Journal of Counseling Psychology
2005, Vol. 52, No. 4, 537–548
Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association
0022-0167/05/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.537
A Multicultural Test of the Theory of Work Adjustment: Investigating the
Role of Heterosexism and Fit Perceptions in the Job Satisfaction of
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Employees
Heather Z. Lyons
Bradley R. Brenner
Loyola College in Maryland
Washington, DC
Ruth E. Fassinger
University of Maryland
Two expanded models (i.e., mediated and moderated) of the theory of work adjustment (TWA; R. V.
Dawis, G. England, & L. H. Lofquist, 1964; R. V. Dawis & L. H. Lofquist, 1984) were tested for their
capacity to explain the job satisfaction of a sample of lesbian, gay, and bisexual employees (N ⫽ 397).
Consistent with cultural critiques of the TWA, person– organization fit perceptions were tested as the
mediator of the relationship between heterosexism and job satisfaction in one set of hypotheses, and
experiences with informal heterosexism were tested as a moderator in the relationship between person–
organization fit perceptions and job satisfaction in a separate set of hypotheses. The mediated model but
not the moderated model was supported. Results were confirmed by a cross-validation sample.
Keywords: theory of work adjustment, career, gay and lesbian, heterosexism, job satisfaction
their job satisfaction, an important outcome variable in the TWA.
For example, levels of outness seem to predict job satisfaction,
such that those LGB employees who are “closeted” at work are
also less satisfied with their jobs than are those who are “out” (Day
& Schoenrade, 1997). However, those who are closeted at work
are more satisfied with their incomes than are those who are out
(Ellis & Riggle, 1996).
Some research (e.g., Ragins & Cornwell, 2001; Waldo, 1999)
has suggested that formal heterosexism (i.e., the presence of discriminatory policies and hiring and promotion procedures; Levine
& Leonard, 1984; Waldo, 1999) and informal workplace heterosexism experienced by LGB employees seem to be related to lower
levels of job satisfaction, explaining 6%–15% of the variance in
job satisfaction. Other studies have proposed that the relationship
between workplace heterosexism and job satisfaction is less clear,
finding that workplace heterosexism does not necessarily negatively correlate with job satisfaction (see Croteau, 1996; Croteau,
Anderson, DiStefano, & Kampa-Kokesch, 2000). It is possible that
these contradictory findings call for a test of moderation to answer
the following question: Under what circumstances does workplace
heterosexism predict job satisfaction? Also, findings related to
these unique workplace experiences and their influences on job
satisfaction suggest the need to examine more closely the predictors of job satisfaction for LGB employees. Therefore, it is possible that the TWA is incomplete in its consideration of the determinants of job satisfaction for this population.
The theory of work adjustment (TWA; Dawis, England, &
Lofquist, 1964; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984) provides counseling
psychologists with an empirically supported approach to explain
employees’ work adjustment. This theory outlines a direct relation
between person– environment (P-E) fit and workplace outcome
variables (e.g., job satisfaction). Despite the contention by the
theory’s authors that the basic tenants of the TWA are reflective of
the experiences of culturally stigmatized populations (e.g., People
of Color, gay and lesbian employees; Dawis, 1994; Dawis &
Lofquist, 1993), others have questioned the TWA’s cross-cultural
validity (Fitzgerald & Rounds, 1993; Rounds & Hesketh, 1994;
Tinsley, 1993). In light of these criticisms, the present study
examined a central assumption of the TWA with lesbian, gay, and
bisexual (LGB) employees, the ability of person– organization
(P-O) fit perceptions, a type of P-E fit, to directly predict job
satisfaction. Incorporating past research and speculation regarding
the role of culture in the TWA, the present study also examined the
way that experiences with informal discrimination (i.e., heterosexist events in the work climate; Levine & Leonard, 1984) might
affect the P-E fit and job satisfaction link in the TWA model.
Available research on the work experiences of LGB employees
has suggested that factors unique to this population may influence
Heather Z. Lyons, Department of Psychology, Loyola College in Maryland; Bradley R. Brenner, Independent Practice, Washington, DC; Ruth E.
Fassinger, Counseling and Personnel Services, University of Maryland.
A draft of this research was presented at the symposium “Results of the
National Gay and Lesbian Experiences Study,” at the APA Multicultural
Summit, Los Angeles, January 2003. We thank Ian Kellems, Susy Gallor,
Misty Kolchkian, Andrew Mariotti, and Martin Sherman for their research
assistance.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Heather
Z. Lyons, Department of Psychology, Loyola College, 4501 North Charles
Street, Baltimore, MD 21210. E-mail: [email protected]
The TWA
Before examining variations of the TWA model and the variables that may influence the direct relation between P-O fit perceptions and job satisfaction for LGB employees, we present a
brief summary of the TWA. With many years of empirical support,
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538
LYONS, BRENNER, AND FASSINGER
the TWA is one of the more studied career development models
available to counseling psychologists (e.g., Breeden, 1993; Bretz
& Judge, 1994; Rounds, 1990; Rounds, Dawis, & Lofquist, 1987;
Saks & Ashforth, 1997; Taris & Feij, 2001). The TWA describes
the ways that person and environmental values correspond to
directly predict employees’ satisfaction with their jobs (i.e., job
satisfaction) and workplaces’ satisfaction with their employees
(i.e., satisfactoriness). Of interest in the present study is the capacity of employees’ perceptions of the fit between person and
organizational values to predict job satisfaction. According to this
dimension of the theory, employees are satisfied with their work
environments when the values that they possess related to work
(e.g., need for compensation) correspond with the reinforcements
offered by their work environments (e.g., salary, benefits). That is,
with greater needs correspondence, employees would most likely
report higher job satisfaction.
Conceptualizing Fit
Various conceptualizations of P-E fit exist. In the present study
employees’ workplace values were the aspect of fit measured
rather than employees’ interests or abilities (Saks & Ashforth,
1997). P-E fit can be further distinguished in terms of the context
of interest. Examples of context of fit include (a) person–job fit,
where the fit of interest is defined as an employee’s match with the
knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for certain tasks of the
job; (b) person–vocation fit, or the fit between a person and an
occupational category; and (c) P-O fit, defined as the correspondence between a person and the characteristics of the organization
of interest (Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown, 2000). Because we conceptualized our study in terms of LGB employees’ reactions to
their organizations’ values rather than the job tasks they perform or
their perception of certain vocations, we decided to assess P-O fit.
In recent years, measurement of P-E fit has evolved from the
oft-criticized use of difference scores (i.e., scores created by subtracting employees’ values, needs, or ability assessments from the
values, needs, or ability requirements of their workplaces) to the
use of polynomial regressions and measurement of employees’
perceptions of P-E fit (see Edwards, 1991; Edwards, 2002; Kristof,
1996: Kristof-Brown, 2000). Both of these recently developed
measurement approaches (i.e., polynomial regressions and measurement of fit perceptions) possess useful advantages depending
on the intentions of the researcher. Because we were concerned
with employees’ perceptions of fit and because employees’ perceptions of fit have empirical support (e.g., Saks & Ashforth,
1997), we used this measure of fit (e.g., “To what extent are the
values of your workplace similar to your own values?”) in this
study. Furthermore, our interpretation of fit recognized the importance of perceptions in influencing individuals’ assessment of and
reaction to their environments (Nisbett & Ross, 1980). Also,
Dawis and Lofquist (1993) noted the importance of perceptions in
the TWA with the statement, “it is the perception of correspondence that matters for satisfaction” (p. 116).
We conceived perceived P-O fit as a dynamic process between
an individual and his or her workplace environment. Thus, in the
current study we defined perceived P-O fit as a subjective selfappraised construction of values congruence between one’s self
and one’s organization. When referring to our study, we use the
terms fit perceptions or perceptions of P-O fit. When referring to
the TWA or other research, we use the broader term P-E fit.
Past Research on the Relation Between P-E Fit and Job
Satisfaction
Research on P-E fit related to values has shown a consistent and
meaningful ability of P-E fit to predict job satisfaction. Using the
fit measure employed in the present study, a perception of fit
measure, Saks and Ashforth (1997) found that fit explained between 10% and 17% of the variance in job satisfaction depending
on the time participants were surveyed. When difference scores
were used, Breeden (1993) found that fit explained between 0.5%
and 11.6% of the variance in job satisfaction depending on time
measured (i.e., at intake or at the 2-year follow-up) and the job
satisfaction measure used (i.e., MN Satisfaction Questionnaire
[Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967] or Hoppock Job Satisfaction Blank [Hoppock, 1935]). Depending on the method used
to analyze fit, Bretz and Judge (1994) found that value fit explained between 12% and 32% of the variance in job satisfaction.
Using a measure of fit they created and a one-item measure of job
satisfaction, O’Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell (1991) found that fit
explained 12.3% of the variance in job satisfaction. Rounds (1990)
used two different measures of fit, and results of his study suggested that fit explained 29% of variance in job satisfaction when
the Occupational Reinforcer Patterns (Weiss, Dawis, & Lofquist,
1975) was used and 2.4% of the variance when the Minnesota
Occupational Classification System II (Dawis & Lofquist, 1974)
was used; both are measures resulting from the TWA.
Cross-Cultural Variations of the TWA
Researchers have drawn attention to the possible importance of
cultural variables in the TWA model (Dawis, 1994; Dawis &
Lofquist, 1993; Fitzgerald & Rounds, 1993; Rounds & Hesketh,
1994; Tinsley, 1993). These suggestions generally have taken two
directions: (a) consideration of a mediated model of the TWA in
which P-E fit mediates the relation between cultural variables and
TWA outcomes variables (Dawis, 1994; Dawis & Lofquist, 1993;
Martin & Swartz-Kulstad, 2000) and (b) discrimination or other
cultural variables as moderators of the fit–satisfaction relationship
(Fitzgerald & Rounds, 1993; Rounds & Hesketh, 1994; Tinsley,
1993). Although researchers have long called for empirical research to test the relevance of the TWA with culturally stigmatized
populations, we located only one such study that used the TWA in
empirical research of the work experiences of African Americans
(see Lovelace & Rosen, 1996). The work of Lovelace and Rosen
(1996) supported the fit–satisfaction relationship for African
Americans. However, this group showed lower levels of fit than
did European Americans and Latinos. No other empirical studies
using the TWA to investigate the work experiences of other groups
of People of Color or LGB employees were identified. Furthermore, the resulting subgroup differences in Lovelace and Rosen’s
study points to the importance of further research to attempt to
explain why these differences exist.
Conceptualizing the Present Study as a Multicultural Test
of the TWA
Our decision (a) to test P-O fit as a mediator of the relationship
between informal heterosexism and job satisfaction and (b) to test
experiences with informal heterosexism as a moderator of the
relationship between fit perceptions and job satisfaction may ap-
HETEROSEXISM AND THE TWA
pear to run contrary to empirical tradition. However, we have
designed the present study as a test of the capacity of the TWA to
explain the experiences of LGB employees. In this test of theory,
we have taken into account past hypotheses (Dawis, 1994; Dawis
& Lofquist, 1993; Fitzgerald & Rounds, 1993; Rounds & Hesketh,
1994; Tinsley, 1993) about the role of culture in the TWA when
developing our hypotheses about the role of experiences with
heterosexism.
In the present study, proposals to test the ability of P-O fit
perceptions to mediate the informal heterosexism–satisfaction relationship and the ability of informal heterosexism to moderate the
P-O fit perceptions–satisfaction relationship do not necessarily
oppose one another but instead seek to answer different questions
related to how informal heterosexism and P-O fit perceptions may
predict outcome variables in the TWA. Typically, mediation answers the questions “Why?” or “How?” (see Baron & Kenny,
1986; Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). Thus, in the present study we
were interested in testing how, even in the presence of experiences
with heterosexism, P-O fit perceptions exert an influence on job
satisfaction. In this particular case, we predicted that in the presence of P-O fit perceptions, the variance explained by experiences
with informal heterosexism would become redundant. Conversely,
moderation answers the questions “When?” or “For whom?” (See
Baron & Kenny, 1986; Frazier et al., 2004). Therefore, in the case
of moderation, in the present study we were interested in determining, as proposed, whether the presence of informal heterosexism alters the relationship between P-O fit perceptions and job
satisfaction, making it more or less difficult to detect a relationship
between the two.
Mediated model. Dawis (1994) and Dawis and Lofquist
(1993) predicted that multicultural research on the TWA model
with culturally stigmatized groups would result in validation of the
TWA. They argued that culture would not change the nature of the
relationships outlined in their model. Instead, they endorsed a
mediated model in which cultural variables may influence P-E fit,
which in turn would influence the TWA outcome variables (i.e.,
job satisfaction, satisfactoriness, tenure). For example, cultural
variables may be related to different experiences (e.g., workplace
discrimination) and opportunities (e.g., mentoring, formal education in elite schools, effective networking) that would make some
individuals more correspondent with particular environments and,
in turn, more satisfied with those environments. Therefore, on the
basis of these authors’ suggestions, correspondence may adequately capture the influence of culture on job satisfaction.
Moderated model. Other authors have suggested that the TWA
model needs to be amended to include the influence of employees’
culture (Fitzgerald & Rounds, 1993; Rounds & Hesketh, 1994;
Tinsley, 1993). More specifically, Fitzgerald and Rounds (1993),
Rounds and Hesketh (1994), and Tinsley (1993) proposed that
culture might indirectly influence the TWA variables by moderating relationships in the model. For example, Rounds and Hesketh
hypothesized that workplace discrimination can moderate the relation between fit and job satisfaction. Moderation in this example
would imply that the relation between fit and job satisfaction
would become more difficult to consistently predict in the presence of workplace discrimination. Rounds and Hesketh advised
researchers to investigate these relationships. Unlike the original
TWA authors (Dawis, 1994; Dawis & Lofquist, 1993), Fitzgerald
and Rounds (1993), Rounds and Hesketh (1994), and Tinsley
539
(1993) hypothesized that correspondence alone would not account
for the influence of culture in the TWA model.
Experiences With Heterosexism
Researchers encouraging the addition of cultural variables in the
TWA model have drawn specific attention to the possibility that
workplace discrimination may attenuate the relationship between
fit and job satisfaction (e.g., Rounds & Hesketh, 1994). Workplace
discrimination for LGB employees is often experienced as workplace heterosexism and is defined as “an ideological system that
denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of
behavior, identity, relationship, or community” (Herek, 1992, p.
89). In the present study, we were interested in the presence of
informal instances of heterosexism defined by the occurrence of
discriminatory events (e.g., name-calling) that influence the work
environment or climate, rather than the presence of formal heterosexism that is defined by codified workplace discriminatory policies as well as procedures that, for example, limit fair hiring and
promotion procedures (Levine & Leonard, 1984).
Heterosexism is a reality for many LGB employees. In fact,
Croteau’s (1996) review of research on the work experiences of
LGB employees revealed that between 25% and 66% of LGB
employees reported discrimination at work based on their sexual
orientation. However, Ragins and Cornwell (2001) contended that
this estimate might be low because of biased samples that draw
predominantly from states that prohibit discrimination on the basis
of sexual orientation and because of the fact that many lesbians
and gay men choose not to reveal their sexual orientation at work.
In fact, Fassinger (1995) summarized research indicating that two
thirds of lesbians had come out to their employers and only one
third of lesbians had come out to their coworkers.
Past research has uncovered a relationship between workplace
heterosexism and various workplace outcome variables including
job satisfaction, psychological distress, organizational commitment, and occupational choice (Chung, 2001; Ragins & Cornwell,
2001; Waldo, 1999). Because of the pervasiveness of reports of
workplace heterosexism (Croteau, 1996) and because of the many
variables that workplace heterosexism affects, experiences with
informal workplace heterosexism may be a useful variable when
investigating the influence of culture on the TWA model for LGB
employees (Chung, 2001; Waldo, 1999; Ragins & Cornwell,
2001).
In summary, first, we considered the contention that the TWA
adequately accounts for the job satisfaction of LGB employees. As
suggested by Dawis (1994) and Dawis and Lofquist (1993), this
would be evidenced as P-O fit perceptions mediating the relation
between cultural variables and job satisfaction. In other words, in
the present study, variance explained in job satisfaction by experiences with informal heterosexism would be diminished by the
addition of P-O fit perceptions. Second, we responded to critiques
of the TWA that support a moderated model of the TWA in which
cultural variables might attenuate the relationship between P-O fit
and job satisfaction. Consideration of these points and research on
the role of moderating and mediating variables in psychological
research (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Frazier et al., 2004) led us to test
two expanded models of the TWA, a mediated model and a
moderated model.
LYONS, BRENNER, AND FASSINGER
540
The Present Study
Model 1 (Mediated Model)
Dawis (1994) and Dawis and Lofquist (1993) postulated that the
TWA can account for the effects of different cultural variables,
including experiences with discrimination, because of their contention that P-E fit would mediate the relationship between experiences with discrimination and work outcome variables. The
present study tested this assumption of mediation following the
steps for testing mediation outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986).
Our mediator hypotheses are the following:
Hypothesis 1a: Experiences with informal heterosexism will
account for significant percentage of the variance in job
satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1b: Experiences with informal heterosexism will
account for a significant percentage of the variance in P-O fit
perceptions.
Hypothesis 1c: P-O fit perceptions will account for a significant percentage of the variance in job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1d: Experiences with informal heterosexism will
account for no amount of the variance in job satisfaction
when P-O fit perceptions have been controlled.
Model 2 (Moderated Model)
Guided by Fitzgerald and Rounds (1993) and Rounds and Hesketh (1994), who suggested that cultural variables might change
relationships in the TWA, the present study examined the role of
experiences with informal heterosexism as a moderator variable in
the TWA. Our moderator hypotheses are the following:
Hypothesis 2a: Perceptions of P-O fit will be significantly
related to job satisfaction, and participants with a greater
degree of fit perceptions will experience greater job satisfaction than those reporting a lesser degree of fit.
Hypothesis 2b: The interaction between perceptions of P-O fit
and experiences with informal heterosexism will be significantly related to job satisfaction, and higher levels of fit
perceptions and lesser degrees of informal heterosexist experiences will result in higher levels of job satisfaction.
Method
Samples
The hypotheses in the present study were tested on the study’s original
sample. Also, results were cross-validated with a second sample. Participants in both samples took part in a large national survey of same-sex
attracted individuals.
Participants in Sample 1 (N ⫽ 397) were male (n ⫽ 162; 40.8%) and
female (n ⫽ 235; 59.2%) employees identifying as lesbian (n ⫽ 182;
45.8%), gay (n ⫽ 158; 39.8%), bisexual (n ⫽ 36; 9.1%), unsure (n ⫽ 1;
0.3%), and other (n ⫽ 19; 4.8%; 13 of whom specified their identification
as “queer”; 1 participant did not indicate his or her sexual orientation).
Participants were given the option of selecting more than one racial/ethnic
category. Three hundred fifty-four participants (89.2%) identified as European American, 16 (4.0%) selected Hispanic/Latino, 13 identified as
Asian American/Pacific Islander (3.3%), 13 (3.3%) indicated African
American, 12 (3.0%) identified as Native American, 4 (1.0%) selected
Asian Indian or Pakistani, 6 (1.5%) were multiracial, 2 (0.5%) identified as
Middle Eastern or Arab, and 2 (.5%) selected the “Other race” category.
The average age for participants was 33.89 years (SD ⫽ 9.62; range ⫽
18 – 63). Most of the participants indicated that they worked full time (n ⫽
273; 68.8%). Other participants worked part time (n ⫽ 89; 22.4%) or held
more than one job (n ⫽ 34; 8.6%), and 1 participant did not respond to this
question. Participants reported working in the following work settings: the
arts (n ⫽ 16; 4.0%), business (n ⫽ 26; 6.6%), education (n ⫽ 107; 27.0%),
health care (n ⫽ 26; 6.6%), industrial (n ⫽ 3; .8%), legislative/legal (n ⫽
14; 3.5%), managerial (n ⫽ 31; 7.8%), sales/marketing (n ⫽ 18; 4.5%),
scientific/research (n ⫽ 29; 7.3%), human/social service (n ⫽ 42; 10.6%),
service (e.g., retail, restaurant; n ⫽ 21; 5.3%), technical trades (n ⫽ 18;
4.5%), clerical (n ⫽ 20; 5.0%), or political/advocacy (n ⫽ 9; 2.3%). Some
participants (n ⫽ 17; 4.3%) did not report their work setting. Of the
participants who reported their salaries, 164 participants (41.3%) earned
less than $30,000, 158 (39.8%) earned between $30,000 and $60,000, and
69 (17.4%) earned above $60,000. Most participants had completed at least
some graduate school or possessed a master’s, or a professional/doctoral
degree (n ⫽ 224; 56.4%). Other participants completed some of a 4-year
degree (n ⫽ 74; 18.6%), a 4-year degree (n ⫽ 74; 18.6%), a 2-year degree
(n ⫽ 9; 2.3%), technical school (n ⫽ 3; 0.8%), or middle or high school
(n ⫽ 13; 3.3%).
Participants in Sample 2 (N ⫽ 398), the cross-validation sample, were
male (n ⫽ 167; 42.0%) and female (n ⫽ 230; 57.8%; 1 participant did not
indicate his or her sex) employees identifying as lesbian (n ⫽ 185; 46.5%),
gay (n ⫽ 155; 38.9%), bisexual (n ⫽ 41; 10.3%), unsure (n ⫽ 3; 0.8%),
and other (n ⫽ 12; 3.8%; specifications for other included “queer” and
“woman identified”; 2 participants did not indicate sexual orientation).
Participants were given the option of selecting more than one racial/ethnic
category. Three hundred fifty participants (87.9%) identified as European
American, 13 (3.3%) selected Hispanic/Latino, 13 identified as Native
American/Native Alaskan (3.3%), 12 (3.0%) indicated African American,
9 (2.3%) identified as Asian American, 6 (1.5%) selected biracial or
multiracial, 4 (1.0%) were Middle Eastern or Arab, 4 (1.0%) identified as
Asian Indian or Pakistani (1.0%), and 8 (2.0%) selected the “Other race”
category. The average age for participants was 35.12 years (SD ⫽ 11.33;
range ⫽ 18 –75). Similar to Sample 1, most of the participants reported
working full time (n ⫽ 283; 71.1%). Other participants worked part time
(n ⫽ 82; 20.6%) or held more than one job (n ⫽ 29; 7.3%), and 4
participants did not respond to this question. Participants reported working
in the following work settings: the arts (n ⫽ 14; 3.5%), business (n ⫽ 21;
5.3%), education (n ⫽ 88; 22.1%), health care (n ⫽ 31; 7.8%), industrial
(n ⫽ 3; 0.8%), legislative/legal (n ⫽ 19; 4.8%), managerial (n ⫽ 36; 9.0%),
ministry (n ⫽ 1; 0.3%), sales/marketing (n ⫽ 21; 5.3%), scientific/research
(n ⫽ 35; 8.8%), human/social service (n ⫽ 38; 9.5%), service (e.g., retail;
n ⫽ 17; 4.3%), technical trades (n ⫽ 30; 7.5%), clerical (n ⫽ 27; 6.8%),
or political/advocacy (n ⫽ 6; 1.5%). Some participants (n ⫽ 11; 2.8%) did
not report their work setting. One hundred forty-nine participants (37.4%)
earned less than $30,000, 167 (41.9%) earned between $30,000 and
$60,000, and 82 (20.6%) earned above $60,000. As in Sample 1, most
participants completed at least some graduate school or possessed a master’s or a professional/doctoral degree (n ⫽ 214; 53.8%). Other participants
completed a 4-year degree (n ⫽ 80; 20.1%), some of a 4-year degree (n ⫽
77; 19.3%), a 2-year degree (n ⫽ 14; 3.5), technical school (n ⫽ 4; 1.0%),
or high school (n ⫽ 9; 2.3%).
Measures
Perceptions of P-O fit. The Saks and Ashforth (1997) measure is an
8-item measure of employees’ perceptions of global fit with two subscales.
The subscales are Person–Job Fit (e.g., “To what extent does the job fulfill
your needs?”) and Person–Organization Fit (e.g., “To what extent are the
values of the organization similar to your own values?”). Because the
hypotheses in the present study were concerned with aspects of the orga-
HETEROSEXISM AND THE TWA
nization (e.g., workplace heterosexism) rather than job duties (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities necessary to perform job-related tasks), participants
were given only the Person–Organization Fit subscale of the Saks and
Ashforth scale.
Participants rated their agreement with each item using a 5-point rating
scale ranging from 1 (to a very little extent) to 5 (to a very large extent).
Responses for the Person–Organization Fit subscale were summed for a
total score. High scores on this subscale indicated that participants reported
a better fit with the organization and job. Previously, the Person–
Organization Fit (coefficient ␣ ⫽ .92) subscale possessed adequate internal
consistency (Saks & Ashforth, 1997). Internal consistency for the Person–
Organization Fit subscale in Samples 1 and 2 was adequate (coefficient
␣ ⫽ .92 in both samples).
Saks and Ashforth (1997) found support for the construct validity of the
measure with a confirmatory factor analysis. A two-factor (i.e., person–job
fit, P-O fit) solution was confirmed for the measure. Furthermore, the Saks
and Ashforth (1997) scales were correlated with two 2-item scales that
measured person–job fit and P-O fit that Saks and Ashforth developed.
They found a greater correlation between the two measures of person–job
fit and the two measures of P-O fit than between the person-job and P-O
fit measures, providing support for convergent and discriminant validity.
The strength of the correlation between fit perceptions and job satisfaction is high. However, this relationship is theory consistent (Dawis &
Lofquist, 1984; Saks & Ashforth, 1997), and moreover, approximately
50% of the variance in job satisfaction is not accounted for by fit perceptions. These analyses of psychometric properties support the measure’s
construct validity (i.e., we have confidence that this measure assesses what
we intended and can be distinguished from other workplace variables).
Experiences with informal heterosexism. Waldo’s (1999) Workplace
Heterosexist Experiences Questionnaire (WHEQ) was used to measure
participants’ experiences with heterosexism. Participants rated 22 items for
the frequency with which they experienced heterosexist situations using a
scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (most of the time). Sample items include
“During the past 24 months in your workplace, have you ever been in a
situation where any of your coworkers or supervisors made you feel it was
necessary to ‘act straight’ [for example, monitor your speech, dress, or
mannerisms]?” and “During the past 24 months in your workplace, have
you ever been in a situation where any of your coworkers or supervisors
called you a ‘dyke,’ ‘faggot,’ ‘fence-sitter,’ or some other slur?” The
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for Sample 1 in the present sample was .90,
and in Sample 2 the alpha coefficient was .88. Internal consistency in the
original sample was .93 (Waldo, 1999). Smith and Ingram (2004) reported
an alpha of .92 for the WHEQ. Hypothesis-consistent findings with the
WHEQ provided support for the construct validity of the measure. That is,
in Waldo’s (1999) study, he found a negative relationship between workplace heterosexism and job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was measured with the short form of
the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967). Construction
of this measure was informed by TWA and was developed by the TWA
authors and their colleagues. This scale includes 20 items designed to
assess 20 dimensions in the consideration of job satisfaction: ability utilization, achievement, activity, independence, variety, compensation, security, working conditions, opportunity for advancement, recognition, authority, social status, coworkers, moral values, social service, reactions to
company policies and practices, the human relations aspects of supervision,
the technical aspects of supervision, creativity, and responsibility.
Participants were asked to rate their satisfaction with various aspects of
their work, along a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5
(very satisfied). Items included the extent to which participants’ jobs
provided consistent work opportunities and positive relationships with
coworkers. Items were summed to determine a total score that was used in
analyses. Higher scores on this scale represent greater job satisfaction.
In Sample 1 of the present study, a full-scale reliability coefficient of .90
was found. The reliability coefficient for Sample 2, the cross-validation
sample, was .92. Past internal consistency found with this scale was
541
adequate (e.g., ␣ ⫽ .89 in Bizot & Goldman, 1993; ␣ ⫽ .90 in Breeden,
1993). Evidence of construct validity of this measure has been provided by
studies that have used the measure to support the relationship of the TWA
variables (e.g., Bizot & Goldman, 1993).
Procedure
Model 1. The test of mediation involved four regression equations
consistent with Model 1. The first equation was used to test the ability of
experiences with informal heterosexism (independent variable) to explain
variance in job satisfaction (dependent variable). The second equation
tested the ability of experience with informal heterosexism to explain
variance in the hypothesized mediator variable, perceived P-O fit. The third
equation was used to ascertain the mediator’s (perceived P-O fit) relationship to job satisfaction. Finally, the fourth equation tested the relationship
between experience of informal heterosexism and job satisfaction once
perceived P-O fit had been statistically controlled. Baron and Kenny (1986)
explained that if the first three equations are significant, partial mediation
is found. Additionally, if the fourth equation finds that the independent
variable (experiences with informal heterosexism) no longer accounts for a
significant amount of the variance in the dependent variable (job satisfaction) once the mediating variable (perceived P-O fit) has been controlled,
then complete mediation is supported (see Figure 1).
Model 2. Tests of Model 2 hypotheses were also informed by Baron
and Kenny’s (1986) work related to the determination of moderators in
psychological research. We used a hierarchical regression equation that
included (a) regressing the independent variable (i.e., P-O fit perceptions)
on the dependent variable (i.e., job satisfaction); (b) regressing the independent variable and moderator (i.e., experiences with informal heterosexism) on the dependent variable; and (c) regressing the independent variable, the moderator, and their multiplicative interaction term on the
dependent variable. Of most significance in testing Model 2 is the question
of the interaction term’s statistical significance. If the interaction term is
statistically significant, then moderation is said to occur.
The present data were drawn from a national study of same-sex attracted
individuals (i.e., National Gay and Lesbian Experiences Study
[NAGLES]). Data for NAGLES were collected online from a diverse
sample of gay, lesbian, and bisexual participants. Participants were recruited through requests for participation on electronic listserves with a gay
and/or lesbian community focus, by word of mouth, or in advertisements
on websites with a predominantly gay and/or lesbian audience. It should be
noted that participants who contributed to the current study also took part
in another workplace-related study (Brenner, Lyons, & Fassinger, 2005)
drawn from the NAGLES data set. These studies were theoretically and
conceptually distinct, did not utilize the same measures, and did not share
related hypotheses. Also, the primary sample in this study (i.e., Sample 1)
was used as a cross-validation sample in Brenner et al.’s (2005) study, and
vice versa.
Results
In an ANOVA, mean differences on each of the study variables
did not emerge by sex or race. Therefore, data from men and
Figure 1. A mediated model of the influence of experiences with informal heterosexism in the theory of work adjustment.
LYONS, BRENNER, AND FASSINGER
542
women as well as Whites and People of Color were combined to
test the hypotheses of the present study. However, because adequate numbers of men and women were available, we also conducted hypothesis tests separately on men and women. These
results are presented below. Examination of the skewness of the
variables indicated a marked positive skew for the experiences
with informal heterosexism data. Therefore, this variable was
square root transformed, and statistical tests were performed with
the transformed variable. Additionally, because of the potential for
multicolinearity among the variables, supplemental analyses were
conducted to determine the influence of mean centering on the
variables used in the tests of moderation. Mean centering did not
influence results in the present study.
Means, standard deviations, and ranges of participants’ scores
on independent and dependent variables are presented in Table 1.
Note, for the experiences with informal heterosexism variable, the
mean, standard deviation, and range are presented in untransformed and transformed (square root) metrics. The zero-order
correlations among the variables revealed significant relationships
between all variables.
Model 1
As displayed in Table 2, the test of mediation for Sample 1
shows that in Equation 1, experiences with informal heterosexism
accounted for 13% of the variance in job satisfaction ( p ⫽ .000).
In Equation 2, experiences with informal heterosexism accounted
for 12% of the variance in P-O fit perceptions ( p ⫽ .000). In
Equation 3, P-O fit perceptions accounted for 48% of the variance
in job satisfaction ( p ⫽ .000). In Equation 4, experiences with
informal heterosexism were significantly related to job satisfaction
over and above P-O fit perceptions: t(1, 269) ⫽ 2.37, p ⬍ .05, and
t(2, 268) ⫽ 13.86, p ⫽ .000, respectively. Informal heterosexism
accounted for 1% of the variance in job satisfaction over and above
P-E fit perception. Taken as a whole, these four equations suggest
a partial mediation interpretation for Model 1.
The analyses conducted with Sample 2 demonstrated similar
findings. As seen in Table 2, the first three equations show a
similar pattern of results as was found with Sample 1. However,
examination of Equation 4 suggested that P-O fit perceptions fully
mediated the relationship between experiences with informal heterosexism and job satisfaction. This is seen in the fact that experiences with informal heterosexism were no longer significantly
related to job satisfaction, t(1, 264) ⫽ 1.40, ns, once P-O fit
perceptions were entered into the equation, t(2, 263) ⫽ 15.90, p ⫽
.000, and do not explain any additional variance in job satisfaction
over and above P-O fit perceptions. The ability of fit perceptions
to mediate the relation between heterosexism and job satisfaction
did not differ by gender for either sample.
Model 2
In Model 2 the capacity of experiences with informal workplace
heterosexism to moderate the relationship between P-O fit perceptions and job satisfaction was tested using a series of hierarchically
related regression equations (see Table 3). For Sample 1, the series
of equations used to test moderation shows that P-O fit perceptions
were significantly related to job satisfaction when it was the only
variable entered in the equation, t(1, 269) ⫽ 15.81, p ⫽ .000, and
that it remains significantly related to job satisfaction over and
above experiences of informal heterosexism, t(2, 268) ⫽ 13.86,
p ⫽ .000. Of most note, the third equation demonstrated that P-O
fit perceptions were not moderated by experiences of informal
heterosexism, as is seen in the nonsignificant contribution of the
interaction term, t(3, 267) ⫽ 1.81, ns.
Analyses conducted with Sample 2 corroborated the results
found with Sample 1. As seen in Table 3, P-O fit perceptions
remain a significant predictor of job satisfaction across all regression equations. Notably, the interaction term in the third regression
equation for Sample 2 was not significant, t(3, 262) ⫽ 1.09, ns,
replicating the initial findings that experiences of informal heterosexism in the workplace do not moderate the relationship between
P-O fit perceptions and job satisfaction.
When we conducted moderation tests separately by gender, the
interaction term was significant for men in Sample 1. The interaction term was significant, t(1, 101) ⫽ 3.59, p ⫽ .001, and
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges, and Intercorrelations for Study Variables
Variable
M
SD
Range
1
2
3
—
⫺.35**
—
.67**
⫺.36**
Sample 1
1. P-O fit perceptions
2. Square root of experiences
with informal
heterosexism
3. Job satisfaction
14.56
1.57
4.17
1.55
4.00–20.00
0.00–7.48
76.14
12.06
28.00–100.00
—
Sample 2
1. P-O fit perceptions
2. Square root of experiences
with informal
heterosexism
3. Job satisfaction
14.20
1.47
4.17
1.42
4.00–20.00
0.00–6.93
79.00
12.06
21.00–100.00
—
⫺.34**
—
.74**
⫺.32**
—
Note. The mean of the untransformed experience with informal heterosexism was 7.83 (SD ⫽ 4.87, range ⫽
0 –56). P-O ⫽ person– organization.
** p ⬍ .01.
HETEROSEXISM AND THE TWA
543
Table 2
Summary of the Regression Analyses Testing Person–Environment Fit as a Mediator of the
Relationship Between Experiences With Informal Heterosexism and Job Satisfaction
Variable
Model R
Model R2
t (dfs)
B
SE B
␤
Sample 1
Equation 1
Predictor: Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Outcome: Job satisfaction
Equation 2
Predictor: Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Outcome: P-O fit perceptions
Equation 3
Predictor: P-O fit perceptions
Outcome: Job satisfaction
Equation 4
Predictors: Experiences with
informal heterosexism with P-O
fit perceptions controlled
Outcome: Job satisfaction
.36
.13
6.35 (1, 269)**
⫺2.79
0.44
⫺.36
.35
.12
7.01 (1, 269)**
⫺0.95
0.14
⫺.35
.69
.48
15.81 (1, 269)**
1.99
0.13
.69
.70
.49
2.37 (1, 269)*
13.86 (2, 268)**
⫺0.86
1.87
0.37
0.14
⫺.11
.65
Sample 2
Equation 1
Predictor: Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Outcome: Job satisfaction
Equation 2
Predictor: Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Outcome: P-O fit perceptions
Equation 3
Predictor: P-O fit perceptions
Outcome: Job satisfaction
Equation 4
Predictors: Experiences with
informal heterosexism with P-O
fit perceptions controlled
Outcome: Job satisfaction
.32
.10
5.56 (1, 264)**
⫺2.88
0.52
⫺.32
.34
.12
6.77 (1, 264)**
⫺1.03
0.15
⫺.34
.74
.54
17.59 (1, 264)**
2.30
0.13
.74
.74
.54
1.39 (1, 264)
15.90 (2, 263)**
⫺0.56
2.23
0.40
0.14
⫺.06
.71
Note. P-O ⫽ person– organization.
* p ⫽ .02. ** p ⬍ .01.
contributed an additional 4.5% of the variance in job satisfaction.
In total, this model was able to explain 64.7% of the variance in
job satisfaction.
Discussion
The central question of our study was whether the TWA (Dawis
et al., 1964; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984) and P-O fit perceptions
effectively accounted for variations in the workplace experiences
of LGB employees when predicting workplace outcomes. Our
study suggests that approximately one half (48%) of LGB employees’ job satisfaction is accounted for by the degree to which they
feel they fit with their environment. Compared with other studies
with presumably predominantly heterosexual samples, fit in the
present study explained considerably more variance in job satisfaction (e.g., Breeden,1993; Bretz & Judge, 1994; O’Reilly et al.,
1991; Rounds, 1990; Saks & Ashforth, 1997). This includes when
results in the present study were compared with Saks and Ashforth’s (1997) study in which the authors used the same fit mea-
sure. Additionally, P-O fit perceptions mediated the relationship
between experiences with informal heterosexism and job satisfaction, supporting the contention of the TWA authors that their
theory would accurately portray the workplace experiences of
culturally stigmatized sociocultural groups (Dawis, 1994; Dawis &
Lofquist, 1993).
The Validity of the TWA to LGB Employees
Model 1 tested Dawis’s (1994) and Dawis and Lofquist’s (1993)
prediction that P-E fit would capture the effects of experiences
with informal heterosexism on job satisfaction, making the measurement of informal workplace heterosexist experiences redundant. Our results support this contention (i.e., that the TWA
adequately reflects the P-O fit perceptions–satisfaction relationship for LGB employees). Results from Sample 1 supported a
partially mediated model. However, Sample 2 supported a fully
mediated model. Because, in Sample 1, heterosexism explained
only 1% of the variance in job satisfaction above and beyond fit,
LYONS, BRENNER, AND FASSINGER
544
Table 3
Summary of the Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Testing Experiences With Informal Heterosexism as a Moderator of the
Relationship Between Perceptions of Fit and Job Satisfaction
Variable
Model R
Model R2
⌬R2
t (dfs)
B
SE B
␤
15.81 (1, 269)**
13.86 (2, 268)**
2.365 (2, 268)*
1.99
1.90
⫺0.86
0.13
0.13
0.37
.69
.66
⫺.11
8.54 (3, 267)**
2.52 (3, 267)*
1.63
⫺2.63
0.19
1.04
.57
⫺.34
0.13
0.07
.22
17.59 (1, 264)**
15.90 (2, 263)**
1.39 (2, 263)
2.30
2.22
⫺0.56
0.13
0.14
0.40
.74
.71
⫺.06
10.86 (3, 262)**
1.53 (3, 262)
2.08
⫺1.68
0.19
1.10
.67
⫺.19
0.08
0.08
.13
Sample 1
Step 1: P-O fit perceptions
Step 2: P-O fit perceptions
Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Step 3: P-O fit perceptions
Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Perceptions of Fit ⫻ Experiences With
Informal Heterosexism
.69
.70
.48
.49
.011
.71
.50
.006
1.81 (3, 267)
Sample 2
Step 1: P-O fit perceptions
Step 2: P-O fit perceptions
Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Step 3: P-O fit perceptions
Experiences with informal
heterosexism
Perceptions of Fit ⫻ Experiences With
Informal Heterosexism
.74
.74
.54
.54
.003
.74
.55
.002
1.09 (3, 262)
Note. P-O ⫽ person– organization.
* p ⬍ .05. ** p ⬍ .01.
we posit that partial rather than full mediation was likely supported
only because of our large sample size. Results of Sample 1 and the
cross-validation sample led us to tentatively conclude that LGB
employees who experience high levels of informal heterosexism
may report low levels of job satisfaction because they experience
low levels of fit with their organization.
Other scholars have suggested that cultural variables (e.g.,
workplace heterosexism) might moderate the P-E fit–satisfaction
relationship, altering the nature of relationships in the TWA
(Fitzgerald & Rounds, 1993; Rounds & Hesketh, 1994; Tinsley,
1993). However, we did not find support for this contention in
combined-gender analyses when testing moderation hypotheses in
Sample 1 or our cross-validation sample. In other words, as LGB
employees’ experiences with informal heterosexism increase, it
appears that the importance of P-O fit perceptions in the determination of job satisfaction does not change.
One exception to this assertion is the finding that informal
heterosexism did moderate the relationship between fit perceptions
and job satisfaction for men in Sample 1. Therefore, it appears that
moderator effects were obscured in the combined-gender analyses.
For gay and bisexual men the emergence of the studied moderating
variable may be linked to their lack of direct experience with other
significant forms of discrimination such as sexism (notwithstanding that some of the men may experience racism, ageism, etc.).
This lack of experience may make the presence of informal heterosexism rise out of the background noise of possible discriminatory experiences and take on significance. This pattern of results
may be indicative of these men’s struggle to feel as though they
have a professional “home” when they are aware of the environment’s hostility toward their sexual orientation identity. However,
this finding was not confirmed with the cross-validation sample,
and thus, our comments should be regarded as speculative. Future
research should seek to identify more consistently the conditions
under which informal heterosexism acts as a moderator for gay and
bisexual men.
The studied moderating variable (informal heterosexism) may
not have risen to the level of significance for the participating
women because of the possibility that their satisfaction is also
linked to sexism or because experiences with sexism have allowed
them to develop ways of coping with workplace discrimination.
The unmoderated relationship for women in both samples might
suggest that other variables related to gender (i.e., gender identity,
experiences with sexism, flexibility for dual-role responsibilities)
take on more importance than informal heterosexism and moderate
this relationship for women.
Taken together, our results are more or less consistent with the
contention of TWA theorists, Dawis (1994) and Dawis and
Lofquist (1993), who anticipated that cultural variables would not
alter the nature of relationships in the TWA model. Rather, they
anticipated that cultural variables would influence fit, which, in
turn, would influence workplace outcome variables. Furthermore,
Dawis (1994) stated that because the TWA seeks to explicate
individual differences, sociological and cultural group factors exert
their influence only when they affect the individual-differences
variables outlined in the TWA model. In the case of the TWA, P-O
fit is informed by employees’ individual vocational histories and
experiences with vocational reinforcements. Dawis anticipated that
these experiences would vary on the basis of individual opportunity and exposure. From the present study, we can ascertain that
these individual experiences might include experiences with informal heterosexism, which in turn affects fit.
HETEROSEXISM AND THE TWA
The Importance of P-O Fit Perceptions in the Work
Experiences of LGB Employees
Previously, vocational literature that focused on the work experiences of People of Color and women predicted that P-E fit would
play a relatively insignificant role in determining workplace outcome variables because of the competing significance of discrimination, which may act as a barrier to jobs that could provide a
sense of fit (Brown, 1995; Fassinger, 2001). Therefore, empirical
research in this area was encouraged to determine the accuracy of
these assumptions. Results of the present study suggested that at
least for LGB employees who also experience discrimination
albeit in potentially different forms, the importance of fit is not
overshadowed by discrimination in the determination of job satisfaction. Furthermore, P-O fit perceptions took on greater significance with LGB employees when compared with research with
presumably predominantly heterosexual samples (e.g., Breeden,
1993; Bretz & Judge, 1994; O’Reilly et al., 1991; Rounds, 1990),
including one study that used the same fit perceptions measure
used in the present study (Saks & Ashforth, 1997). The results of
the present study, which conflict with previous hypotheses (e.g.,
Fassinger, 2001), suggest some possible explanations, including
the following: (a) Fit may take on particular importance because of
the nature of LGB employees’ stigmatized status, and (b) the
samples in the present study may have been unique in ways that
influenced relationships in unexpected ways. Our findings suggest
that research should be continued on the role of P-O fit perceptions
in the workplace experiences of stigmatized groups.
Our results beg the question as to whether P-O fit for this
population is relatively more important given LGB employees’
stigmatized status. It may be that having been forced to manage a
stigmatized identity (Fassinger, 2000), lesbians and gay men are
more highly attuned to and, therefore, influenced by their environments when making appraisals of workplace outcomes. According to theory (Goffman, 1963) and studies (Frable, Blackstone, & Scherbaum, 1990; Frable, Platt, & Hoey, 1998) of
stigmatized individuals, those who are made aware of their marginalized status by environmental factors generally feel worse
about themselves and their abilities because of their heightened
sensitivity to negative or hostile contextual cues. This research
suggests that for stigmatized groups, a strong relationship may
exist between environmental and self-assessments. Regardless of
the exact mechanism, it appears as though almost one half of the
employees’ sense of satisfaction with their jobs is explained by
how well they feel they fit with the current work environment.
Further exploration of this possibility is needed as well as research
on the self-protective coping mechanisms (e.g., identity management techniques) used in the case when LGB employees do not
experience fit with their work environments.
The present samples were somewhat unique in their educational
levels, which were considerably higher than the national average.
For example, 42.8% of Sample 1 obtained a graduate degree,
32.2% completed a 4-year degree, and only 11.3% attended high
school or less. Our cross-validation sample reported similar educational statistics. Nationally, 26% of Americans complete a bachelor’s degree or more (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Attaining this
level of education might have granted the participants in this
sample greater access to opportunities to find jobs and organizations that match their values and perceptions of abilities.
545
Our samples might be demographically unique in other ways.
Despite the educational attainment of our samples, the participants’ income levels were low. For example, in Sample 1 more
than 60% earned less than $40,000, and the median income was
between $30,000 and $39,000. It is possible that employees in our
sample may have had to sacrifice economic rewards for a sense of
fit and for employment with organizations relatively free of heterosexism and homophobia, regardless of their levels of education.
In both samples, experiences with informal heterosexism were
low. Furthermore, because our sample was predominantly female,
the low incomes might reflect the documented male–female discrepancies in pay (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). U.S. Census Bureau (2000) statistics indicated that women earn 72% of the
amount earned by their male counterparts. This male–female discrepancy seems to be further impacted by sexual orientation because lesbian women report earnings at 5% to 14% less than the
national average for women (Badgett, 1995). The ways that this
possible sacrifice in income or income discrimination might influence variables important to the TWA were not assessed in the
present study but should be considered in future research.
Limitations
Given that all sources of data were from self-reports, we acknowledge the possibility of consistency bias in the present study.
That is, in an attempt to maintain consistency or to reduce cognitive dissonance (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1977), participants might
respond similarly across measures (e.g., “I perceive fit with my
organization; therefore, I must also be satisfied.”). This could
influence the strength of the relationships between variables. As
indicated in reviews of measurement of P-E fit, all methods of
measurement possess drawbacks (Edwards, 1991; Edwards, 2002;
Kristof, 1996). Therefore, researchers should carefully select their
method of fit measurement with an eye for intention and the
balance of strengths and weaknesses.
Participants in the present study self-selected into the study (i.e.,
they were sent an e-mail announcement or saw an advertisement
on a LGB-specific website and chose to participate). As with all
data collection methods that do not use random sampling, we
risked introducing bias into our results because of the possibility
that data gathered reflect the responses of those who have particularly strong feelings toward fit perceptions, heterosexism, or job
satisfaction. However, examination of the resulting ranges of study
variables suggested adequate variability was obtained except with
experiences with informal heterosexism, which were reported infrequently in our sample.
As stated earlier, the samples in the present study were biased in
terms of educational attainment. These samples were welleducated compared with the national average and therefore may
not represent the workplace attitudes and experiences of LGB
employees more generally. Therefore, the generalizablity of findings is limited to formally educated LGB employees. In the future,
attempts to survey LGB employees representing a greater range of
education levels should be attained. Alternatively, research could
focus on LGB employees with lower levels of education.
The present study also was limited in its inclusion of LGB
employees who were also People of Color. Although mean differences for any of the study variables were not found when comparing White participants with those who identified as People of
Color, these differences were conceptualized as Whites versus
546
LYONS, BRENNER, AND FASSINGER
People of Color, rather than considering unique racial/ethnic categories, because cell sizes for specific racial and ethnic groups
were so small. Future researchers should aim to recruit larger
numbers of People of Color in their samples so that determination
of racial/ethnic category effects can be estimated. Alternatively,
researchers can conduct concentrated research on specific racial
and ethnic groups who also identity as lesbian, gay, or bisexual.
The effects of the interaction between racial category and sexual
orientation as well as the susceptibility to double stigmatization
may create a unique vocational situation for this population.
Two limitations specific to the moderation tests were identified
in the present study. First, Baron and Kenny (1986) warned that
the moderator variable should not be correlated with the independent variable. In the present study, the experiences with informal
heterosexism variable was significantly correlated with the independent variable, P-O fit perceptions. When the independent and
moderator variables are correlated, it becomes difficult to understand the contributions of each variable.
Next, Baron and Kenny (1986) suggested that researchers
should investigate moderators when attempting to improve the
relationship between two variables or when a relationship is inconsistently found. Because 48% of job satisfaction was explained
by fit perceptions and because previous studies consistently uncovered a relationship between these two variables, it may have
been more difficult to identify a stronger moderator in this case.
Implications for Research
Researchers can seek to confirm that perceptions of fit are key
to the job satisfaction of this population. If the fit–satisfaction
relationship is corroborated, researchers can attempt to determine
why fit is exceedingly important by attempting to identify the
predictors of fit for LGB employees. Results of the present study
suggest that fit may be influenced by experiences with informal
heterosexism because of the relationship of fit with this variable.
Other possible relationships that should be explored include the
relationship between fit and (a) “critical mass” (i.e., the presence
of a significant number of other lesbian, gay, and bisexual men and
women in the workplace) and (b) employees’ level of sexual
orientation identity development (e.g., those endorsing different
levels of affiliation with their sexual orientation may differentially
endorse a sense of likeness between themselves and their organizations or experience different levels of workplace heterosexism,
etc.).
Additionally, future research on LGB employees’ workplace
experiences can be contextualized to consider the current political
and economic realities (e.g., national debates over the appropriateness of LGB individuals in particular occupations, unemployment rates). Incorporating these national level concerns may tap
into LGB employees’ sense of job security, which hypothetically
can influence the relationship between P-O fit perceptions and job
satisfaction as well as other workplace outcome variables such as
tenure. That is, if LGB employees sense that the political climate
and economy are conducive to securing meaningful work, then the
relationship between fit and job satisfaction may be strong. Conversely, when LGB employees anticipate that they may have fewer
options, fit may become less important in determining job satisfaction because of the increased importance of more practical
concerns (e.g., ability to secure work, meet financial obligations).
It is also possible that national political and economic situations
will differentially influence informal (e.g., name-calling) versus
formal (e.g., absence of nondiscriminatory policies) heterosexism,
so future research in this area should separately conceptualize
these definitions of heterosexism.
Implications for Practice
Dawis and Lofquist (1984) encouraged counseling psychologists to use the TWA to guide three aspects of vocational counseling: career choice counseling, on-the-job career adjustment, and
job change counseling. Results of the present study can be used to
inform these suggestions. When counseling LGB clients for job
choice and job change, counselors should pay particular attention
to these clients’ fit with particular organizations. To do this,
counselors should assess LGB clients’ values so that organizations
and fields of employment with similar values can be identified.
Additionally, attempts to increase access to and enrollment in
postsecondary education for LGB individuals should be encouraged because of the possibility that education may provide LGB
individuals with the opportunity to find careers with which they
perceive fit. However, because a causal relationship was not established in the present study between level of education and fit
perceptions, it is also possible that some individuals might find
ideal perceptions of fit in jobs that do not require higher education.
When counseling LGB clients to help them increase their onthe-job work adjustment, they may be made more aware of the
ways that their current organization and job duties meet their
needs. If these needs are not being met, counselors can work with
employees to find ways of increasing the congruence between their
needs and those provided by the organization and job (e.g., increasing positive relationships with colleagues, assuming increased responsibilities, negotiating with supervisor for greater
flexibility and personal control) or to help employees find other
work environments that may better meet their needs. This point
deserved emphasis in relation to the current sample.
Summary
In summary, the two models tested in the present study generally support the cross-cultural validity of the TWA in the work
lives of LGB employees. Independently, informal workplace heterosexism is able to explain a sizable amount of the variance in job
satisfaction. However, in the presence of P-O fit perceptions,
conclusions related to workplace heterosexism are tenuous because of the ability of P-O fit perceptions to substantially mediate
the experiences with the informal heterosexism–satisfaction relationship. Therefore, future research and practical interventions
should focus on improving the P-O fit perceptions of LGB employees because of the potential significance of this phenomenon
in the work lives of LGB employees.
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Received June 22, 2004
Revision received January 31, 2005
Accepted February 2, 2005 䡲