PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Chapter 8
THINKING AND LANGUAGE
Section 1: What Is Thinking?
Section 2: Problem Solving
Section 3: Reasoning
Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment
Section 5: Language
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Thinking is……
 1. thinking is the mental activity that is
involved in the understanding, processing, and
communicating of information. Made possible
through the use of symbols, concepts, and
prototypes.
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
Section 1: What Is Thinking?
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What are the three units of thought?
 THREE UNITS OF THOUGHT
 SYMBOLS – objects or acts that stand for something
else
 CONCEPTS – mentally grouping together objects,
events, or ideas that have similar characteristics such
as dogs, horses, etc.
 PROTOTYPES – examples of concepts that best
exemplify that concept
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
How do we solve problems?
 2. algorithms: a specific procedure that, when
used properly and in the right circumstances,
will always lead to the solution of a problem.
Ex: formulas.
 3. heuristics: rules of thumb that often, but
not always, help us find the solution to a
problem. They are shortcuts. Ex: C_ _ FF
(cliff)
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
 4. incubation effect: When we arrive at the solution to a
problem when we have not been consciously working on the
problem. Ex: taking a break from math problem then suddenly
coming up with the solution.
 5. mental set: the tendency to respond to a new problem with
an approach that was successfully used with similar problems.
Can sometimes solve a problem, can sometimes cause a
problem.
 6. functional fixedness: is the tendency to think of an object
as being useful only for the function that the object is usually
used for.
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
 7. convergent thinking: though is limited to
available facts, one tries to narrow thinking to find
the single best solution.
 8. divergent thinking: one associates more freely to
the various elements of a problem. One follows leads
that run in various directions; perhaps one that will
lead to the solution unexpectedly.
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
Section 2: Problem Solving
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What steps can be used to solve problems?
 THE ABCDEs OF PROBLEM SOLVING
Assess the problem
 Brainstorm approaches to the problem
 Choose the approach that seems most likely to

work
Do it – try the most likely approach
 Evaluate the results

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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
Section 3: Reasoning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: How do deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning differ?
 DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
DIFFER
 9. Deductive Reasoning – a conclusion is arrived at by
reasoning from a general principle to a specific conclusion
 10. Inductive Reasoning – a conclusion is arrived at by
reasoning from many specific observations to a general
principle
 11. confirmation bias: tendency to prove, or confirm, one’s
hypothesis rather than disprove it.
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What strategies can be made in decision
making?
 STRATEGIES IN DECISION MAKING
 Weighing the Pluses and Minuses – choosing among goals
or courses of action to reach goals by using a balance sheet
 Shortcuts in Decision Making and Judgment – use
heuristics or shortcuts
 The Framing Effect – refers to a way in which wording
affects decision making
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
Chapter 8
Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What strategies can be made in decision
making?
 HEURISTICS OR SHORTCUTS
 Representativeness Heuristic – making decisions about
a sample according to the population that the sample
appears to represent
 Availability Heuristic – making a decision on the basis of
information that is available in the immediate
consciousness
 Anchoring Heuristic – making a decision based on certain
ideas or standards that a person holds and which hold an
anchor for the person
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HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
Chapter 8
Section 5: Language
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What are the basic elements of language?
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE
 Phonemes – basic sounds of a language
 Morphemes – units of meaning in language
 Syntax – way in which words are arranged to
make phrases and sentences
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HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON
PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 8
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What are the three units of thought?
Thinking
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Symbols
Concepts
Prototypes
HOLT, RINEHART
AND
WINSTON