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Chapter 1: Exploring Data
Section 1.1
Analyzing Categorical Data
The Practice of Statistics, 4th edition - For AP*
STARNES, YATES, MOORE
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Chapter 1
Exploring Data
 Introduction:
Data Analysis: Making Sense of Data
 1.1
Analyzing Categorical Data
 1.2
Displaying Quantitative Data with Graphs
 1.3
Describing Quantitative Data with Numbers
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Section 1.1
Analyzing Categorical Data
Learning Objectives
After this section, you should be able to…

CONSTRUCT and INTERPRET bar graphs and pie charts

RECOGNIZE “good” and “bad” graphs

CONSTRUCT and INTERPRET two-way tables

DESCRIBE relationships between two categorical variables

ORGANIZE statistical problems


The values of a categorical variable are labels for the
different categories
The distribution of a categorical variable lists the count or
percent of individuals who fall into each category.
Example, page 8
Frequency Table
Format
Variable
Values
Relative Frequency Table
Count of Stations
Format
Percent of Stations
Adult Contemporary
1556
Adult Contemporary
Adult Standards
1196
Adult Standards
8.6
Contemporary Hit
4.1
Contemporary Hit
569
11.2
Country
2066
Country
14.9
News/Talk
2179
News/Talk
15.7
Oldies
1060
Oldies
Religious
2014
Religious
Rock
869
Spanish Language
750
Other Formats
Total
1579
13838
7.7
14.6
Rock
6.3
Count
Spanish Language
5.4
Other Formats
11.4
Total
99.9
Percent
Analyzing Categorical Data
Variables place individuals into one of
several groups or categories
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 Categorical
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categorical data
Frequency tables can be difficult to read. Sometimes
is is easier to analyze a distribution by displaying it
with a bar graph or pie chart.
Frequency Table
Relative Frequency Table
Format
Count of Stations
Count of Stations
2500Adult Contemporary
Adult Standards
2000
Contemporary Hit
Format
of Stations
Percent ofPercent
Stations
1556
Adult Contemporary
11.2
Adult Contemporary
1196
Adult Standards
8.6
Adult Standards
4.1 hit
Contemporary
1500Country
2066
Contemporary Hit
11%
11%
Country
5%
1000News/Talk
2179
6%
News/Talk
1060
Oldies
15%
2014
500Oldies
Religious
569
4%
15%
Rock
869
Spanish Language
750
Spanish Language
Other Formats
Total
1579
13838
16%
Other Formats
Total
News/Talk
15.7
Oldies
7.7
Religious 14.6
Religious
8%
Rock
0
Country 14.9
9%
Rock
6.3
Spanish
5.4
Other
11.4
99.9
Analyzing Categorical Data
 Displaying
Good and Bad
Our eyes react to the area of the bars as well as
height. Be sure to make your bars equally wide.
Avoid the temptation to replace the bars with pictures
for greater appeal…this can be misleading!
Alternate Example
This ad for DIRECTV
has multiple problems.
How many can you
point out?
Analyzing Categorical Data
Bar graphs compare several quantities by comparing
the heights of bars that represent those quantities.
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 Graphs:
When a dataset involves two categorical variables, we begin by
examining the counts or percents in various categories for one
of the variables.
Definition:
Two-way Table – describes two categorical
variables, organizing counts according to a row
variable and a column variable.
Example, p. 12
Young adults by gender and chance of getting rich
Female
Male
Total
Almost no chance
96
98
194
Some chance, but probably not
426
286
712
A 50-50 chance
696
720
1416
A good chance
663
758
1421
Almost certain
486
597
1083
Total
2367
2459
4826
What are the variables
described by this twoway table?
How many young
adults were surveyed?
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Tables and Marginal Distributions
Analyzing Categorical Data
 Two-Way
Definition:
The Marginal Distribution of one of the
categorical variables in a two-way table of
counts is the distribution of values of that
variable among all individuals described by the
table.
Note: Percents are often more informative than counts,
especially when comparing groups of different sizes.
To examine a marginal distribution,
1)Use the data in the table to calculate the marginal
distribution (in percents) of the row or column totals.
2)Make a graph to display the marginal distribution.
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Tables and Marginal Distributions
Analyzing Categorical Data
 Two-Way
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Tables and Marginal Distributions
Example, p. 13
Young adults by gender and chance of getting rich
Female
Male
Total
Almost no chance
96
98
194
Some chance, but probably not
426
286
712
A 50-50 chance
696
720
1416
A good chance
663
758
1421
Almost certain
486
597
1083
Total
2367
2459
4826
Percent
Almost no chance
194/4826 =
4.0%
Some chance
712/4826 =
14.8%
A 50-50 chance
1416/4826 =
29.3%
A good chance
1421/4826 =
29.4%
Almost certain
1083/4826 =
22.4%
Chance of being wealthy by age 30
Percent
Response
Examine the marginal
distribution of chance
of getting rich.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Almost
none
Some
50-50
Good
chance
chance
chance
Survey Response
Almost
certain
Analyzing Categorical Data
 Two-Way
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
Example: Super Powers
A sample of 200 children from the United Kingdom ages 9-17 was selected
from the CensusAtSchool website. The gender of each student was
recorded along with which super power they would most like to have:
invisibility, super strength, telepathy, ability to fly, or ability to freeze time.
Here are the results:
Female
Male
Total
Invisibility
17
13
30
Super Strength
3
17
20
Telepathy
39
5
44
Fly
36
18
54
Freeze Time
20
32
52
Total
115
85
200
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Use the data in the two-way table to calculate the marginal distribution (in
percents) of superpower preferences.
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Make a graph to display the marginal distribution. Describe what you see.

Marginal distributions tell us nothing about the relationship
between two variables.
Definition:
A Conditional Distribution of a variable
describes the values of that variable among
individuals who have a specific value of another
variable.
To examine or compare conditional distributions,
1)Select the row(s) or column(s) of interest.
2)Use the data in the table to calculate the conditional
distribution (in percents) of the row(s) or column(s).
3)Make a graph to display the conditional distribution.
• Use a side-by-side bar graph or segmented bar
graph to compare distributions.
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Between Categorical Variables
Analyzing Categorical Data
 Relationships
Example, p. 15
Young adults by gender and chance of getting rich
Female
Male
Total
Almost no chance
96
98
194
Some chance, but probably not
426
286
712
A 50-50 chance
696
720
1416
A good chance
663
758
1421
Almost certain
486
597
1083
Total
2367
2459
4826
Male
Female
Almost no chance
98/2459 =
4.0%
96/2367 =
4.1%
Some chance
286/2459 =
11.6%
426/2367 =
18.0%
A 50-50 chance
720/2459 =
29.3%
696/2367 =
29.4%
758/2459 =
30.8%
663/2367 =
28.0%
597/2459 =
24.3%
486/2367 =
20.5%
A good chance
Almost certain
Chance
by
age
Chanceofofbeing
being wealthy
wealthy
age
3030
Chance
being
wealthyby
by
age
30
100%
90%
80%
70%
35
60%
30
25
50%
20
40%
15
10
30%
5
20%
0
10%Almost
Almost no
Some
no Some
chance
chance
chance
0% chance
Percent
Percent
Percent
Response
Calculate the conditional
distribution of opinion
among males.
Examine the relationship
between gender and
opinion.
Almost certain
Good chance
Males
Males
50-50 chance
50-50
50-50
chance
chance
Good
Good
chance
chance
Males
Females
Opinion
Opinion
Opinion
Females
Almost
Some chance
Almost
certain
certain
Almost no chance
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Tables and Conditional Distributions
Analyzing Categorical Data
 Two-Way
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As you learn more about statistics, you will be asked to solve
more complex problems.
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Here is a four-step process you can follow.
How to Organize a Statistical Problem: A Four-Step Process
State: What’s the question that you’re trying to answer?
Plan: How will you go about answering the question? What
statistical techniques does this problem call for?
Do: Make graphs and carry out needed calculations.
Conclude: Give your practical conclusion in the setting of the
real-world problem.
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a Statistical Problem
Analyzing Categorical Data
 Organizing
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Example: Super Powers continued

Calculate the conditional distribution of responses for the males
and females
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Based on the survey data, can we conclude that boys and girls
differ in their preference of superpower? Give appropriate
evidence to support your answer.

State:

Plan:

Do:

Conclude:
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Section 1.1
Analyzing Categorical Data
Summary
In this section, we learned that…

The distribution of a categorical variable lists the categories and gives
the count or percent of individuals that fall into each category.

Pie charts and bar graphs display the distribution of a categorical
variable.

A two-way table of counts organizes data about two categorical
variables.

The row-totals and column-totals in a two-way table give the marginal
distributions of the two individual variables.

There are two sets of conditional distributions for a two-way table.
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Section 1.1
Analyzing Categorical Data
Summary, continued
In this section, we learned that…

We can use a side-by-side bar graph or a segmented bar graph
to display conditional distributions.

To describe the association between the row and column variables,
compare an appropriate set of conditional distributions.

Even a strong association between two categorical variables can be
influenced by other variables lurking in the background.

You can organize many problems using the four steps state, plan,
do, and conclude.
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Looking Ahead…
In the next Section…
We’ll learn how to display quantitative data.
Dotplots
Stemplots
Histograms
We’ll also learn how to describe and compare
distributions of quantitative data.