Tourism Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 65-73, 1997
© It~97 Elsevier Science Ltd
Atl rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
Pergamon
0261-5177/97 $17.1)(I+ 0.1)0
PII: S0261-5177(96)00102-1
The resort cycle and seaside
tourism: an assessment of its
applicability and validity
Sheela Agarwal
Sheffield Hallam UniversiW, Centre for Tourisrn, Totlev Campus, Totlev Hall Lane.
Sheffield S17 4AB, UK
This paper seeks to contribute to the debate surrounding the applicability of the resort cycle
by testing the model in the context of seaside resort tourism along the south coast of Britain.
A brief review of the resort cycle is followed by discussion which focuses on the main
methodological problems and limitations. In the second part of this paper, using the resort
cycle as the broad research framework, an attempt is made to validate the model empirically,
drawing upon the experience of a particular resort: Torbay, one of the most well-established
seaside resorts in the UK. The results presented here reinforce the importance of 'unit of
analysis' and highlight the difficulty of operationalizing the model. In addition, the study
findings reveal the critical role of regeneration in continued resort evolution. © 1997 Elsevier
Science Ltd
Keywords: resort cycle, seaside tourism, applicability, regeneration
In general terms, the growth and decline of seaside
tourism in Britain appears to substantiate the notion
that tourism in destinations can be characterized
and related to the overall pattern of rise and fall
that Butler' proposed in the resort cycle model. The
postwar evolution of tourism was buoyant, with 75%
of the domestic holiday market captured by seaside
resorts.-" However, by the late 1970s, owing to
overseas competition, cheap travel and the
emergence of a more discerning and qualityconscious market, the fortunes of the traditional
British seaside resort had changed substantially.
Thus, by the end of the 1980s, many of these resorts
were characterized by long-term market decline.
This broad evolutionary pattern reinforces the
findings of studies concerned with the applicability
of the model. '7 More recently, attention has
focused on establishing the validity of the resort
cycle in relation to the proposed internal dynamics
of resort evolution. ~ '~" Despite the large volume of
research reviewing the resort cycle, its validity,
applicability and universality has yet to be successfully proven. ''' Therefore, if the model is to contribute to future investigations into resort evolution,
there is a clear need for further detailed analysis.
T h e r e s o r t cycle: a n o v e r v i e w
In 1980, Butler' conceptualized an evolutionary
cycle, which described the development of a destination area in terms of a series of stages defined by
visitor numbers and infrastructure. The tourism
cycle of evolution consists of six stages (Figure 1),
each of which is characterized by a number of
identifiable features (Table 1).
The 'exploration', 'involvement', 'development"
and 'consolidation' phases of the model signify
growth, whilst the 'stagnation' stage represents a
gradual decline. The end of the cycle is marked by
the 'post-stagnation' phase, which comprises a set of
five options that a resort may follow. Decline may
ensue if the market continues to wane and the
resort is not able to compete with newer attractions
(curves C, D and E). However, if counter-measures
are adopted, such as the reorientation of tourist
attractions, environmental enhancement, or the
repositioning of destinations within an overall
market, decline may be offset and varying degrees of
rejuvenation are stimulated, as shown by curves A
and B.
Research into the applicability of the resort cycle
in a variety of destinations has led to much contro65
The resort cycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
versy surrounding the exact shape and pattern of the
curve, as well as the detail about the specification of
its parameters. A study of the Grand Isle resort of
Louisiana, undertaken by Meyer-Arendt, confirms
the model's applicability? Wilkinson's examination
of the resort cycle based on tourism in the Caribbean Islands of Aruba, St Lucia, Antigua and the
US Virgin Islands also revealed a similar pattern of
growth and development to that postulated by
Butler? Furthermore, Smith's '~ application of an
earlier study of tourism in Coney Island by Snow
and Wright, H suggests that it displays a similar
Figure 1
The resort cycle of evolution
RejuvenatJon
t
s Ss A sB
Stag natior t ~ , ~ , -t ~~~ ~ . "
--
"6
---8o ~ ~
"~
-g
/ O ~ E ~
L
~ o
|
Consollaatlon
. . . .
~ -
~
i
~"
--
% %
~F--~
""',,C
- - - - - -
Decline ~ ~'~.~,
E
Z~
,
DevOopm7
InvolvemeJ
J
Explorahon
Source: Butler 1980
Time
Table 1
i
pattern of growth and decline documented in the
resort cycle.
In contrast, however, an examination of tourism
in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania by Hovinen
found that the Butler model did not adequately
describe the industry's evolution.' Not only did the
shape of the postulated curve of growth numbers of
visitors through time significantly differ from that
proposed in the resort model, but the sequence of
stages was also noted to be different. In addition,
the study also revealed that many of the characteristics associated with each stage did not match
those documented by Butler. A later study of Port
Stephens in the Great Lakes, undertaken by Baker,"
also displaycd many disparities in terms of stage
characteristics, whilst Cooper's examination of
tourism in the Isle of Man found that the overall
shape of the curve and the sequence of stages did
not conform to the pattern suggested by the resort
cycle." Research by Weaver in the Grand Cayman
Islands revealed sharp deviations from the resort
model, notably in relation to the degree of local as
opposed to non-local control over the industry/
Finally, the application of the resort life-cycle to the
development of Niagara Falls also highlighted many
points of divergence.'"
In short, the main conclusion that can be drawn
from research into the applicability of the resort
cycle points to a number of problems and limitations
that cannot be easily resolvcd (for a fuller discussion
see Agarwal'"). Perhaps the most devastating and
difficult to absorb relates to the internal and
external factors that influence resort evolution. The
overall shape of the curve varies depending upon
supply factors, such as rate of development, access,
Stages of resort development and associated features
Stage
Characteristic
Exploration
• Few adventurous tourists, visiting sites with no public facilities
Visitors attracted to the resort by a natural physical feature
Specific visitor type of a select nature
• Limited interaction between local residents and the developing tourism industry leads to the provisionof
basic services
Increased advertising induces a definable pattern of seasonal variation
Definite market area begins to emerge
• Development of additional tourist facilities and increased promotional efforts
Greater control of the tourist trade by outsiders
Number of tourists at peak periods far outweighs the size of the resident population, inducing rising
antagonism by the latter towards the former
Tourism has become a major part of the local economy, but growth rates have begun to level off
A well-delineated business district has taken shape
Some of the older deteriorating facilities are perceived as second rate
lx)cal efforts are made to extend the tourist season
Peak numbers of tourists and capacity levels are reached
The resort has a well-established image, but it is no longer in fashion
The accommodation stock is gradually eroded and property turnover rates are high
Five possibilities, reflecting a range of options that may be followed, depending partly on the success of local
management decisions. At either extreme are rejuvenation and decline
Involvement
Development
Consolidation
Stagnation
Post-stagnation
Source: Compiled from Butler.'
66
Ihe resort c*ycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
government policy and competing destinations, and
upon factors of demand, which include the changing
nature of the clientele as the destination evolves J:
Any change in these underlying factors will have a
considerable impact on the tourist destination area.
[n addition, internal and external agents also have a
crucial bearing on resort evolution. In terms of
endogenous resort dynamics, decisions made by
resort planners and managers at different stages of
resort evolution are critically important in shaping
its life path. ~ This view is further emphasized by
Getz, who states that:
during growth and maturity, management of change
is the priority, in order to prevent deterioration or
decline. If decline is experienced, decisions must be
made on whether it is desirable to try to rejuvenate
the tourist industry.(~"p 753)
As regards the exogenous factors, work by Debbage
and Bianchi reveal the critical influence that transnational companies have on the health of the
resort, '-~,~ Meanwhile Ioannides draws attention to
the importance to resort development of interaction
between foreign interest groups and state institutions." Therefore, owing to the unpredictable nature
and variability of internal and external factors, in
spatial and magnitude terms, it is extremely difficult
to apply the resort model holistically to destination
area evolution and development.
Thus, the resort life-cycle model is clearly destination specific, with each stage being variable in length
and having differing shapes and patterns. This is
clearly recognized by Hovinen, who, in order to
accommodate variability in resort experience during
the later stages of the cycle, substituted the 'consolidation" and 'stagnation' phases with a single
stage marking maturity2 By contrast, Haywood
suggests a variety of possible tourist area cycle of
evolution curves that may occur, as opposed to the
universal Butler model, l~ In addition, the model has
been subject to criticism on the basis that it is difficult to operationalize. Many of the model's components are ill-defined (for a fuller discussion see
Haywood~"), and the paucity of long-term historical
data within many destination areas makes its
employment problematic. In particular, the 'unit of
analysis' responsible for delineating the area of
study lacks clarity. The model does not take into
account geographical scale, and views a destination
as being made up of a single product instead of a
mosaic of different elements (hotels, theme parks)
each of which exhibits a separate life-cycle. Some
may show growth, whilst others may display signs of
decline.
Despite these criticisms of the resort life-cycle, it
is notable that the model provides a conceptual
framework for understanding change within destinations. It enables the identification of internal and
external processes and agents that shape resort
evolution at particular destinations." In recent
years, study of the model has increased considerably,
and explanations of resort change have been
suggested. However, there is still a considerable lack
of detailed empirical analysis and, thus, the applicability of the model remains questionable. By
concentrating dctailed analysis on Torbay, one of
the most well-established seaside resorts in the UK,
the life-cycle is tested empirically against observed
development trends. The selection of Torbay as a
case study for investigation is based on a number of
considerations. First, located on the south coast of
England (Figure 2), and consisting of three main
tourism centres, Torquay, Paignton and Brixham,
Torbay is a sizeable and popular holiday resort; it is
the most visited in the West Country and the third
most visited seaside resort in the whole of
England.-"'
Second, Torbay's economy relies very heavily on
tourism. It generates an estimated £300 million per
annum, and supports at least 16000 jobs. 2'' Third,
analysis of English seaside resorts from the perspective of Butler's evolutionary model has been
neglected. Therefl)re, this study not only helps to fill
an empirical vacuum, but also has further
theoretical implications for the understanding of
internal resort dynamics. Thus, through the use of
primary and secondary data sources, a full investigation was undertaken into the evolution and development of Torbay, and the changing nature and
pattern of tourism within the resort. The findings
Figure 2 The location of Torbay
67
The resort ~ycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
were then reconveyed within the overall framework
of the life-cycle model.
Application of the resort model:
operational problems and limitations
Application of the resort life cycle highlighted a
number of operational problems. These relate, first,
to a variety of data limitations and, second, to the
difficulties experienced whilst attempting to use the
model as an organizing framework within which to
study the evolution of tourism in Torbay. The most
significant are outlined below.
were recorded only at the peak of the holiday
season. By contrast, from the 1970s onwards,
numbers of visitors were measured monthly, and
annual totals were published. This problem is
further exacerbated by the fact that the spatial scale
of collection also changed over time. Prior to local
government reorganization in 1968, the individual
resorts of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham that now
constitute Torbay were responsible for the management, development and control of tourism within
their district boundaries. After this date, however,
the three tourism centres were amalgamated and
subsequent data relates to the enlarged resort of
Torbay.
Temporal discontinuity
Temporal discontinuity of tourism information is
inevitable since no single tourism data set or source
covers the whole period of Torbay's evolution, from
its origin to the present day. In order to reconstruct
changing seaside holiday-making trends, and to
document tourism developments through time, it
was necesssary to examine a diverse range of data
sources. In total, information relating to the evolution of tourism in Torbay was derived from six main
sources. These include secondary historical qualitative data, local newspapers, council minutes, resort
guides, council compiled statistics, planning applications and current qualitative documentary data.
Analysis of the fragmented evidence yielded by each
data source enabled the growth and development of
tourism in Torbay to be reconstructed.
Spatial scope of analysis
In addition to temporal constraints, the scope and
depth of study was further inhibited by the spatial
scale of data available. Statistical data that enables
the reconstruction of past trends in tourism have in
the main been collated on a regional and county
level. There is a distinct paucity of quantitative
information available on a local resort level, creating
problems for the examination of detailed change
within a resort over time.
Lack of standardization
The non-standard way in which the information is
collated severely hampered its use, particularly in
terms of statistical data. Data sets compiled by
different research bodies are not based on identical
or even similar criteria. Thus, it is extremely difficult
to use one data source alongside another in order to
reconstruct holiday-making trends and patterns.
Moreover, methods of data collection are also
subject to modification over time; as a result, determining change within the resort over time and
attempts at trend analysis are flawed. This is illustrated clearly by the example of visitor statistics
compiled by the resorts' Planning Department.
During the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, visitor numbers
68
Reliability
Statistical data are particularly prone to problems of
errors, omissions and oversights that are frequently
incorporated within the data. This is notably true of
statistics that document the volume and value of
tourism at all spatial scales of analysis. Within the
UK, such figures are based on sampling registered
accommodation and serve to exclude informal establishments from the main count. Data collected to
measure the total number of holidays of one night
or more within resort locations are also notoriously
unreliable. This is due to the lack of clarity
surrounding the definition of a resort. Official
assessment of resorts not only includes all coastal
and inland spa locations, many of which are based
on alternative forms of economic activity, but also
incorporates other tourism centres, for example,
caravan and camp sites and holiday parks, all of
which may be situated outside traditional resort
boundaries. In many cases these facilities form
individual holiday areas, divorced by and large from
the main resort.
The need for reliability also inhibits the practical
use of newspapers and council minutes. Despite
containing a wealth of information, local newspaper
reports are typically protagonists or antagonists of
council policy, and therefore may present a biased
perspective on tourism-related issues. With regards
to council minute data, this source is again prone to
bias, from the non-recording of adverse detail that
may detrimentally affect the image and credibility of
the council at worst, to their sheer selectivity at best.
Calibration of the resort model
In addition to the difficulties associated with
tourism-related data, a number of problems were
encountered whilst attempting to apply the resort
model to the evolution of Torbay. Owing to the
unavailability of long runs of annual visitor number
data, it was impossible to calibrate the 'Y' axis scale
to any degree of certainty.
The resort cvycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
Determination of stages and turning points
Using the resort cycle to document resort development and evolution also became extremely problematic when attempting to determine specific dates for
the turning points of each stage. It proved impossible to assign a definite date for the beginning and
end of each phase as in reality there is not a discrete
break point, but rather a gradual process occurring
over a number of years. This difficulty is best illustrated by the example of Brixham. In terms of stage
characteristics, there is no clear differentiation
between the beginning and end of the 'development'
and 'consolidation' phases. Therefore, a single date
spanning the years 1950 to 1975 was assigned to
cover the two stages, as both appear to merge into
one and cannot be clearly separated.
The identification of life-cycle stages and the
determination of turning points was further complicated by the fact that each of the three resorts
constituting Torbay varies greatly in terms of timing
of foundation and rate of development (Table 2). As
a result, each resort was considered individually up
to the point at which their subsequent development
followed similar paths. Thus, the 'exploration',
'involvement', 'development' and 'consolidation'
stages are all awarded overall dates that encompass
the approximate beginning and end of each phase in
relation to Torbay, in addition to a separate stage
time-span for each individual resort. A great deal of
overlap therefore exists between the length of the
stages associated with the development of Torbay,
and that of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham.
In summary, a number of operational problems
were experienced whilst attempting to apply the
resort life-cycle model to the growth and development of tourism in Torbay. Operationalization of
the resort life-cycle model is clearly dependent upon
'unit of analysis' as the division and length of each
stage varies greatly between resorts. Furthermore,
owing to the lack of detail relating to number of
visitors, it proved impossible to reproduce the
growth curve proposed by the model in the context
of Torbay. Thus, the remainder of this paper
extends the debate surrounding the resort cycle. It
concentrates on assessing the applicability of the
model, by comparing the occurrence of 'events'
taking place within Torbay with the proposed stage
characteristics identified by Butler.
Table 2
Assessment applicability
'Exploration '." c. 1760-1920
As the resort model suggests in Torbay, the tourists
who initially visit the resort are of a particular type,
attracted to the area by a unique natural physical
feature. This is notably true of Torquay, which was
the first of the three resorts to be developed,
primarily as a result of demand from individuals
attracted to the area by the perceived medicinal
virtues of its salubrious climate and sea-water. The
'exploration' of Paignton occurred slightly later, as a
direct result of the discovery of Torquay; it too
developed during the 1830s as a summer resort for
invalids.:' Brixham, meanwhile, did not begin to
attract visitors until the later part of the 19th
century. However, because of a lack of information,
not even an approximate date of initial foundation
can be identified.
"Involvement': c. 1831-1950
As visitor numbers appear to increase during the
'involvement' stage, local provision of accommodation and entertainment facilities and the improvement of the transport network in all three resorts
can clearly be identified. Within Torquay, the years
1859 to 1879 witnessed a rapid building expansion in
the town, whilst a considerable part of Paignton's
infrastructure was constructed during the period
1871 to 1918. Between 1884 and 1888, its Local
Board approved 187 new house plans. This high rate
of growth was maintained at the turn of the century:
90 houses had been built in 1901 and 78 by 1902.22
In Brixham, meanwhile, the decimation of its fishing
industry as a result of the First World War led to
the expansion of its holiday industry; by the
mid-1930s the number of boarding houses in the
fishing town had more than doubled. >
'Development': c. 1910-1975
In all three resorts there is clear evidence that, as
the model suggests, additional tourist facilities and
visitor attractions were provided. Within Torquay
for example, an impressive municipal amenities
investment programme was completed in 1913.
Considerable
financial
investment
continued
throughout the 1920s and 1930s, so that by 1938 a
total of £340000 had been spent on building and
improving facilities in and around the resort. =
Stages of resort development - the experience of Torbay
Stage
Torquay
Paignton
Brixham
Torbay
Exploration
Involvement
Development
c. 1 7 6 0 - 1 8 3 0
c. 1 8 3 1 - 1 9 1 0
c. 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 5 0
c. 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 7 0
c. 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 1 8
c. 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 5 0
c. 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 2 0
<1921-1950
c. 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 7 5
c. 1 7 6 0 - 1 9 2 0
c, 1 8 3 1 - 1 9 5 0
c~1910-1975
Amalgamation under County Borough status
Consolidation
Stagnation
Post-stagnation
c. 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 7 5
c. 1 9 7 6 - 1 9 8 5
c. 1 9 8 5 -
69
The resort cycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
Moreover, the development of the resort is clearly
reflected in the expansion of its accommodation
stock, within both formal and informal sectors.
According to Morgan, by the late 1930s half of the
resort's houses provided some form of serviced
accommodation for a peak resident tourism population of 150000. 2z
Also during this phase, as the resort model
proposes, all three resorts invested heavily in resort
promotion and marketing. Within Torquay, in
addition to resort advertising in local, regional and
national newspapers, a Development Committee
was established in 1902, whose main responsibility
was to promote the resort. This initiative was
followed in 1908 by the production of an official
town guide. In addition, as the resort model
predicts, there is evidence to suggest that within
Torquay the 'development' stage is marked by a
change in the type of visitor frequenting it. In
Torquay, the period before the two world wars saw
the final end of the 'gentry era'. According to Travis,
this is the period when Torquay ceased to be a
select watering place and developed into a 'holiday'
resort, based on a summer season and attracting
increasing numbers of middle- and working-class
visitors 5'
'Consolidation ': c. 1950-1975
As the resort model forecasts, the 'consolidation'
phase is marked by a period of prosperity. In the
aftermath of the Second World War, all three
resorts experienced a general take-off of their
holiday trade, which is documented in numerous
articles featured in the local newspaper, the Herald
Express, between 1945 and 1949. In comparison with
the predictions of the resort model, visitor numbers
exceeded the size of the resident population. During
the peak season, the populations of Brixham and
Paignton doubled and that of Torquay increased by
two-thirds.-'z However, despite this seemingly
upward trend in seaside tourism in Torbay, all three
resorts between 1955 and 1973 appear to have
received a continually diminishing share of the
domestic holiday market. This decreased rate of
growth is marked by the fact that during the late
1960s the British Tourism Authority, recognizing
potential seeds of decline, urged the South West to
place less emphasis on passive sun-oriented
holidays, and more on raising standards of accommodation and facilities in order to compete with
package holidays.
Seaside tourism as reflected in the resort model
was of immense importance to the local and
regional economy. Within Devon in 1967, expenditure by holiday-makers totalled £100000, whilst
more than 20% of Torquay's and Brixham's
workforce in June of the same year were employed
in the hotel and catering industry,z4 A major part of
the economy was consequently tied to tourism and,
70
as a result, marketing and advertising was extensive
as all three resorts relied heavily on resort promotion. In 1945, Torquay's Publicity Committee was
established and in 1955, Paignton began participating in a collective national advertising campaign.
Later, in 1960, Torquay's national advertising
campaign was launched.
The 'consolidation' period, as Butler suggests, also
witnesses a rise in local resident's antagonism
towards the visitor; there is no evidence to indicate
the occurrence of this characteristic earlier in the
life-cycle. Thus, during 1950, the HeraM Express
features a number of articles that document
residents' anger at high local rates, which were attributed directly to the costs incurred by the tourism
industry. Severe traffic congestion caused by the
influx of tourists was also another source of
discontent. The Herald Express (1955) records
residents' call for a traffic solution to be found to
alleviate acute congestion in the holiday season; this
was repeated many times throughout the 1960s and
1970s. However, the greatest source of local resident
resentment directed wholly at the tourist industry
was its seasonal impact on employment. The marked
difference in employment between the summer and
winter months was documented by the Herald
Express in 1958, when it was noted that the number
unemployed in Paignton decreased by 15% as the
summer season approached. In 1970, the plight of
the 'winter workless' (Herald Express, July 1970) was
again revived. There were repeated calls to provide
a greater diversity of employment in Torbay, a
dilemma that its council continued to face
throughout the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.
'Stagnation ': c. 1976-1985
In comparison with the previous stages, yet again
many of the characteristics associated with the
'stagnation' phase can be identified within Torbay.
As the resort model forecasts, numbers of visitors
appear to have reached their peak around the
mid-1970s, signifying the turning point from 'consolidation" to "stagnation'. The late 1970s and early
1980s were characterized by a national slump in
British domestic tourism. Despite being one of the
most popular resorts in the West Country,
accounting for 33.6% of the total holidays taken in
Devon, Torbay experienced losses as 'economic
gloom' (HeraM Express, June 1976) reversed the
fortunes of the resort. Throughout the period 1978
to 1984, Torbay experienced a massive reduction in
the number of holiday-makers visiting the resort,
hitting an all time low in 1982, when the total
number of visitors fell to 10 million, z~ As the resort
model suggests, visitation rates were also sharply
seasonally peaked, and the length of the main
holiday season was reduced from 18.5 weeks in 1977
to 16.2 weeks in 1982.z~ Furthermore, hotel
The resort c~ycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
occupancy rates fell from 70% for 13 weeks in 1977
to 7 weeks in 1983. ~'
Following Butler's predictions, Torbay also experienced substantial physical deterioration of its built
environment. Surplus bed capacity began to characterize the resort, leading to a gradual erosion of the
accommodation stock through the conversion of
hotels and guest houses to residential elderly
persons' homes. Between the period 1981 and 1988,
bed-space capacity of holiday accommodation
declined by 7930, the majority of losses occurring
within the hotel and guest house sector. 2~
In addition to this, another characteristic outlined
in the resort model can be clearly identified: Torbay
had become associated with an unfashionable image.
This is illustrated by the results of a nationwide
survey undertaken by the English Tourist Board
(1982), which revealed that only two out of 10
people questioned knew the location of ~Torbay' and
were able to relate the name to the individual
resorts of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham5 ~ This
resulted in further efforts being made to maintain
visitor levels. An aggressive domestic and overseas
marketing campaign began in 1982, which focused
on the projection of a revised brand name, the
'English Riviera', designed to create a new image
for the resort.
'Post-stagnation' 1986-present
Finally, the pattern of 'events' taking place within
Torbay during the 'post-stagnation' phase again
exhibits a close resemblance to the rejuvenation
option proposed in the resort model, as all three
resorts clearly follow a path of 'directed' change and
development. The turning point of the "stagnation'
phase occurs approximately around the mid-1980s,
characterized by a major coordinated and concerted
effort to regenerate seaside tourism in Torbay. As a
result of a national competition "Resorts 2000',
launched by the English Tourist Board in an
attempt to encourage resorts to think strategically
about their market position, in 1986 Torbay adopted
one of the first Tourism Development Action
Programmes (TDAPs) operationalized in the UK.
Its overriding aim was to regenerate the industry in
order to compete with national and international
tourism markets and initiatives focused on stimulating tourism development, enhancing employment
opportunities and providing additional leisure and
recreational facilities. A whole series of public and
private partnerships were initiated, which has led to
considerable development within all three resorts. In
Torquay, for example, the Pavilion has been
converted into a fashionable retailing complex, a 460
berth marina in Torquay's outer harbour has been
cleared and the multi-million pound English Riviera
Centre, combining conference and exhibition facilities with leisure amenities, opened in 1987. This was
followed by the construction of Hollywood Bowl, a
ten-pin bowling complex, and the erection of an
artificial ski-slope in 1988. In 1990, plans were
announced to create a holiday village at a cost of
approximately £35 million in Paignton, and in
Brixham major developments have been completed
around the quayside.
Developed in conjunction with the TDAP, a
major advertising campaign was also instigated
which included coverage in several Sunday national
newspapers and a radio campaign targeted at the
Midlands, the main catchment area for Torbay.
Annual marketing strategies have also been
published and a programme of special events was
organized. Torbay is an example of a resort that has
attempted to adapt to changing tourism patterns.
It has repositioned its market appeal away from
its former image as a traditional 'bucket and
spade' resort towards the product branding of a
more classy, sophisticated and continental-style
destination.
Dcspite the official ending of the Tourism
Development Action Programme in 1990, attempts
to regenerate seaside tourism in Torbay continue. In
1995, a 10-year tourism and economic development
strategy was produced, covering issues such as
marketing, product development, organization,
quality and service improvements and funding. The
English Riviera marketing campaign is currrently in
its twelfth year of operation and other joint
domestic and overseas marketing promotions established in the early 1990s continue. Morc recently, a
regional marketing campaign focusing upon overseas markets has been launched. Tourism development within Torbay has also remained a key issue.
At present, detailed pre-feasibility research is being
undertaken into the proposed development of a
tourist 'magnet' attraction.
Stage characteristic departures
Despite the fact that there is some degree of
similarity between the internal dynamics of resort
development in Torquay, Paignton and Brixham and
those proposed by Butler, deviations are evident.
Contrary to the predictions of the resort model,
within Torquay there is evidence of an unprecedented level of local involvement in the developing
tourism industry during the initial 'exploration',
'involvement' and 'development' phases. This level
of local involvement continued throughout the 19th
and 20th centuries, as the vast majority of developmcnt was undertaken by local entrepreneurs and the
municipal governing bodies. Another deviation from
the resort model occurs in relation to Paignton.
During the 'development' stage, there is no evidence
to suggest that visitor type changes as the resort
develops. Owing to cold wind exposure, making it
unsuitable as a health resort, Paignton was originally
planned and developed as a beach resort. During
the 19th and 20th centuries, Paignton's sandy
71
The resort cycle and seaside tourism: S Agarwal
beaches remained popular amongst those interested
in 'bucket and spade' holidays, consequently
attracting similar markets to those first received.
However, the greatest degree of uncertainty as
regards the applicability of the resort model occurs
in relation to the final 'post-stagnation' phase. The
deterministic life-to-death concept outlined by the
resort model is extremely problematic. No evidence
was found to indicate the occurrence of irreversible
decline that the model suggests. In all three resorts,
the 'post-stagnation' phase is characterized by
positive attempts to rejuvenate and re-orientate, in
order to cater for changing market needs and expectations. The speed at which the 'post-stagnation'
phase is entered emphasizes the urgency attached to
reversing the overall trend of decline. In contrast
with the predictions of the resort model, decline
therefore does not appear to be an option at this
stage of the cycle.
to avoid the inevitable decline that Butler forecasts,
many of these resorts are currently reviewing their
products and must continue to do so in the foreseeable future.
In light of this, it can be argued that there is an
urgent need for the theoretical reformulation of the
'post-stagnation' stage. In its present form, the
resort model cannot be successfully applied to
studying the processes of adaptation and change
that are currently occurring within coastal resorts. It
is therefore vital that the re-evaluation of the final
'post-stagnation' phase is added to the agenda for
future research into resort cycles.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Tim Whitehead, Torbay
Borough Council and Torbay library for their help
and cooperation; in addition Ms Elspeth Fyfe for
her invaluable comments.
Conclusion
Conceptual models of tourist area evolution have
been accepted as the basis for a generalized theory
of tourism development based on the extrapolation
of observed trends and arbitrary quantitative
indices. '-~ In particular Butler's life-cycle model is
widely used to describe the growth and development
of resorts in many different contexts and tourism
environments. Despite a considerable amount of
research, the applicability of the model is yet to be
universally accepted. By testing the resort cycle in
the context of seaside tourism in Torbay, this paper
highlights a number of key operational, empirical
and theoretical issues. In terms of the operational
utility of the model, 'unit of analysis' was found to
be of crucial importance. Each of the three resorts
within Torbay varied greatly as regards the timing
and speed of development. The geographical extent
to which the model could successfully be applied
was therefore limited.
Empirical validation of the resort model revealed
a close resemblance of the internal resort dynamics
taking place in Torquay, Paignton and Brixham and
later Torbay, to those proposed by Butler. However,
a number of departures can be identified. Of
greatest significance is the critical role of rejuvenation to resort evolution and development. Regeneration is an ongoing process; resorts must continually
re-orientate and rejuvenate their product, in order
to keep abreast with competing destinations and
constant market changes. Furthermore, although
this study relates primarily to the experience of
traditional English seaside resorts, the findings are
also of great relevance to many "package holiday'
international destinations that have recently
witnessed a down-turn in visitor numbers. In order
72
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