d a l o g i c a l
p r o b l e m f o r r e s e a r c h . It is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t o c h e c k w h e t h e r n e w
k n o w l e d g e has b e e n a d d e d , but n o w w e w a n t to k n o w a l s o w h e t h e r
o t h e r k n o w l e d g e h a s b e e n d i s c a r d e d , o r , as it m a y b e b e t t e r t o p u t
it, w h e t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n s h a v e b e e n made b e t w e e n the
n e w k n o w l e d g e a n d the o l d . A t t e m p t s to c h a n g e c o n c e p t i o n s w i l l
not be c o n v i n c i n g w i t h o u t e x t e n s i v e , s e n s i t i v e a n d s u b t l e a t t e m p t s
to a l l o v v l e a r n e r s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c e o f t h e i r
i n i t i a l b e l i e f s . T h e d a n g e r is t h a t w e c o u l d b e l i e v e t h a t s o m e
p r o c e d u r e is e f f e c t i v e i n p r o m o t i n g c h a n g e o f c o n c e p t i o n w h e n a l l
t h a t it d o e s is a d d n e w k n o w l e d g e w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g t h e o l d .
W h y is i t d i f f i c u l t t o b r i n g a b o u t r e a l c h a n g e in a c o n c e p t i o n ?
P o s n e r , S t r i k e , H e w s o n a n d G e r z o g (1982) s e t o u t c o n d i t i o n s t h a t
m u s t be m e t b e f o r e p e o p l e w i l l c h a n g e a n o l d i d e a f o r a n e w : t h e y
m u s t be d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h the o l d n o t i o n a n d f i n d the n e w o n e
i n t e l l i g i b l e , p l a u s i b l e a n d f r u i t f u l . It is n o t as e a s y as it m i g h t s e e m
t o s e t u p t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g i d e a is
p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t t o b r i n g a b o u t ; a f t e r a l l , if it h a d n o t b e e n
s e r v i n g w e l l u p t i l l t h i s p o i n t it w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b a n d o n e d e a r l i e r .
It w i l l t a k e a p o w e r f u l n e w e x p e r i e n c e t o o v e r t h r o w a l l t h e e a r l i e r
p o s i t i v e e x p e r i e n c e of the u s e f u l n e s s of the o l d n o t i o n .
I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y a n d p l a u s i b i l i t y o f t h e n e w i d e a a r e n o t so h a r d to
e s t a b l i s h , b u t f r u i t f u l n e s s is m o r e t r o u b l e s o m e . T h i s is b e c a u s e
people move b e t w e e n many c o n t e x t s and c a n find one v i e w f r u i t f u l
i n , s a y , a s c h o o l c o n t e x t a n d a n o t h e r in a n o u t - o f - s c h o o l c o n t e x t .
We d o t h a t o u r s e l v e s w h e n , t o u s e B e v e r l e y B e l l ' s (1981) e x a m p l e ,
w e c h a n g e o u r m e a n i n g o f a w o r d l i k e a n i m a l f r o m s c i e n t i f i c to
c o m m o n usage. C h a n g i n g c o n c e p t i o n s then b e c o m e s a matter
of
s h o w i n g t h a t t h e s c i e n t i s t s ' o n e is m o r e f r u i t f u l in s e v e r a l i f n o t
a l l i m a g i n a b l e c o n t e x t s , w h i c h m i g h t n o t b e e a s y to a r r a n g e . In a n y
168
Cognitive
structure
and c o n c e p t u a l
change
e v e n t , in p r o b i n g a c o n c e p t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s m i g h t be a d v i s e d to
m a k e the c o n t e x t c l e a r , o r to ask the s u b j e c t s w h a t t h e y t h i n k the
c o n t e x t i s , o r to v a r y the c o n t e x t s to see w h a t e f f e c t t h a t has on
their conceptions.
Another difficulty
in b r i n g i n g a b o u t c n a n g e is t h a t e p i s o d i c
m e m o r y is p l a s t i c ; r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o n c e p t i o n b e i n g c h a n g e d t o f i t
the e v i d e m . e , the r e c o l l e c t i o n of the e v i d e n c e c a n be a l t e r e d to f i t
t h e c o n ; o t i o n . T h i s is w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d b y G a u l d ( 1 9 8 6 ) . A f t e r
getting
:.: to s e t up a s i m p l e c i r c u i t o f a b a t t e r y a n d g l o b e ,
he a s k e d
i. •<<., t<; « h o o s e b e t w e e n f o u r c o n c e p t i o n s oi
electric
c u r r e n t , i.i w n i e i
rhe c u r r e n t c o m e s :
A.
f r o m o n e eni-: •;" t h e b a t t e r y a n d i s a l l c o n s u m e d i n t h e g l o b e ;
B.
o u t of b o t h
•]$ o f t h e b a t t e r y a n d r e a c t s i n t h e g l o b e ;
C.
f r o m o n e erui ;f the b a t t e r y , s o m e is c o n s u m e d i n t h e g l o b e
a n d the r e s t c o n t i n u e s b a c k to t h e b a t t e r y ;
D.
f r o m o n e end of the b a t t e r y , s q u e e z e s t h r o u g h the
globe
f i l a m e n t a n d a l i r e t u r n s to t h e b a t t e r y .
T h e s t u d e n t s t h e n h a d to us<.: t h e i r c h o s e n m o d e l t o p r e d i c t t h e
r e l a t i v e s i z e s of r e a d i n g s on a m m e t e r s p l a c e d e a c h s i d e of the
g l o b e . T h e n the a m m e c e n ; w e r e put i n t o the a c t u a l c i r c u i t a n d w e r e
r e a d . T h e s t u d e n t s h a d to r e s o l v e a n y d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e i r
p r e d i c t i o n s and o b s e r v a t i o n s that the m e t e r s r e a d the s a m e , w h i c h
m e a n t a c k n o w l e d g i n g T.IIO a c c u r a c y o f m o d e l D . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r
they w e r e a s k e d a g a i n a b o u t t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n of c u r r e n t . T h e
t r a n s c r i p t for a student who i n i t i a l l y chose model C illustrates
r e v i s i o n of the e p i s o d e :
(model C c o n f i r m e d b e c a u s e ) the m e t e r h e r e was m o r e
t h a n t h i s otic- b u t l ' m n o t s u r e w h a t t h e y a c t u a l l y r e a d ...
I t h i n k t h i s o n e h e r e w a s d o u b l é t h a t o n e ... ( n o t m o d e l
D b e c a u s e ) t h a t w a s p r o v e n w r o n g by t h e m e t e r s .
( G a u l d , 1986, p.52)
It is n o t o b v i o u s w h a t c a n b e d o n e t o o v e r c o m e t h i s p l a s t i c i t y o f
m e m o r y . O n e p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l a p p r o a c h t h a t o c c u r s to me c o m e s
f r o m s y n e c t i c s , a d e t a i l e d p r o c e d u r e d e v i s e d by G o r d o n (1961) to
i n c r e a s e t h e c r e a t i v i t y o f e n g i n e e r s . In d e s c r i b i n g h o w t o g e t
e n g i n e e r s t o s e e f a m i l i a r p r o b l e m s in n e w w a y s , G o r d o n s p e c i f i e s a
s e q u e n c e of c e r t a i n s t a t e s of m i n d t h a t m u s t be e n c o u r a g e d , s u c h
a s w i t h h o l d i n g j u d g e m e n t a n d h e d o n i s t i c r e s p o n s e (of s a t i s f a c t i o n
w i t h t h e s o l u t i o n ) . In a t t e m p t i n g t o b r i n g a b o u t c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e
w e m i g h t d o w e l l to c o n s i d e r t h i s n o t i o n o f s t a t e s o f m i n d a n d
s h o u l d c o n s u l t G o r d o n ' s b o o k to s e e h o w e x p e r i e n c e s c a n be
a r r a n g e d to b r i n g t h e m a b o u t .
T h e b a l a n c e of o u r r e s e a r c h s h o u l d , f o r p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l
r e a s o n s , s h i f t f r o m e l u c i d a t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s to t h e s e
u n r e s o l v e d p r o b l e m s of h o w to c h a n g e c o n c e p t i o n s . T h e p r a c t i c a l
White
169
r e a s o n is t h a t t e a c h e r s w i l l w a n t a d v i c e a b o u t h o w t o p r o m o t e
c h a n g e . We w i l l b e e x p e c t e d to s t o p h a v i n g f u n p o i n t i n g
out
d e f i c i e n c i e s o f l e a r n i n g a n d to c o m e up w i t h s o l u t i o n s . T h e
t h e o r e t i c a l r e a s o n is t h a t a c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o g n i t i v e
structure' and c o n c e p t u a l change demands established p r o p o s i t i o n s
a b o u t not o n l y the f o r m a t i o n of c o n c e p t i o n s but a l s o the t e n a c i t y
w i t h w h i c h they a r e h e l d and the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h they
a l t e r . A l t h o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i n g c h a n g e is m o r e d i f f i c u l t a n d t e d i o u s
t h a n u n c o v e r i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s w e s h o u l d t u r n to it.
A p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l w a y of o v e r c o m i n g the c a p a c i t y of h u m a n s
to r e c o n s t r u c t e p i s o d e s and to m a i n t a i n d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s f o r
d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s is t o g e t p e o p l e t o r e f l e c t o n t h e i r k n o w l e d g e ,
c h e c k i n g its m e a n i n g f u l n e s s and w h e t h e r n e w i n f o r m a t i o n a c c o r d s
w i t h p r e s e n t b e l i e f s . T h o s e a c t s a r e a s p e c t s of m e t a c o g n i t i o n .
T h e r e f o r e i t s h o u l d b e h e l p f u l if m o r e r e s e a r c h w e r e d o n e o n
m e t a c o g n i t i o n . B a i r d ( 1 9 8 6 ; B a i r d & M i t c h e l l , 1986; B a i r d & W h i t e ,
1982a.
1982b, 1984) h a s b e e n a c t i v e
there.
Unfo r tunately
m e t a c o g n i t i o n s t u d i e s r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t : the l a s i t w o of
B a i r d ' s a t t e m p t s to m a k e l e a r n i n g s t y l e s m o r e p u r p o s e f u l r a n f o r
s i x m o n t h s a n d f o r t w o y e a r s . T h e l o n g e r o n e , k n o w n ;<s t h e
P r o j e c t to E n h a n c e E f f e c t i v e L e a r n i n g ( P E E L ) , h a s b r o u g h f a b o u t
c h a n g e s in t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g s t y l e s , b u t n o s y s f e r n a t i c e v i d e n c e
h a s b e e n c o l l e c t e d a b o u t its e f f e c t on s t u d e n t s ' c o n c e p t i o n s .
i V l e t a ' . o g n i t i o n t r a i n i n g r e m a i n s a p r o m i s i n g but u n t e s t e d rneans of
b r i n g ing s t u d e n t s to c h e c k the r e l a t i v e
w o r t h s o f • •••n f ü c t i n g
beliefs.
Soonei" o r l a t e r S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t G r o u p s go o u t of exi.sf«-nce,
e i t h e r by f a i l i n g o r s u c c e e d i n g . O u r s c o u l d f a i l by d e s c e n d iii;< i.o
m i n d l e s s r e p e t i t i o n o f p r o b e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s o r io
s l o p p y , b r i e f a t t e m p t s t o b r i n g a b o u t c o n c e p t u a l c h a n g e . S u c c e s . : is
w h e n o u r r e s e a r c h i s r e c o g n i z e d as s o c e n t r a ! a n d i m p o r t a n t t h a t it
is no l o n g e r s p e c i a l b u t g e n e r a l , a n d t h e g r o u p is a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e
greater
b o d y . S i n c e o u r a i m of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d
improving
l e a r n i n g i s ' c e n t r a l to e d u c a t i o n , w e m a y i n d e e d s u c c e e d . T h e l i n e s
of r e s e a r c h t h a t I h a v e a d v o c a t e d , of i n v e s t i g a t i n g why the s h a r p
c h a n g e i n r e s e a r c h s t y l e f r o m c l a s s i c e x p e r i m e n t s to t h e p r o b i n g o f
a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s b e g a n w h e n i t d i d , w h y i t o c c u r r e d in m a n y
c o u n t r i e s but not a l l , and why the m o v e m e n t f l o u r i s h e d in c o n t r a s t
to e a r l i e r i n s t a n c e s ; o f t e s t i n g h o w a d v a n c e d is o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c e a n d the f o r m a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e
c o n c e p t i o n s ; of b u i l d i n g a t h e o r y of c o n t e n t a n d b e t t e r m o d e l s of
c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e , a n d m e r g i n g t h e m in a m o r e g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f
m e m o r y t h a t a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e s a f f e c t i v e c o m p o n e n t s ; of p r o b i n g
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r o p o s i t i o n s as w e l l as c o n c e p t s ; o f e x t e n d i n g
170
Cognitive
structure
and
conceptual
change
p r o b e s to s u b j e c t s o t h e r t h a n s c i e n c e ; of l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s of the
formation
a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of c o n c e p t i o n s ; of d e t e r m i n i n g
the
c o n d i t i o n s t h a t f o s t e r c h a n g e in c o n c e p t i o n s ; a n d of e x p l o r i n g the
potential
of t r a i n i n g
in m e t a c o g n i t i o n
for
promoting
good
u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; w i l l , I t r u s t , be the w a y to s u c c e s s .
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