Master of Public Health
Measuring Health & Disease II:
Intermediate Epidemiology
Module Guide
School of Public Health
University of the Western Cape
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II : Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
i
Measuring Health & Disease II: Intermediate Epidemiology
UWC Module Registration Number: SPH713
First published: 2000
Writing Team: Debra Jackson, Neil Myburgh & Lucy Alexander
Editor/s: Lucy Alexander
Copyright © 2000, SOPH School of Public Health, UWC.
License:
Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License
[http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/]
Your use of this material constitutes acceptance of the above license and the
conditions of use of materials on this site. Use of these materials is permitted only
in accordance with license rights granted. Material is provided “AS IS”; no
representations or warranties are provided. Users assume all responsibility for use,
and all liability related thereto, and must independently review all materials for
accuracy. The module may contain materials owned by others, all of which are
acknowledged. The user is responsible for obtaining permissions for use from third
parties as needed
Readings: Reading material is listed at the end of the Module Introduction. They
were compiled for registered students in one or two Readers. Copyright permission
was sought and paid for per reading per student annually. Readings are not
included but their sources are indicated in the Module Guide.
Credit value of module: 20 (200 notional learning hours).
Study Materials for this module: Module Guide & one Reader, CD containing
dataset for assignment, Epi Info 2002v3.3 programme, and other required files
Target group: Health and allied health and welfare professionals with a four or
more year degree (MPH)
Course delivery: This module was offered as a distance learning module
with optional contact sessions.
Design & layout: Cheryl Ontong, MultiTask
CONTENTS
Please note that sections 3.5 - 3.8 are relevant to the Assignment.
UNIT
TITLE
PAGE
I
MODULE INTRODUCTION
iii
1
Letter of Welcome
iii
2
INFORMATION ABOUT THIS MODULE
v
2.1
Module Aims and Rationale
v
2.2
Module Outline
v
2.3
Intended Learning Outcomes
v
2.4
Texts and References
vi
2.5
Module Evaluation
vii
3
ASSESSMENT
vii
3.1
Information About Assessment
vii
3.2
More about the Draft for Assignment 2
viii
3.3
Submitting Assignments
viii
3.4
Assignment Deadlines
ix
3.5
Assignments for Measuring Health & Disease II
x
3.5.1
General Assignment Instructions
x
3.6
Assignment 1 – Testing Your Understanding
x
3.7
Assignment 2 - An Epidemiological Report
xi
3.7.1
Assignment Narrative Context
xi
3.7.2
Study Method
xiii
3.7.3
Questionnaire for Study
xiv
3.7.4
Assignment Task
xxi
3.7.5
Assignment Fact Sheet and Data
xxi
3.7.6
Additional Resources for the Assignment
xxi
3.7.7
The Structure and Process of Writing Your Report
xxii
3.7.8
Further Guidance on Completing Assignment 2
xxv
3.8
Marking Criteria for the Assignments
xxvii
3.9
Assignment Cover Sheet
xxviii
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II : Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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4
DEVELOPING A WORKPLAN
xxix
Reading List
xxxi
II
STUDY SESSIONS
UNIT
CONTENTS
Preliminary
Session
Preparing to Use Epi Infov3.5.1 0008
1
UNIT 1
Public Health and Epidemiology
9
Study Session 1
The Health Transition
11
Study Session 2
The Natural History of Disease: Implications for
Prevention
21
Study Session 3
Epidemiologic Measurement
27
Study Session 4
Risk, Association and Causation
35
UNIT 2
Epidemiology Methods and Research
47
Study Session 1
Study Designs
49
Study Session 2
Common Epidemiological Investigations
61
Study Session 3
Expanding Epidemiological Investigations
73
UNIT 3
Introduction to Biostatistics and Data Analysis
85
Study Session 1
Basic Descriptive Statistics
87
Study Session 2
Basic Analytic Statistics
103
Study Session 3
Deciding What Data Analysis to Use
113
Study Session 4
Using Epi Info for Data Analysis
127
Study Session 5
Assignment 2: Introduction and Literature Review
145
Study Session 6
Assignment 2: Study Methodology
163
Study Session 7
Assignment 2: Analyse Study Data
171
UNIT 4
Applied Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Policy
and Practice
175
Study Session 1
Selecting Health Interventions
177
Study Session 2
Health Promotion and Prevention Strategies
187
Study Session 3
Health Policies and Programmes
193
Study Session 4
Communicating Epidemiologic Information and
Research
199
Study Session 5
Assignment 2: Communicate Your Results
205
PAGE
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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I MODULE INTRODUCTION
1
LETTER OF WELCOME
School of Public Health (SOPH)
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville 7535
South Africa
Dear colleague,
Welcome to the module, Measuring Health and Disease II: Intermediate
Epidemiology.
This topic was designed to meet the growing need for an applied course in
the measurement of a variety of health indicators and outcomes. Whether you
manage a health programme, a health facility, or simply have to interpret
health data in the course of your work, this module sets out to increase your
capacity to deal with health and illness information. It aims to assist you in
applying epidemiological knowledge and skills to a variety of Public Health
problems.
Although the module addresses many of the topics usually associated with
the traditional approach to epidemiology, it embraces a wider perspective on
health measurement. It does this by considering the social determinants of
health, as well as known biomedical features of community health. The
emphasis is on the application of epidemiological concepts and methods to
the solution of Public Health problems.
The module is designed as a self-study, or flexible learning format that
enables you to work through the course material at your own pace. Flexible
learning also allows you to explore the material to whatever depth you prefer,
and to skip over parts with which you are already familiar. This involves a
variety of different kinds of learning activities, including reading, reflection,
observation, research, application and practice.
This Module Information outlines the module aims, learning outcomes and
topics that will be covered. It also includes information about your assignment
tasks, how they will be assessed, how to contact your lecturer, a schedule
and other general information to help you complete the module. The actual
assignment data set is on the CD Rom that has been sent to you. Please
read it carefully and contact your lecturer if you have any concerns or
questions.
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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Acknowledgements
The module was originally written by Neil Myburgh and was based on a
module developed by colleagues at the Flinders University of South Australia,
who assisted the SOPH in the early stages of developing our distance
programme. After several years of usage and feedback from past students,
the module has been reviewed and revised in 2005.
Contact Information
All the contact information that you may need is contained in the SOPH
Programme Handbook. If your contact details have changed in any way,
please send the Contact Details Update Form which you will find in that
booklet to the Student Administrator straight away.
Evaluation of the Module
Please give us some feedback on your experience of this module as it was
recently revised. Your feedback will be valuable to us in improving it. You are
asked to complete an Evaluation Form which will be sent to you.
We hope that you enjoy the module and find it useful in your own efforts to
improve community health. Keep in touch!
Yours sincerely
Course Convenor
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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2
INFORMATION ABOUT THIS MODULE
2.1
Module Aims and Rationale
The module is designed to advance your skills, knowledge and capacity to:
 Understand important contemporary Public Health determinants, health
outcome measures and their application;
 Assess epidemiology and health information; and
 Apply epidemiological information in the context within which you work.
The module explores practical ways to measure health and health care
outcomes in the course of your work, and aims to equip Public Health workers
in health programmes, health districts or other health facilities with the ability
to critically assess the epidemiological information that they encounter, and
use this information to address Public Health problems and priorities.
2.2
Module Outline
The Module consists of four units divided into a total of 19 Study Sessions.
Each Study Session has at least one main reading or reference text and
various learning activities designed to help explore the topics listed below.
Study sessions vary in length, taking 5–8 hours to complete. The units are
sessions are thematically arranged in units as follows:
Unit 1 - Public Health and Epidemiology.
Unit 2 - Epidemiology Methods and Research.
Unit 3 - Introduction to Biostatistics and Data Analysis.
Unit 4 - Applied Epidemiology & Evidence-Based Policy and Practice.
2.3
Intended Learning Outcomes
By the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:






Recognise prominent global and national trends in health and disease.
Critically review and interpret epidemiological information.
Interpret key epidemiological indicators of community health and
illness.
Assess epidemiology research findings.
Apply descriptive epidemiology concepts and principles to effective
Public Health practice.
Prepare a short report on a Public Health event.
Remember that these outcomes are taught through the sessions and
assessed in the assignments. At the same time, the module provides
opportunities to improve a number of your academic skills, e.g. developing a
Literature Review, which form part of the sessions.
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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2.4
Texts and References
The following text is required for this module:
Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R., Kjellstrom, T. (1993/2002). Basic Epidemiology.
WHO: Geneva. (ISBN 92 4 154446 5).
We have provided electronic copies of this textbook (and the later version of
it) on your MHD II CD for your convenience. You can read it on your computer
and print relevant pages.
If you would like to purchase a hard copy text, it can be obtained from Van
Schaiks bookstore, Cape Town, if you cannot find this book in your area.
Alternately, a newer version of this text authored by Bonita et al (2006
version) is also available on the CD and can sometimes be obtained in hard
copy by contacting your in-country World Health Organisation office. This
later version is very similar but page numbers and chapters will differ from
those referenced in the Module Guide.
Contact details: Van Schaiks, Rondebosch/Bellville, Cape Town:
+27 21 689 4112; Fax: +27 21 686 3404
Another reference book that will be useful is:
Katzenellenbogen, J. M., Joubert, G., Abdool Karim, S.S. (1997).
Epidemiology: A Manual for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press. (Available at Van Schaiks, Bellville and Rondebosch).
This publication has also recently been revised (2007) edited this time by
Gina Joubert and Rodney Ehrlich with contributing editors Judy
Katzenellenbogen and Salim Abdool Karim.
You will also be expected to pursue relevant current literature and additional
resource material as required for your assignment tasks. The librarian at
UWC or a local academic library can help you locate relevant materials.
Follow the instructions in the SOPH Programme Handbook to arrange a letter
of permission to access other University libraries. The Internet will, however,
probably be you key source of literature, if you are far from an academic
library.
These websites may be useful to you:
CDC
WHO
Statistics South Africa
Health Systems Trust
World Wide Web Virtual
Library: Epidemiology
Dictionary of Epidemiology
http://www.cdc.gov
http://www.who.int
http://www.statssa.gov.za
http://www.hst.org.za
http://www.epibiostat.ucsf.edu/epidem/epidem.htm
http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/~js229/glossary.html
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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Supercourse: Epidemiology,
internet & global health
http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/
Your CD Resource Materials for this Module
You have been given a CD containing programmes and course materials
located in the following subdirectories:
Contents of CD
EpiInfoSetup3_5_1 0008
Data set for practice on hookworm
Assignment data set
File to click on or run to install or load
programme
EpiInfoSetup3_5_1 0008
HOOKWORM.REC
Mhdassignment (and the year, e.g. 2011)
Folder containing an advanced
EpiInfo Advanced Tutorial
Tutorial
Electronic copy of Beaglehole Text, 1st
Edition, 1993 (2000 Update)
Beaglehole Basic Epi 2000
-- you will need Adobe Acrobat Reader which
can
be
downloaded
free
from:
http://get.adobe.com/reader/
Electronic copy of Bonita/Beaglehole Text,
2nd Edition, 2006
Bonita Basic Epi 2006
-- you will need Adobe Acrobat Reader, which
can be downloaded from from:
http://get.adobe.com/reader/
The Preliminary Session of the Module guides you to installing these
programmes and data sets onto your computer. We suggest you do so as
soon as possible, in order to get all technical problems ironed out straight
away, rather than waiting until you are under pressure with your assignment.
2.5
Module Evaluation
At the end of the module, you will be sent a Module Evaluation Form. Please
complete it and return it to the Academic Co-ordinator at the School of Public
Health. This feedback will assist us in revising the module, planning future
modules and providing students with appropriate support.
3
3.1
ASSESSMENT
Information about Assessment
There are TWO compulsory assignments in the module. You must submit
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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both, on deadline. You will receive assignment deadlines from the SOPH
Student Administrator; consider it your responsibility to ensure that you know
the deadlines when the semester starts.
The assessment items are weighted as follows:
Assignment 1
Assignment 2 (Draft)
Assignment 2 (Final)
- 40%
- 5% of the mark for Assignment 2 will be
deducted if you do NOT send a draft.
- 60% (Final version)
To pass the module:
 You are required to pass both assignments with a minimum of 50%.

You must have a minimum aggregate of 50% or more for the module.

If you get below 50% in Assignment 1, you may repeat it once only.

If you do not pass it second time around, you cannot proceed to
Assignment 2 and must repeat the module the following year.

If you do not achieve 50% in Assignment 2, you repeat the entire module
the following year.
3.2
More about the Draft for Assignment 2
A draft assignment for review and comment is built into the assignment
schedule. If you do not submit a draft, 5% will be deducted.
Many of the concepts in this module are difficult. The draft gives your lecturer
an opportunity to check your progress and understanding of the module
content, especially the statistics, and give you feedback BEFORE you have to
hand in a final version. If only one version of Assignment 2 is submitted prior
to the final assignment deadline, this version will be taken as the final version
for the purposes of marks submitted to the university. We encourage
you to use this opportunity to enhance your learning as part of a continuous
assessment process.
3.3
Submitting Assignments
These guidelines must be followed exactly every time you submit an
assignment. Getting this wrong wastes our time, and we WILL return the
assignment to you to correct.
Read the SOPH Programme Handbook before submitting, to make sure you
have followed the SOPH’s instructions for submission of assignments.
There is crucial information regarding referencing and plagiarism in
Section 8.3.
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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
You may send assignments by email, fax or post. (Email and fax save
time). Keep a copy of everything you have sent. If you post, use fast mail
or courier.

Send assignments to the Student Administrators, not the lecturer.

When you submit your assignment, you will receive acknowledgement that
it has been received. If you don’t, check that it has been received.

Type your assignment on A4 paper, in 1,5 line spacing, in 12 pt Times
New Roman, and leave normal margins for the lecturer’s comments.

Handwritten assignments will not be accepted.

Keep to the recommended length. Excessively long assignments may be
penalised.

Number ALL pages.

Include the Assignment Cover Sheet (completed fully) as the first page of
the assignment, i.e. the cover sheet and the assignment must be one
document.

Always put your name on every file you send, and label the file correctly,
using these instructions as a guideline if submitting by e-mail:
 Your Name (Surname, Initial) e.g. Mambwe R
 Module abbreviation (see Programme Handbook for Core module
abbreviations). Use CAPITALS, e.g. PHC II
 Assignment number, e.g. 1 or 2, and Draft or Final
 The year, i.e. 2010 e.g. Mambwe R, PHC II Asn 1 Final 2010;
Mambwe R, PHC II Asn 1 Draft 2010.
3.4
Assignment Deadlines

Assignments must be submitted by the due date, preferably by e-mail, but
fax or post are accepted if dated on or before the due date.

You will receive assignment deadlines from the Student Administrator
once you have selected your modules.
PLEASE NOTE: Late submission of assignments will impact on the time you
have available for the next assignment, disrupt your lecturers’ schedules and
result in late submission of marks into the UWC marks administration system;
should that happen, you will have to repeat the entire module. It’s therefore in
your interests to manage your time as effectively as possible. Section 4 in this
Module Introduction offers some general guidance and a blank work plan for
you to work out your schedule for the semester. Should you require more
guidance, try the SOPH Academic Handbook, 2011.
Assignment Extensions
Under special circumstances, extensions may be granted. Even so, the
extension will not normally be longer than two weeks. To request an
extension, contact the Student Administrator (not the lecturer or Module
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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Convenor) as soon as a problem arises. No extensions will be given for Draft
Assignments, and no late assignments will be accepted in Semester 2.
ASSIGNMENTS FOR MEASURING HEALTH & DISEASE II
3.5
General Assignment Instructions
Assignment 1 requires you to study up to the end of Unit 3 Session 2 and to
answer a set of questions of two types based on these Study Sessions. The
aim of Assignment 1 is to ensure that you have grasped the conceptual
vocabulary of epidemiology, without which you will not be able to address
Public Health problems adequately. You will be given a 2 weeks period to
complete this assignment.
Assignment 2 is an epidemiological report and requires you to apply what you
have learnt to understanding and analysing a set of data which covers a
specific health problem which we change annually. By working from Unit 3
Session 2 through to the end of the module, you will be supported in
completing the assignment.
Assignment 2 is multi-faceted, requiring a review of relevant literature, the
analysis of the data set provided on the accompanying CD using Epi Info, a
discussion of your findings, and some recommendations. In other words, you
will be writing a report pretending you are an epidemiologist facing a particular
problem in your region.
Neither assignment can be completed at the last minute, and both require you
to work your way through the study sessions.
3.6
Assignment 1 – Testing Your Understanding
(Weighted at 40% of module total)
Assignment 1 has been designed to assess your understanding of the many
concepts involved in this module: it is rather like a test, but is conducted
open-book style. In Assignment 1, you are expected to respond to questions
drawn from the module which are arranged in two sections.
Section A consists of long essay questions while section B contains multiple
choice questions. You will be given a TWO WEEK period to complete the
assignment starting from a date you choose on or before Friday 25 March
2011. If by Friday 08 April 2011, you have not indicated readiness for the
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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Assignment, it will be forwarded to you for mandatory return no later than
Friday 22 April 2011. There will be no extensions on the two week completion
period, and it really should only take you several hours.
The sooner you complete this part of the module, the sooner you can move
on to Assignment 2 which requires considerable time to complete. A tutorial
letter will be sent out about Assignment 1 detailing the process and
Assessment Criteria: your preparation should be to work through the Module
Guide and readings from Unit 1 up to and including Unit 3 Session 2 to gain a
thorough understanding of its contents. Be sure to do the Tasks to ensure
that you understand what you are studying
3.7
Assignment 2 – An Epidemiological Report
(Weighted at 60% of module total;
if no draft is submitted, 5% will be deducted)
In order to assist you in working logically towards completing your Final
Report, Assignment 2 can be seen as four processes: you are guided through
each process in the last sessions of Units 2, 3 and 4. Once you have
completed all four processes, you will submit a draft of the complete
Assignment 2 for review and comment. Remember that this draft is worth 5%
of your Assignment 2 mark.
To begin with the assignment, you have been provided with a CD with the Epi
Info programme and assignment dataset. Please work through the
Preliminary Session of your module guide, during which you will learn how to
load the Epi Info programme onto your computer and access the dataset. Do
so immediately - you may need technical help which is better to seek early
enough.
3.7.1 Assignment Narrative Context
Every year we change the topic for the assignment in this module. This year
we focus on tuberculosis and women including risk factors for TB, gender
differences in TB, and Public Health programmes for TB control, with an
emphasis on the special needs of women in the development and
implementation of health programmes. For this assignment, assume that you
are the Chief Epidemiologist of the Regional TB Control Programme,
responsible for monitoring TB prevalence and control in your region (Region
X). For the purposes of the assignment, you will pretend that the data comes
from your region.
This is the descriptive information and questionnaire used in the TB and
Women Study. In it, you will find a short introduction of the issue, a
description of the research team’s study method and the questionnaire used
to collect the data.
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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Remember that you are the Regional Epidemiologist. Last year the TB Task
Team noted the WHO documents on tuberculosis and gender (see text box
below, Panel A). The MCWH coordinator had also noted an increase in
maternal mortality related to combined HIV and TB in the district maternal
mortality audit reports. A local research group was commissioned to research
the risk factors for tuberculosis in women in the district, so that local
programmes can be developed to address TB in women. The research team
has finished collecting the data and it has been entered into a data base for
analysis.
As the district epidemiologist you are charged with the task of analysing the
data and writing up the research report to be submitted to the TB Task Team,
the Maternal, Child and Women’s Health Programme (called MCWH in South
Africa), the District Management Committee and Local Service Area Health
Committee.
Panel A: WHO Report on TB and Women
Tuberculosis and gender
TB among women
In most of the world, more men than women are diagnosed with TB and die from it. TB is
nevertheless a leading infectious cause of death among women. Annually, about threequarters of a million women die of TB, and over three million contract the disease,
accounting for about 17 million Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY). As tuberculosis
affects women mainly in their economically and reproductively active years, the impact of
the disease is also strongly felt by their children and families. The mortality, incidence,
and DALY indicators do not reflect this hidden burden of social impact.
What is gender?
The term gender encompasses features of males and females that are socially
constructed, distinct from those features that are biologically determined (sex-linked).
Higher tuberculosis notification rates in men may partly reflect epidemiological
differences - differences in exposure, risk of infection, and progression from infection to
disease. Some studies indicate that women may have higher rates of progression from
infection to disease and a higher case fatality in their early reproductive ages.
3.7.2 Study Method for the TB and Women Study
The research group provided the following summary of their study methods
for inclusion in your final research report. However, they neglected to include
a “Study Limitations” sub-section so you will have to write this yourself.
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STUDY METHOD OF THE TB AND WOMEN STUDY
The study was conducted at XX Hospital, the Regional Referral Hospital for District
H. The study population comprised of pregnant women who were delivered at XX
hospital. Pregnant women were selected because they are accessible and because
of the concern that TB according to the WHO impacts women in their “early
reproductive ages”, and the District H MCWH programme maternal mortality audit
results suggesting an increase in maternal deaths due to combined HIV-TB infection.
Research Design
This was a quantitative case-control design used to determine the risk factors for
tuberculosis amongst women.
Population and Sample Size
During the period of the study women seen in the antenatal clinic for XX Hospital
were screened for TB as part of the usual antenatal care using a standard symptoms
questionnaire, TB sputum smears and cultures as used in the local TB clinics. A
trained TB nurse specialist conducted the interviews, took the sputums and made
the diagnosis based on local TB programme protocols. The results were then
marked on the antenatal card and transferred to the delivery register in XX Hospital
when the woman delivered. All positive women were given appropriate TB
medication and an appointment made for them in the TB clinic for ongoing follow-up.
The study sample comprised of 200 women who delivered at XX Hospital who were
diagnosed with TB in the antepartum period. The controls were unmatched and
comprised of 200 women who delivered at XX hospital who were negative for TB
during the same period as the cases. Cases and controls were identified using the
hospital delivery register. With an alpha of 0.05, the study will have 80% power to
detect an odds ratio of 1.7-1.8 for major exposures (CDC EpiInfo, 2000).
Sampling procedure
The interviewers presented at XX hospital delivery ward every morning and identified
all women born with antenatal TB diagnosis who delivered in the past 24 hours from
the delivery register. They also identified women who were TB negative during
antenatal screening also from the delivery register
Written consent was obtained from the mothers selected and interviews were
conducted in privacy via a structured questionnaire in the patient’s preferred
language. The exclusion criteria were women who had not received antenatal TB
screening.
Data collection method
Data was collected from the middle of October 2009 to August 2010. The period of
the 15 December 2009 to 30 January 2010 was regarded as a holiday and no data
was collected. The number of TB positive women delivered during the study period
was 450. Of these women, 260, were approached for study participation, of whom 60
(23%), refused to participate. This left 390 women with TB who delivered during the
study period who were missed, either because an interviewer did not visit the
hospital on the days they were there, or they were discharged prior to the arrival of
the interviewer on that day. The days missed were fairly random and unrelated to the
study.
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Introduction
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For the greater part of the study period there was only one interviewer collecting the
data. The questionnaire was based on structured questions from the SADHS,
(Department of Health, 1998) and investigator developed questions. Demographic
details, pregnancy information, personal habits and stress-related factors were
obtained. The response to most of these questions was either yes or no.
The questionnaire was piloted amongst 6 women at XX hospital after which
adjustments were made before final implementation of the study.
The interviewers had a health background and were trained by the investigator and
supervisor in all items of the questionnaire and record review. A sample of interviews
were duplicate recorded by the investigator to who would sit in on the interviews to
ensure data quality (98% agreement was seen).
HIV testing was done in the antenatal clinic and recorded on the woman’s antenatal
card and PMTCT register as part of the PMTCT programme. HIV test results were
taken from the PMTCT register.
Data Management and Data Analysis
Questionnaires were checked and completed on site before interviewers departed.
The completed data was captured in Excel and imported into CDC Epi Info 2002 for
analysis. Data cleaning and sample duplicate data entry were used to assure data
quality.
Ethics
The study was approved by the ethics committee of ABC University. Signed informed
consent was obtained from all participating women before the start of data collection.
No specific risks or benefits from the study, (i.e. the interview). All women were
given a small gift pack of baby items as an appreciation gift.
3.7.3 Questionnaire for TB and Women Study
A copy of the study questionnaire, along with the data set variable names
(ALL IN CAPS) and answer codes was also provided by the research group,
and is included below. The data set itself is on the CD, and further guidance
to opening it is to be found after this questionnaire.
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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TB AND WOMEN STUDY:
CONFIDENTIAL POSTPARTUM QUESTIONNAIRE
Unformatted Version with Data Base Variable Names (IN CAPS) & Answer Codes
STUDYNU
Study Number
CASE/CNRTL
Case or Control
Case (TB Positive)
1
Control (TB Negative)
2
AGE
Age at last birthday (in years)
STANDARD
What is the highest standard you passed at school?
WORK
Do you currently work and earn money?
Yes
1
No
2
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What is your approximate monthly salary/income?
SALARY
R200 or less
1
R300- R500
2
R600- R700
3
R800-R1000
4
>R1000
5
MARSTATUS
Marital status (Please tick the appropriate box)
Single -Never Married
1
Married- Monogamous relationship
2
Married- polygamous relationship
3
Widowed
4
Divorced/Separated
5
Co-habiting
6
RACE
Maternal race/ Ethnicity (Choose one)
a) Black
1
b) Coloured/ Mixed race
2
c) White
3
d) Asian
4
e) Other, specify
5
TYPEAREA
applies)
What type of area do you live in (Choose one which best
On a farm
1
In a city/ town
2
In a township- formal settlement
3
In a township -Informal settlement
4
In a rural area (not a farm)
5
TYPEHOUSE
What type of house do you live in?
Brick house / flat
1
Wendy house
2
A shack in the yard
3
A shack in the squatter area
4
Other, specify………………………………
5
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ROOMS
your house?
How many rooms (including kitchen and toilet) are there in
NUMHHCHILD
How many children live in this house?
FATHERPRES
Do you currently live with the father of your baby?
Yes
1
No
2
FTHSUPPRT
Does the father of your baby support you financially?
Yes
1
No
2
Sometimes
3
FINANSUPP
Which of the following financial support do you receive?
a) social grant (Other than child support grant)
1
b) child support grant
2
c) unemployment grant
3
d) None
4
e) Other, specify…………………………
5
SOCIALSUPRT
Do you participate in a women’s support group?
Yes
1
No
2
FIRSTPREG
Is this your first pregnancy?
Yes
1
No
2
FIRSTBOOK
at the clinic?
How many months pregnant were you when you first booked
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1-3 months
1
4-6 months
2
7-9 months
3
PLANNED
Was this a planned pregnancy?
Yes
1
No
2
BTHCONTROL
Were you using any form of contraception/ birth control when
you when you became pregnant?
Yes
1
No
2
ALCOHOL
Do you drink alcohol?
Yes
1
No
2
OTHERCONTACT Do you have regular contact with anyone with TB who is not a
member of your household?
Yes
1
No
2
DIED1YR
Did any of your babies die before one year of birth?
Yes
1
No
2
NUMHHADULT
How many adults live in your household?
SMOKER
Do you smoke cigarettes?
Yes
1
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No
2
HIVSTATUS
HIV Test Results
HIV Positive
1
HIV Negative
2
DRUGS
Do you use any drugs?
Yes
1
No
2
HHCONTACT
Does anyone who lives in your household ever have TB?
Yes
1
No
2
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SHEBEEN
Do you ever visit a shebeen?
No
1
Sometimes
2
Weekly
3
COMMUNITY
What community do you live in?
Community A
1
Community B
2
Community C
3
KSAFESEX
Can you tell me what “Safe Sex” is?
Correct Answer (condoms every time?)
1
Don’t Know
2
Missing
3
PSAFESEX
Do you practice “Safe Sex”?
No
1
Use Condoms
2
Abstain
3
ABUSE
Have you ever suffered from any mental or physical abuse?
Yes
1
No
2
STRESSSC
Stress Score (scale 1-7)?
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3.7.4 Assignment Task
Prepare an epidemiological report on TB and women in your region, based on
the data set with which you have been provided.
3.7.5 Assignment Fact Sheet and Data
The data set for Assignment 2 is provided on the CD (called
Mhdassignment2011). Carefully review this set of data. Assume that the data
has been gathered in your region: it focuses on TB and women.
The university research group provided the following summary of their study
methods which you should include in your final research report. However,
they neglected to include a “Study Limitations” sub-section, so you will have
to write this yourself.
3.7.6 Additional Resources for the Assignment



A CD, which contains the actual data set which you will analyse; also on
the CD are the Epi Info computer programme, version 3.5.1, and other
resources that you will need to practise using the programme.
There is also a Preliminary Session in this Module Guide, just after the
Module Introduction, and before Unit 1. It is there to guide you through the
technical process of loading Epi Info onto your computer. You are
expected to do this as soon as possible, so that by the time you need it in
Unit 3, all the technical problems have been ironed out.
Four assignment support sessions in your Module Guide: They are to be
found as follows: each session focuses specifically on an aspect of the
Assignment, i.e. Unit 3 - Session 5; Unit 3 - Session 6; Unit 3 - Session 7;
Unit 4 - Session 5.
Opening the “Mhdassignment” Data Set
After completing Unit 3 Sessions 1 - 4, return here for instructions on how to
open the assignment data set. Note that if you try this without having
completed Unit 3 - Session 4, you will not understand these instructions.
Complete Unit 3 Sessions 1 - 4 prior to beginning data analysis of your
assignment data set.
The name of the data file is “Mhdassignment2011” and it should have saved it
into your EpiInfo folder. Make sure you have copied it from your CD ROM to
this folder.


Open ANALYSIS and select READ from the top of the left box.
The READ dialogue box should open. This is an Epi2000 data set so
make the following selections in the READ dialogue box in ANALYSIS:
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


DATA FORMATS: select Epi2000. Note this one should already be
selected.
Then click on BROWSE button (box with 3 dots) to the right of the
DATA SOURCE dialogue box. This should open a window in the
Epi_Info directory, where you should find Mhdassignment listed as one
of the available files. Highlight Mhdassignment and then click OPEN.
Now in the DATA FILES box toward the bottom, the file called
Mhdassignment will appear. Highlight this file and then click OK to
open this data set. If the box is empty, make sure to check the SHOW
ALL button just above the box. The file Mhdassignment should now
appear down in the box.
After you highlight Mhdassignment and click OK, you may get a message that
says “Making a temporary link in the current project. To make a permanent
link, enter a table name below …”. Do not enter a table name, just click OK to
continue.
The READ dialogue box should disappear, and after a few seconds (longer
on older computers), the following should appear in the grey box in the top
right hand corner:
Epi Info
Current View: Epi_Info\Mhdassignment.MDB:Mhdassignment
Record Count: 316 Date: The current date & time
You are now ready to begin analysis. Use what you learned in Unit 3 to
conduct your analysis and write the Results section of your Research Report.
If you have difficulties after trying, phone one of your lecturers immediately.
3.7.7 The Structure and Process of Writing Your Report
Assignment 2 can be seen as two processes: you are guided through these
processes in the last sessions of Units 3 and 4. Once you have completed
both sections, you will submit a draft of the complete report for review and
comment. Remember that this draft is worth 5% of your Assessment 2 result.
Once you receive your lecturer’s feedback on Assignment 2 (the Draft), you
are expected to make improvements to it before submitting it. This will enable
you to improve your Final Report, and deal with any problems you
experience. You need to work consistently through the module, and to
manage your time well. (See SOPH Academic Handbook 2011).
Here are the two processes: you will find further guidance to some of them
below in section 3.7.8.
Process 1: Orientating Yourself to the Topic and Data
Report Title (to include specific topic, location and time period)
 Introduction
 Literature Review
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 Aims and Objectives
 Study Methods including Study Limitations
 Reference List
See Unit 3 (Sessions 5 and 6).
Process 2: Analysing and Interpreting the Data
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
 Abstract
See Units 3 and 4.
In the end, the report should be structured as follows:
Report Title (to include specific topic, location and time period)
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Literature Review
4. Aim and Objectives
5. Study Methods including Study Limitations
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. Conclusion
9. Recommendations
10. Reference List
You may find it useful at this point to get an overview of the report you are
about to develop. Have a look at the table below which details the role of
each section of such a report, which is the standard format of a scientific
report.
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SECTION OF THE
REPORT
PURPOSE OF EACH COMPONENT OF THE REPORT
Title, Author, etc.
A succinct statement indicating what the study is about, and
utilising a few key words to catch the reader’s attention.
1. Abstract
A representative summary of all the main components of your
report. A line or two on the results or major conclusion.
2. Introduction
What is the broad rationale for doing the research? How does it
fit into the social, political, economic or health care
setting/context in which it will eventually be applied.
3. Literature review
What is already known about the research problem? What is
not known? What methods have been used to research it?
4. Aim and Objectives
Based on what is already known/unknown in the literature, what
are the specific research questions that you will therefore try to
answer through your study?
5. Study Methods
For each step there needs to be a method you will use to get
the information/evidence you require. This is described in the
Methods section of the report. It must include sample size,
sample selection method, data collection process, questionnaire
design and testing, record verification, examiner variability, how
you will analyse the data, etc. This has been provided, but you
can add to it. This section includes limitations of the study.
6. Results
This is a descriptive section. It simply describes the main
features of the data as you summarise it and analyse it. What is
high? What is low? What is unusual? What is statistically
significant? What is associated with what? Use a few tables and
graphs to illustrate this but ensure you make all the important
statements in the text.
7. Discussion
What does the data mean? This is where you interpret your
results and establish what they actually mean. You might
compare them with results in the literature. You might state the
principal findings, the strengths and weaknesses of your study,
the strengths and weaknesses in relation to other studies,
particularly differences in results. You might also state the
unanswered questions and future research needs.
8. Conclusion
What is the final answer to the original research question based
on what you discovered through your study?
9. Recommendations
If there is a practical suggestion that arises directly out of your
research findings, this can be stated here.
10. Reference List
This is a full list of all the texts you have used in alphabetical
order, with full, accurate bibliographic details.
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3.7.8 Further Guidance on Completing Assignment 2
Completing Process 1: Orientating Yourself to the Topic and Data
Report Title (to include specific topic, location and time period)
1. Introduction (See Unit 3 Session 5)
2. Literature Review (See Unit 3 Session 5)
3. Aims and Objectives, in Study Methodology (See Unit 3 Session 6)
4. Study Methods including Study Limitations (See Unit 3 Session 6)
10. Reference List (See Unit 3 Session 5 and SOPH Academic Handbook)
Introduction
The introduction should include a statement of the study problem, a rationale
for why it should be studied, an overview of key concepts to be used in the
report and a detailed description of the setting or context of Region X. In this
instance, use your own location, where you work and live, as the setting:
explain where it is, some key features, including socio-economic features,
relevant cultural issues, and any other issues which you regard as relevant to
the study. In other words, pretend that this data comes from your region. You
can even use your own district’s name instead of Region X.
Literature Review
The purpose of a literature review is to acquaint yourself (in advance of
undertaking new research) with what has been written and understood to
date. You should draw on other scientific sources of information in the
literature, from your own experience, consult expert opinion or access the
records of local health authorities available to you as part of your background
reading. You will need to read and critically review this material as well as
prepare your reference list.
At the end of Unit 3, you will find two sessions designed to assist you in
completing sections 2, 3 and 4 of your report. Work through them
systematically: they will enable you to gain a better understanding of the field
of circumcision and its relationship with HIV/AIDs.
The Methods Section
At the end of Unit 3 (Session 5), you will find guidance on developing a Study
Methods section. You are expected to refer to the description of the Study
Methods in section 3.7.3 Assignment Fact Sheet and Data above,
above, which outlines the study method used for this study. Based on your
learning, you should add a sub-section on “Study Limitations” to the
description of the methods. In it, you should critique the study methods used
by the research group who collected this data, and discuss the potential
limitations and sources of bias, if any.
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Completing Process 2: Analysing and Interpreting the Data
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. Conclusion
8. Recommendations
11. Abstract
See Units 3 and 4.
The Data Analysis and Interpretation Process
In Session 7 of Unit 3, you will be directed to working with the data set we
have provided on the CD, to prepare a summary of the data. Identify what
statistical tests you wish to carry out. Determine what associations you will
test and carry out any other analysis that you consider appropriate. Record
and illustrate the results with graphics where appropriate. You can then write
the “Results” section and add this to your research report.
Write Up and Submit Final Report
Supported by Study Session 5 of Unit 4, you will complete the last sections of
the Research Report - the Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations.
You will compile the final Research Report to include all the other sections
you have completed, plus the Reference List, graphics, tables, abstract, etc.
This Research Report must constitute a reader-friendly and convincing
response to the original question. It should provide the basis for an
appropriate health authority to address the Public Health issues reflected in
the data set provided. In the end, a typed report of 8 - 12 pages, and
definitely not more than 15 pages should be submitted.
Once again, it is strongly recommended that you submit the Draft Assignment
2. This will enable you to incorporate your lecturer’s comments and
suggestions into your emerging Final Epidemiology Research Report.
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3.8
Marking Criteria for the Assignments
You will be sent the Assessment criteria for Assignment 1 with the assignment. The
following criteria will be used to mark Assignment 2:
Assignment 2 Criteria
Criteria
Sections Assessed
Total
1. Does the student understand and clarify the Introduction
key issues at stake?
Literature review
15
2. Is there a logical link established between the Aims/Objectives
aims and objectives, the evidence and the
Conclusion
conclusions and recommendations?
20
Recommendations
3. Does the student apply a systematic approach Methods
to analysing and interpreting the evidence?
Results
50
Discussion
4. Is the report reader-friendly, well structured, Abstract
with correct spelling and grammar, and
persuasive in putting across the main findings References
and action to be taken?
Writing structure
15
Overall motivation to
act
Total Mark
100
No Draft for Assignment 2
-5
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3.9
ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEET
School of Public Health – University of the Western Cape
An Assignment Cover Sheet should be attached to every assignment. Please fill in
all details clearly and staple this form to the front of your assignment.
Alternatively, please fax it as the first page of your assignment, or develop a cover
sheet like this one to e-mail with your assignment.
Full name:
_________________________________________________________
Address:
_________________________________________________________
Postal code: _________________________________________________________
Student number:
Module name: Measuring Health & Disease II
Module code: SPH713
Convenor:
If faxed, state the total number of pages sent including this page: ___________
Student’scommentstolecturer
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Declaration by student
I understand what plagiarism is. This assignment is my own work, and all sources of
information have been acknowledged. I have taken care to cite/reference all
sources as set out in the SOPH Academic Handbook.
Signed by the student:__________________________________________________
The tutor’s comments are on the reverse of this form
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Office Use
Date
received
Assessment/Grade
Tutor
Recorded &
dispatched
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4
DEVELOPING A WORK PLAN
It is estimated that a 20 credit module like this one requires approximately
200 hours of student work. This translates into approximately 10 hours a
week for about 20 weeks. This is a time-demanding module, and requires
consistent work. It is anticipated that you should complete at least one study
session per week. We suggest that you set your own goals for when you plan
to complete each study session using the table below.
Once you have worked out a plan, put a copy of it in an obvious place, e.g.
above your work table, and refer to it daily, adjusting it if you slip behind or
race ahead!
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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WORK PLAN FOR MEASURING HEALTH AND DISEASE II AND A SECOND
MODULE
Insert the dates for Assignment 1, Assignment 2 (Draft), Assignment 2 (Final)
as well as which Study Sessions will be completed.
WEEK
MONTH
YOUR OWN WORK PLAN
MEASURING HEALTH AND
DISEASE II
YOUR OWN WORK PLAN FOR
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
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Introduction
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MEASURING HEALTH & DISEASE II
READING LIST: ALPHABETICAL INDEX
There is ONE Reader for this Module. The readings are arranged in alphabetical
order. Once you have located the author’s name in the left hand column, look at the
Page Nos in the Reader in the right hand column and locate them in the Reader.This
number is handwritten on the top right of the page. For referencing, using the original
publication details noted under Publication Details below.
The chapters from the prescribed text, Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R. & Kjellstrom, T.
(1993). Basic Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO, are listed after the alphabetical list. You
are directed to them in the Module Guide.
Author/s
Publication Details
Alexander, L./ School of
Public Health, UWC
Baleta, A.
(2005). Section 5.3 - Citing and Referencing the Sources That
You Use. SOPH Academic Handbook. Bellville, UWC: 52 - 61.
(1998). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Rife in South Africa. The
Lancet, 352.
Baum, F.
(1998). Ch 6 - Research for a New Public Health. In The New
Public Health: An Australian Perspective. Melbourne :Oxford
University Press: 103 - 112.
Baum, F.
(1998). Ch 7 - Epidemiology and Public Health. In The New
Public Health: An Australian Perspective. Melbourne: Oxford
University Press: 121 - 123, 130 - 132.
Beaglehole, R., Bonita,
R. & Kjellstrom, T.
Beaglehole, R. & Bonita,
R.
(1993). Basic Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO.
Bongaarts, J., Reining,
P., Way, P. & Conant, F.
(1989). The Relationship Between Male Circumcision and HIV
Infection in African Populations. AIDS, 3(6): 373 - 377.
Brownson, R.
Petitti, D. B.
(1998). Ch 2 - Key Methodologic Concepts and Issues. In
Applied Epidemiology: Theory to Practice, New York: Oxford
University Press: 58 - 62.
C.
&
(1997). Ch 10 - Public Health at the Crossroads. In Public
Health at the Crossroads. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press: 211 - 233.
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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Brownson, R.
Petitti, D. B.
C.
&
Brownson, R.
Petitti, D. B.
C.
&
Centers for Disease
Control (CDC) (Hall, A.)
(1998). Ch 11 - Communicating Epidemiologic Information. In
Applied Epidemiology: Theory to Practice, New York: Oxford
University Press: 323 - 345.
(1998). Ch 12 - Epidemiology & Health Policy. In Applied
Epidemiology: Theory to Practice, New York: Oxford
University Press: 349 - 380.
See Hall, A below.
Community
Development in Health
Project.
(1988). Health and Illness in a Social Context. Victoria,
Australia: Preston/Northcote District Health Council: 1 - 12.
Dane, F. C.
(1990). Ch 4 - Reviewing the Literature. In Research Methods.
Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole: 65 - 78.
Depoy, E. &
Gitlin, L.
(1994). Ch 5 - Developing a Knowledge Base Through Review
of the Literature. In Introduction to Research. St Louis: Mosby:
61 - 76.
Fonn, S.
(August 1999). Cervical Screening for South African Women
Approved. In Women’s Health News & Views, 31.
Johannesburg: Women’s Health Project: 1, 2, 4.
Friedman, G.
Hall, A. /Centers for
Disease Control (CDC)
(1980). Ch 2 - Basic Measurements in Epidemiology. In
Primer of Epidemiology. New York: McGraw-Hill: 8 - 22.
(2004). Objectives, Introduction & Table of Contents. In
Oswego: An Outbreak Investigation - Tutorial. Epi Info 2002
V3.3: USA: CDC: 4 pages. [Online], Available:
\Epi_Info\English\Help\Oswego.Chm . [Downloaded 06/02/05]
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 2 - Key Concepts in Epidemiology. In
Epidemiology: A Manual for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press: 10 - 24.
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 6 - Setting Objectives for Research. In
Epidemiology: A Manual for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press: 56 - 63.
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 7 - Study Design. In Epidemiology: A Manual for
South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press: 64 - 73.
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 11 - An Introduction to Data Representation,
Analysis and Interpretation. In Epidemiology: A Manual for
South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press: 101 - 123.
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 14 - Disease Surveillance. In Epidemiology: A
Manual for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press:
140 - 146.
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 16 - Rapid Epidemiological Assessment. In
Epidemiology: A Manual for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press: 158 - 163.
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 21 - Outbreak Investigations. In Epidemiology: A
Manual for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press:
196 - 204.
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
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Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 27 - Anthropometric Studies. In Epidemiology: A
Manual for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press:
243 - 247.
Katzenellenbogen, J. M.,
Joubert, G., Abdool
Karim, S. S.
(1999). Ch 30 - Health Economics. In Epidemiology: A Manual
for South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press: 261 272.
Mahomed, K.
(1999). Iron Supplementation in Pregnancy (Review). The
Cochrane Database of Systematic Review. Issue 4. Art. No:
CD000117. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000117. 1 - 19
(1998). Identification of Psychosocial Factors in Preterm Birth.
Prenatal & Neonatal Medicine, 3: 35-38.
Mamelle, N., Measson,
A., Munoz, F. & Audras
de la Bastie, M.
McCoy, D. & Bamford, L.
Mouton, J.
Muir-Gray, J.A.
Muir-Gray, J.A.
Murray, C. J. L. & Lopez,
A. D.
(1998). Section 1 - Introduction, Section 2 - Conducting a
Situation Analysis. In How to Conduct a Rapid Situation
Analysis. A Guide for Health Districts in South Africa. Durban:
Health Systems Trust: 1 - 8.
(2001). Ch 6 - The Literature Review. In How To Succeed in
your Master’s and Doctoral Studies. South Africa: Van Schaik:
90 - 97.
(2001). Ch 1 - Evidence-Based Health Care. (2001).
Evidence-based Healthcare. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone:
1-17.
(2001). Appendix 1 - Sources of Evidence. Evidence-based
Healthcare. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone: 221 - 234.
(1996). Evidence-based Health Policy - Lessons from the
Global Burden of Disease Study. Science, 275: 21 - 27.
Myer, L., Ehrlich, R. &
Susser, E.
(2004). Social Epidemiology in South Africa. Epidemiologic
Reviews: Social Epidemiology, 26. Oxford: Oxford University
Press: 112 - 123.
Ntuli, A. & Day, C.
(2004). Ch 1- Ten Years On - Have We Got What We
Ordered? South African Health Review. Pretoria: Health
Systems
Trust:
1
10.
[Online],
Available:
http://www.hst.org.za/publications/423 .
(2004). Ch 2 - Literature Review, Section B: Evidence Based
Health Care and the Cochrane Collaboration. In Information
Needs of Health Researchers in Developing Countries: A
Survey of Developing Country Participants in the Cochrane
Collaboration (MPH Mini-thesis). Bellville: SOPH, University of
the Western Cape: 15 - 27.
(1985). Ch 4 - Prevention for Individuals and the “High-Risk”
Strategy. In The Strategy of Preventive Medicine. Oxford:
Oxford University Press: 29 - 52.
Pienaar, E. D.
Rose, G.
Rose, G.
(1985). Ch 5 - Individuals and Populations. In The Strategy of
Preventive Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 53 - 63.
Rothman, K.
(2002). Ch 6 - Random Error and the Role of Statistics. In
Epidemiology: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University
Press: 113 - 117.
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Introduction
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SADHS Project Team.
Unwin, N., Carr, S. &
Leeson, J.
(1998). Ch II - Child Health, Ch III - Sexual, Reproductive &
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READINGS FROM THE PRESCRIBED TEXT
Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R. & Kjellstrom, T. Basic Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO.
PUBLICATION DETAILS
UNIT & STUDY
SESSION NO
(1993). Ch 1 - What is Epidemiology? In Basic Epidemiology.
Geneva: WHO: 1 - 10.
UNIT 1 SESSION 1
(1993). Ch 8 - Clinical Epidemiology. In Basic Epidemiology.
Geneva: WHO: 111 - 112.
UNIT 1 SESSION 2
(1993). Ch 7 - Communicable Disease Epidemiology. In Basic
Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 97 - 105.
UNIT 1 SESSION 2
(1993). Ch 6 - Epidemiology and Prevention. In Basic
Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 83 - 93.
UNIT 1 SESSION 2
(1993). Ch 2 - Measuring Health and Disease. In Basic
Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 11 - 26.
UNIT 1 SESSION 3
(1993). Ch 4 - Basic Statistics. In Basic Epidemiology. Geneva:
WHO: 66 - 69.
UNIT 3 SESSION 2
(1993). Ch 11 - Continuing Education in Epidemiology. In Basic
Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 143 - 147.
UNIT 1 SESSION 4
(1993). Ch 5 - Causation in Epidemiology.
Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 71 - 81.
Basic
UNIT 2 SESSION 1
(1993). Ch 3 - Types of Study. Basic Epidemiology. Geneva:
WHO: 29 - 51.
UNIT 2 SESSION 2
(1993). Ch 6 - Epidemiology and Prevention. In Basic
Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 93 - 96.
UNIT 2 SESSION 3
(1993). Ch 4 - Basic Statistics. In Basic Epidemiology. Geneva:
WHO: 53 - 66.
UNIT 3 SESSION 1
(1993). Ch 8 - Clinical Epidemiology. In Basic Epidemiology.
Geneva: WHO: 112 - 114.
UNIT 4 SESSION 1
(1993). Ch 6 - Epidemiology and Prevention. In Basic
Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 83 - 96.
UNIT 4 SESSION 2
(1993). Ch 10 - Epidemiology, Health Services and Health
Policy. In Basic Epidemiology. Geneva: WHO: 131 - 141.
UNIT 4 SESSION 3
In
SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
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SOPH, UWC, Master of Public Health: Measuring Health & Disease II Intermediate Epidemiology – Module
Introduction
xxxvi