Educational Research
Chapter 14
Qualitative Data Collection
Gay, Mills, and Airasian
9th Edition
Topics Discussed
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Definition and purpose of qualitative data
collection
Types of sources of qualitative data
Data collection techniques
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Observing
Interviewing
Using questionnaires
Examining records
Threats to the quality of observations and
interviews
Qualitative Data Collection
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Definition and purpose
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The process of collecting descriptive, narrative,
non-numerical data in order to gain insight into
the phenomenon of interest
Data collection is determined by the nature of the
problem
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The researcher must make informed decisions about
what data will contribute to the study and how to best
collect it
Commonly known as field work
Qualitative Data Collection
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Types of Sources
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Most common
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Others
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Observations
Interviews
Questionnaires; documents (e.g., journals, files, minutes,
etc.); recordings; drawings, photos, or other artistic
endeavors; or conversations (e.g., telephone calls,
informal conversations, etc.)
Any source is acceptable as long as collecting it is
ethical, feasible, and contributes to the
understanding of the phenomenon of interest
Observations
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Obtaining data by watching participants
in their natural setting
Two common types
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Participant
Non-participant
Observations
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Participant observation
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The researcher is involved in the situation
while collecting data
The purpose is to allow the researcher to
gain insights and develop relationships that
require an active, trusting rapport with
participants
Observations
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Participant observation (continued)
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Four types based on the degree of involvement
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Active participant observer: actually doing that which is
studied.
Privileged, Active observer: Active role; however, done in
such a way as allowing for the researcher to observe but
no have to do (member who does nothing)
Passive observer: Only watches, never does (visitor who
is part of the group)
Observations
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Participant observation (continued)
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Three concerns
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Loss of researcher’s objectivity
Difficult for the researcher to participate and
collect data simultaneously
Participation can be difficult for the researcher
and the participants (what if you are not part of
the group or lack experience to be part of the
group?)
Observations
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Non-participant observation
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The researcher observes and records behaviors
but does not interact or participate in the setting
Advantages
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Less intrusive
Less likely to become emotionally involved
Reasons to choose non-participant
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The researcher might not have the background or
expertise to participate
The researcher might not fit into a closely organized
group
Observations
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Field notes
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Notes taken during an observation to
describe all relevant aspects of the
situation
Regardless of whether participant or nonparticipant observation is used, field notes
are the “data”
Observations
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Field notes (continued)
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Two types
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Written records that contain information about the direct
observations
Reflections of the researcher’s reactions to the
observation (O.C.- Observer’s Comments)
Typically taken during the observation
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Use of protocols
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A list of issues to guide the observation
Provides focus
Provides a common framework across field notes
Observations
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Field notes (continued)
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Guidelines
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Start slowly
Try to begin with no preconceptions
Write up field notes as soon as possible. The
observation protocol is not sufficient
List all pertinent information (e.g., date, site,
time, topic, participants, etc.)
List key words related to your observation and
then outline what was seen and heard
Observations
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Field notes (continued)
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Guidelines
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Keep the descriptive and reflective field notes
separated
Write down hunches, questions, insights,
thoughts, etc., after each observation
Create an electronic file of your field notes
Number the lines or paragraphs in your field
notes
Interviews
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Definition
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Purposeful interactions between two or more
people focused on one person trying to get
information from the other person
Purpose
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Permits the exploration and probing of
participants’ thoughts to get more in-depth
information (especially information that you can’t
get from just observations)
Interviews
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Two types
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Formal structured
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A specific set of questions that have been
predetermined by the researcher and are
formally asked of all participants
Informal unstructured
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A casual, informal conversation that allows the
researcher to discover where the participants
are coming from and what they’ve
experienced
Interviews
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A major concern with structured interviews
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Difficulty resulting in gender and/or cultural differences
between the interviewer and the participant
Recommended practices
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Pilot the questions before using them (ask them to people
similar to your subjects to see if they are appropriate)
Use questions that vary from convergent to divergent
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Convergent – closed responses like “Yes” or “No”
Divergent – open responses allowing for personal elaboration
from the participant
Interviews
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Guidelines for conducting an interview
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Listen more, talk less
Follow up on what participants say and ask
questions when you don’t understand
Avoid leading questions
Don’t interrupt – learn how to wait
Keep participants focused and ask for concrete
details
Don’t be judgmental about participants’ views or
beliefs
Don’t debate participants over their responses
Interviews
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Three choices for collecting data
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Taking notes during the interview
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Can be cumbersome and disruptive
Writing notes after the interview
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Can result in the loss of important information
Interviews
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Three choices for collecting data (cont)
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Audiotaping or videotaping the interview
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The preferred method for collecting data
Can be intrusive and disruptive
Transcribing tapes involves producing a written
file of what was said and done
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Time consuming
Extremely difficult
Transcripts become the field notes of an interview
Questionnaires
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A written collection of self-report
questions to be answered by a selected
group of research participants
Permits the researcher to collect large
amounts of data in relatively short
periods of time
Questionnaires
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Guidelines
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Carefully proofread questionnaires before you
send them out
Avoid a sloppy, confusing presentation
Avoid lengthy questionnaires
Don’t ask unnecessary questions
Use structured items with a variety of possible
responses
Allow for “other comments”
Decide on issues of anonymity and confidentiality
Examining Records
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The examination of records or documents a
qualitative researcher might collect
Five major types
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Archival documents (records, meeting minutes,
etc.)
Journals (have Ss describe their participation)
Maps (maps of spaces so that you can visualize
them for your write-ups and your notes)
Videotapes and audiotapes (time consuming but
useful)
Artifacts (the types of things that go in portfolios)
Threats to Quality
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Three concerns
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Observer bias
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Invalid observation that results when the observer does
not observe objectively and accurately
Suggestions to help control observer bias
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Record you personal thoughts, feelings, reactions, etc.,
about the process
Triangulate data – use multiple data collection methods
and multiple sources to cross-check information
Threats to Quality
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Three concerns (continued)
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Observer effect
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The impact of the observer participating in the
setting
Suggestions to help control observer effects
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Try to be unassuming and non-threatening
Gradually increase participation over time
Pages 417-421
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What type of qualitative study is this?
What type of participant is the
researcher?
What data collection methods did the
researcher use?
How did the researcher address validity
issues in his/her paper?