Cognition, Language
and Creativity
Chapter 10
McElhaney
Basic Questions
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What is thought?
Function of thought?
What are the ingredients of thought?
(Components: reasoning, problem solving,
decision making…)
How is language acquired and used? (language
has similar mental processes to cognition)
Basics
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Language is used to encode information
Animals are capable of rudimentary language use
only with aid of human intervention.
Problem solving = acquired knowledge +
strategies
Creative Thinking= is novel, new, divergent
What is thinking?
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Cognition- mentally processing information
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The manipulation of mental representations
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Cognitive Psychology: = the study of mental
processes by which the information
humans receive from their environment is
modified, made meaningful, stored, retrieved, used
and communicated to others.
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Thinking is an internal representation (mental
expression) of a problem or situation
Info Processing Model:
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Information= sensations via receptors (auditory,
kinesthetic, visual, olfactory, gustation)
Information is perceived and recognized
(perceptual processing)
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Decide what to do with info
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Info is elaborated (connected to stored knowledge
(LTM)
Store it or take action –(make a plan)
Act on the plan
Mental Representations:
Ingredients of thought
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How do we mentally represent information?
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Mental Models
Mental Imagery
Cognitive Maps
Concepts
Propositions
Schemas
Scripts
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Mental Imagery
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People use Visual Images
Auditory Images
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Synesthesia: images cross
normal sensory barriers
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Colors, tastes, odors
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People use imagery:
Decision makingproblem solving
Change Feelings
<thinking>
To improve skill and
prepare for action
To aid memory
Mental Models
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Are representations of particular situations or
arrangements of objects
Mental representations can be 3 dimensional
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3 dimensional models
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Pg. 290 Images + Cognitive Maps:
We think in mental representations
Can be manipulated- similar to real objects
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Cognitive map:
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Mental Image of scenes- locations
Minds Eye
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1. Brain areas where memories are stored
2. Send signals back to visual cortex
3. Where images are created
Using Mental Images
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We use stored images
Info from memory is used
We apply past experiences to problem solving
Created images are- ideas/images not
remembered but created
Artists see the image and it is created
Kinesthetic Imagery
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Muscular sensations
Important in music, sports, and dance
Micro-movements= occur in connection
between muscle activity + thinking
Basic Units of Thought
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Images
Concepts: Categories of objects, events or ideas
with common properties or features that are
shared by members of the category
Concepts
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Idea that represents a class of objects or events
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Very abstract
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Identify features of objects
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Conceptual thinking is the ability to classify into
categories
Concept Formation
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Concepts are learned
Process of classifying information into
meaningful categories
Concepts are identified by:
Positive Instances vs. Negative Instances
 Items are classified as either part of a concept or not.
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Conceptual Rules
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Help us decipher–
Help us order concepts
Types of Concepts
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Conjunction ConceptsMust have 2 or more features
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“In conjunction with”
With principal definitions of
concept based on relations
Example:
Sister and brother
Below and under
Disjunctive Concepts
Concepts must have one of
several possible features
“It must have this feature or that
feature”
Either or qualities
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Formal Concept: clearly
defined by properties members
vs. non-members
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Relational Concepts
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Natural Concepts
Concepts have no fixed or set
defining features- but have typical
(prototypical) characteristics
 Resembles but not exact
 Prototype- a natural concept
that possesses all or most
characteristic features
 A combination of properties
 Most thinking uses natural
concepts
 Can be:
Concrete object categories housebird
Abstract concepts honesty-justice
Temporary goal oriented concepts
“Stuff for a trip”
Types of Concepts 2
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Connotative Meaning: emotional or personal meaning/understanding
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Connote = Ideas about, signifies
Measured by Semantic Differential- qualitative rating
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Denotive Meaning- word definition, is exact definition
Propositions (type of concept)
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Based on a scale
A mental representation that expresses a relationship
between concepts
Can be true or false
Reflect- networks of associations
Schemas:
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Complex mental representation
Close associations=Schema: Networks
They are generalizations we develop about categories of
objects, places or events
Builds on expectations
Faulty Concepts
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Are understandings that lead to thinking errors.
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Example= Social Stereotypes
Over simplified (beliefs or) concepts of people
 One dimensional thought
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Language
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Language: words symbols + rules for combining
them
Thinking relies heavily on language
Words encode (translate) the world into symbols.
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Semantics = study of the meaning of words
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Words get meaning from Context
Semantics affect thinking when words we use
alter meaning
Debate over Acquisition of Language
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Skinner:
Behaviorist: Operant
Learning of language
Association- sights of things
with sounds of words
Imitation- of words and
syntax modeled by others
Reinforcement- with success
and smiles
“The vocal musculature
became susceptible to
operant conditioning”
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Chomsky = inborn universal
grammar
Behavior explanation is over
simplified
Language naturally occurs
But still needs nurture
Thinking process
Children learn their
environment’s language
Children begin using
morphemes in a predictable
order
Your ability to learn language
is inborn.
Chomsky 2
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All human languages have the same grammatical
building blocks = Universal Grammar
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Nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, negations, questions
Our Brains are pre-wired for language
We all start speaking in nouns,
 It happens naturally
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Or brains have a language acquisition device
But need to be exposed to language
Structure of Language
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Phonemes: basic speech
sounds
Morphemes: sounds with
meaning “sounds collected
into meaningful units”
Grammar: set of rules for
making sounds into words
and sentences
Syntax: rules for word order
“man bites dog”
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ChomskyUnspoken rules we use to
change ideas into sentences
Universal core patterns:
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Past
Passive
Negative
Question
Language is
productive
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We can generate new
thoughts or ideas
Gestural Language
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Language
Is not limited to speech
American Sign Language
Animal Languages?
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No evidence of formal
language
Only simple messages
Examples:
Vicki
Washoe chimp (the
Gardners)
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Used sign language
240 signs
6 word sentences
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Sarah
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Chimp
Used magnetic symbols
Learned to question
Label things
Classify objects, color, size, and
shape
Kanzi
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Chimp
Found chimps able to produce
language based on Lexigramsmachine buttons + symbols
primitive sentences
Criticism of Animal Language
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People say it doesn’t work
Simply an operant response to get food
Counter response- said yes they use symbols
hold conversations
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Patterns + Similar to conversations like young
children
Reasoning
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Reasoning is the process through which we
generate and evaluate arguments and reach
conclusions”
Problem Solving
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Mechanical solutions
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Trial and error
Rote- thinking is guided by a learned set of rules
Solving by Understanding
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Deeper Comprehension of a problem (helps solving)
Discover general properties of a solution
General solution identifies the requirements for success
Proposes a series of functional (workable) solutions
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Then chooses the best one
Algorithms and Heuristics
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Algorithm
A step-by-step procedure
that guarantees a solution
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Heuristics
A strategy for identifying
and evaluating problems
and solutions
Then random search
limiting the number of
alternatives then apply
trial and error
“car doesn’t start check
the battery”
Heuristics
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Anchoring HeuristicEstimating the probability of an event not starting from scratch but by adjusting an
earlier estimate
Being anchored by earlier/original judgement
Example-Not able to change much about first impressions
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Representative Heuristics
Rejecting probability
Making a choice or decision based on belief or representation of a category... Kind of
like a ?
"the degree to which [an event] (i) is similar in essential characteristics to its parent
population, and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is
generated".[
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Availability HeuristicJudging the likelihood of an event or the correctness of a hypothesis based on how
easily the hypothesis or examples of the event come to mind...
We tend to associate things that are most present in our mind
Results from biased judgment
IDEAL Strategy
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Heuristic=have a general thinking strategy
Bransford- researcher, 5 steps
Identify
Define- problem clearly
Explore- possible solutions + relevant
knowledge
Act-= try a possible solution or hypothesis
Look at results and learn from results
Insight
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Involves selective encoding- selecting infor that
is relevant to a problem
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Selective Combinations
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Ignore distractions
Bringing together seemingly unrelated bits of useful
information
Selective Comparison
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Ability to compare new problems with old info or
with problems already solved
Insightful Solutions
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Insight = seeing a solution
Rapid and clear info-ideas about a topic
Create insight by reorganizing a problem
See it in new ways and then see new solutions
Barrier to Problem Solving:
Fixation
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Characterized by- becoming blind to alternatives
Tendency to be “hung up” on wrong solutions
Caused by unnecessary restrictions on our
thinking
Restricted Thinking
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Functional Fixedness- not able to think outside
the box
Inability to see new uses for familiar objects
 or things we use in a particular way
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Confirmation Bias
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is a tendency of people to favor information that confirms
their beliefs
Other Barriers
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Emotional Barrier
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Cultural Barriers
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Cultural views prevent creative problem solving
Learned Barriers
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Inhibition, fear of making a fool of oneself
Fear of making a mistake
Inability to tolerate ambiguity
Excessive self-criticism
Conventions about userTraditional views limit possibilities
Perceptual Barriers
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Habits lead to lack of solutions
Problem identifying elements of a problem
Creative Thinking
Inductive
Logical
Deductive
Illogical
Fluency- total # of suggestions
Flexibility- # of times you shift from one class of possible uses to another
Originality- refers to how novel or unusual the suggestions are.
Creative Thinking
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Must be practical or sensible
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Inductive Thinking
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Deductive Thinking
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Going from general principles to specific principles
the process of following a set of rigorous procedures to reach valid or correct
conclusions.
It takes a general rule and applies it to deduce conclusions about specific cases.
Logical Thinking
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Specific to the facts or general principles
Proceeding from given information to new conclusions on the bais of explicit
rules
Conclusions base don formal principals of reasonsing
Illogical
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Intuitive, associated or personal
Creative Thinking
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Divergent Thinking (measure of Creativity)
New answers
 Many possibilities are developed from one strategic
point
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Convergent Thinking
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Lines of thought converge on the correct answer
Creativity: Personality
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Characteristics of Creative People:
Expertise- in the field of endeavor, tied to what
a person has learned
A set of Creative Skills- hard work, persistence,
divergent thinking, ability to take risks
Motivation- internal motivation (seems not
external example $)
Test of Creativity
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Unusual Uses Test
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Consequences Test
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Person tries to think of as many possible uses for some
object
Goal to list the consequences that would follow a basic
change
Anagram Test
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Use a word
Find as many new words as possible by rearranging the letters
Stages of Creative Thought
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Orientation
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Preparation
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Time is needed to process and think
Illumination
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Collect and use as much info as possible
Incubation
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Define problems, Identify dimensions
Insight gained “light bulb” goes off
Verification
Creativity Killers
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Working under surveillance
Having choices restricted by rules
Working only for a good evaluation (to avoid a
bad one)
Working to get more money
Time pressure kills creativity