Lessons Learned from Experienced Specialist Teachers: Using the
Coaching Model to Improve Pedagogic Practice
By: Patricia H. Marino, Ph.D.
SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH
Abstract
This qualitative study explores the experience of specialist teachers specific to their
individual roles within the coaching model (CM). Reasons for in-depth study include
(a) Rochester’s struggle to meet federal and state student achievement benchmarks,
(b) practitioner frustrations from site-level resistance or CM use, and (c) shifting
role expectations for those trained in CM use. The study focuses on CM use by
specialist teachers in an upstate New York district. Targeting contrasts among their
perceptions, understandings, and assumptions, the main idea is that maximum
teacher professional development requires on-going critical understanding of
coaching progress. With a data set of semi-structured responsive interviews of nine
study participants, grounded theory protocol involves constant immersion into the
data. Key findings include (a) more critical understanding of CM application and
related assumptions may improve, if not maximize, instructional coaches as
professional development resources; (b) school culture conditions help to gauge the
progress schools can and do achieve using reform strategies such as coaching; and
(c) specialist teachers’ understandings and assumptions may provide a trustworthy
means of monitoring how different school cultures view coaching. Study
recommendations include (a) improving how schools use coaches as on-site
Copyright: 2010
professional development resources, (b) preparing principals to be attuned to the
big picture of the CM’s potential for improving teaching, and (c) continuing to
improve coaches’ capacities to navigate the developing cultural contexts in which
they work.
PDE Purpose
Recent studies show that student academic performance in Rochester high schools
continues to lag behind national benchmarks. According to Learning Point
Associates (2006), “On October 14, 2005, the state of New York designated the
accountability status of Rochester as a district in need of improvement.” (p. x)
With the vast majority of its at-risk learners still performing below state and
national standards, the district might value a study targeting one of its key reform
strategies. RCSD used a technical instructional coaching model (CM) for more than
five years and then switched to a cognitive CM. A formal analysis of the perceptions
of coaches experienced in both these models leads to valuable information for
future decisions concerning how RCSD ought to continue to apply the CM.
Uncovering critical levels of the model’s theoretical underpinnings can facilitate
improvement in Rochester classroom practices. Indeed, deepening the description
of CM situational contexts may serve to add clarity to continued CM use to support
teaching and improve learning.
With such insight gained, coaches can acquire better training and support and
practically, realistically, and strategically maximize their potential as instructional
change agents. This could then enable specialist teachers (STs) to provide more
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effective instructional support for specific problems identified in the RCSD final
report of 2006, wherein coaches are identified as key potential change-agents areas
of challenge such as these, identified by Learning Point Associates in 2006:
The English curriculum is not consistently being taught in a way that fully
aligns with the New York state standards, curriculum, and assessments;
At the high school level, too many students are not engaged in meaningful
learning;
Research-based best practices are not being taught consistently across grade
levels.
It follows, then, that with the development of more critical understanding of
coaching model use (as it has continued to evolve in the Rochester City School
District) more research in this area is needed. Moreover, deepening—and in effect
broadening—understanding and equitable use of district coaching practices may
result in more as well as better support. Such concerted systemic effort may result
in the needed growth and development of a proactive and effective coaching culture,
irrespective of school site or grade level.
While I focus on specialist teachers (ST) as individual coach practitioners, I also
discuss and analyze their experiences, perceptions, and understandings.
Practitioners provided discussion and understanding including (a) the role of the
specialist teacher, (b) on-going training and administrative support, and (c)
coaching skills in the context of a school’s educational culture. It is also my intent
to give voice to the perceptions of STs, especially with regard to expectations
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and use of coaching;
to understand how STs perceive and respond to CM application and their
ideas about how to minimize associated frustrations;
to maximize critical theoretical understanding of coaching to improve
student performance in diverse urban districts.
Compared with other work settings and professional development (i.e., theory, modeling,
and practice), coaching is the most effective strategy (America’s Choice, 2007).
To meet the changing demands of teaching today, teachers stand in need of support
from colleagues, coaches, and mentors. Just as athletes, performers, and business
executives have the benefit of coaches to assure a quality level of performance, so it
should be in teaching: it is even more important for educators to receive coaching
support to do their very best for our youth (Barkley, 2005).
Research Questions
How can the assumptions of experienced specialist teachers practicing the coaching
model in the Rochester City School District inform and improve pedagogic practice?
This main research question leads to a number of sub-questions:
How do RCSD specialist teachers regard the effectiveness of coaching?
How do specialist teachers describe the development of their coaching
expertise?
How do specialist teachers describe the influence of school culture on their
relationships with the peers they coach?
What coaching insights can be gained from understanding the experiences of
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specialist teachers using the coaching model in City School District high
schools?
What impacts do the assumptions of specialist teachers have on their
coaching practice?
Review of Literature
The ensuing review of literature provides a theoretical context for research of the
coaching model (CM). The review indicates that effective coaching requires
increased sensitivity to professionally diverse teacher needs and to the
developmental needs of their coaches. In the context of comprehensive school
reform, studies show that the coach-teacher relationship is more complicated than
expected (Poglinco & Bach, 2004). Little (1995) stated the following:
The training and coaching model, which by its nature tends to assume the
importance of its training content, grants only residual status to questions
regarding the fit between new ideas and old habits, or between new ideas and
present circumstances. (p. 138)
Hargreaves (2005) implied that the issue is even more critical. “What is being coached in
teaching is not only a matter of technical skill and competence. It also involves personal,
moral, and political choices. It raises questions of values” (p. 180).
This study highlights inconsistencies between the CM and the practices it produces.
Since the CM is embedded in the culture of educational institutions, I approached
the research by first organizing it to facilitate an interpretive framework of the
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effect of the CM on school reform. Hence this literature review has three major
developmental parts: the defining what, the applicable how, and the theoretical
where. Part One is an introduction to the model as the core construct, Part Two
contains considerations significant to coaching model development and experience
(model praxis), and Part Three contains a discussion of theoretical bases (Figure 1).
Adopting a tri-level structure in conjunction with Fullan’s three-level framework
brings coherence and clarity to the review, preparing the way to align theory with
practice.
The Core Construct
The coaching model (CM) is designed to facilitate needed change in contemporary
educational institutions. Even in the face of the two critical enemies of large-scale
reform, overload and extreme fragmentation, the coaching model continues to be
used and developed. Over the last twenty-plus years it has gained popularity as a
critical professional development tool among urban districts (Fullan, 2000). This
section contains an exploration of the variety of coaching model definitions, the
elements that make up a CM, and a contextual study of examples.
In Part One, exploring and understanding definitions in breadth and scope, provides
a fitting point of entry into a review of the literature. In the context of educational
reform, CM definitional differentiation spans from the broadly pragmatic theoretical
to praxis with local specificity (praxis-oriented). Many specific definitions relate to
issues such as outside-in accountability, outside impact pressures, inside-out
accountability, and challenges within the school itself.
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Considering a range of definitions and variations provides a broader perspective
and appreciation for CM development.
Exploration of the model from the vantage point of its distinct paradigm elements
furthers pragmatic understanding of the core construct. Discussion of the CM
elements—assumptions, concepts, values and practices—deepens its definition.
Researched areas of challenge and benefit further clarify conceptual definition.
Interestingly, CM benefits coexist alongside its struggles in range and number. The
bad-to-worse range includes internal organizational challenges and barriers as well
as issues related to both inside-out and outside-in forces. Support in addressing
such problems can help practitioners implement a better CM program.
Coaching Model Praxis
What does a close examination of coaching reveal, particularly in terms of enacting
change in urban schools? Of course, the ultimate change objective of CM practice is
to improve student performance, especially, though not exclusively, among at-risk
student populations. Bolman and Deal (2003) argue that it takes training,
psychological support, and participation to increase the likelihood that people will
understand and feel comfortable with change methods.
Entities of socio-cultural implication also include psychosocial and cultural matters.
Concerns of psychosocial support include motivation, trust, and efficacy. Cultural
contexts include the school (the coaching culture in particular) and the importance
of reflective practice. In addition, discussions of collaboration, collegiality, and
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community highlight the importance of school culture as a critical socio-cultural
influence on coaching practice.
As urban schools struggle to develop as purposeful learning organizations, sociocultural implications and reflective contexts are likely to remain matters of concern.
While psychosocial awareness appears to improve coaching relationships and the
dynamics of classroom practice, with time and consistency, a school can also
become a more cooperative and transformative teaching and learning culture, one
that continues to grow in its capacity for collaboration, collegiality, and community.
Additionally, reflective practice appears to enhance teaching expertise. As indicated
in the next section, however, the absence of on-going training and experiences to
upgrade professional competence may short-circuit such potential.
Competence: An Inside-out Story
This section provides a dual lens on competence. It begins with what the
development of what professional competence among educators requires. The focus
then shifts to competence in differentiating among the four primary forms of the
model. This survey highlights the need for professional development, “teaching life”
phases, and adult learning. The exploration of primary CM model forms results in
surveys of technical coaching, collegial coaching, peer coaching, and mentoring.
The literature shows that preparation and expertise in school reform requires
increasing levels of commitment to maintaining and promoting the highest levels of
professional competence. Teaching skills, understanding the span of cycles in a
teaching career, and motivating adult learners all enhance professional competence.
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Schools actively pursuing such accountability resources promote second-story
change, which, over time, results in improved pedagogic practice—the bailiwick of
the change strategy known as the coaching model (Fullan, 2000).
Basic Coaching Model Forms
Prominent among CM forms that have supported teaching practice since the 1980s
are technical coaching, collegial coaching, peer coaching, and mentoring (Poglinco &
Bach, 2004). According to the Rochester City School District Final Report: 2006,
several models are part of on going district program initiatives. “Professional
development activities in Rochester include many critical components of a high
quality, system-wide strategy including school-based instructional coaching,
research-based school reform models, and mentoring support for new and
struggling teachers” (Learning Point Associates, 2006, p. 16). Rochester’s use of
school-based instructional coaching currently incorporates both technical and
collegial coaching.
The literature reveals that essential objectives among the primary CM forms vary.
Technical coaching aims to transfer new teaching practices. Collegial coaching
works to increase professional dialogue with an end result of fostering self-directed
learning. Peer coaching encourages teachers to work together to improve
professional growth. Mentoring relationships between experienced and novice
teachers focus on the work place, emotional support, and practical applications.
From the main question targeting CM practitioner assumptions, to sub-questions
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that deal with model effectiveness, coaching expertise, and practitioner experience,
this information provides background for several research questions in this study.
Wider Use and Application: An Outside-in Story
With the core CM construct defined and discussed against a backdrop of identified
socio-cultural parameters, Part Two culminates with the outside-in influence of the
coaching model as a modern-day strategy of school reform. The discussion of
comprehensive school reforms (CSR) includes definition, use, coaching approach,
collaboration with higher education, and observations.
The literature shows that most prominent school reform designs tend to include the
coaching model as key among their implementation vehicles. Depending upon the
program and its objectives, the delivery of CM support is being delivered either
internally by staff who are actual faculty members or externally by coaches outside
the school faculty entirely. With a heavy emphasis on on-going professional
development during the formative years of CSR programs, the remaining dilemma is
how schools and districts can sustain reform momentum. CSR funding contracts
generally expire at the end of three years.
Part Three: Theoretical Bases
Researchers have identified three areas of conceptual underpinning for the CM:
culture, pedagogy, and organization. Completion of Fullan’s framework is also a
primary objective. Culture can provide a conceptual underpinning for
understanding the internal dynamics, of coaching practice. Pedagogic theory affects
coaching in the classroom (at least in part) by way of district accountability
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expectations—somewhat outside-in in nature, as it were. Organization theory
brings into account how forces outside of a given school’s organizational auspices
(for instance, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002) determine its structure
(Jennings & Starker, 2006). In turn, organizational structure (be it the school’s or the
district’s) provides the context for collaborative coaching cultures and determines
whether they may in reality develop and flourish.
Culture: Underlying Theoretical Basis
Culture is a signifying system as well as an underlying stream of norms. Here I treat
organizational culture and school culture as appropriate sub-types and I consider
classroom culture as a subset of school culture. Key concepts, climate, positive
school cultures, and toxic school cultures ultimately (if not always initially) also
relate to school culture.
The focus here has been on developing an appropriate conceptual basis for culture
as a critical theoretical influence and as contextualization for CM study. Research
shows that each district and school develops a culture over time. Culture is critical
to the life of a school. As such, awareness of culture’s inside story in learning
environments is essential to building a coaching culture.
How is culture valued by the school districts? What must occur to continue
developing a coaching culture in which student achievement continues to rise? In
what ways is the culture of each individual school positive versus negative? These
were some of the conceptual concerns addressed in this part of the literature
review.
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Pedagogy: Underlying Theoretical Basis
A survey of pedagogy yields five significant sub-types. These sub-types include (a)
critical pedagogy, (b) confluent education, (d) multi-cultural education, (e)
supplementary education, and (f) engaged pedagogy—each with a different
emphasis or philosophy. The first four types are child centered, whereas the focus of
engaged pedagogy is pre-service teaching. Important issues of pedagogy include atrisk learners, high stakes testing, and standards. Through principles like deep
learning, long thinking, and brain-based learning, the concept of learning is also
explored.
With matters of value, belief, and symbol unveiling the real underlying learningteaching context, pedagogy provides a different lens for theoretical consideration.
Cultural theory underlies determinations of shape and context in the internal
teaching and learning environment. Pedagogy, on the other hand, reveals the craft
teachers employ for instructional delivery and assessment. Effective pedagogy is
guided by research-based principles and guidelines, which, viewed from the
classroom context, represent an inside-out level of change in schools.
Organization: Underlying Theoretical Basis
Recognized for its potential as a critical underlying influence in a study of the CM,
organization has been explored in four areas—definition, types, theories, and
concepts. I discuss several aspects of organizations, including formal and project
organizations, authority systems, cultural types, resilient versus passive-aggressive
behavior, and learning organizations. Organizational theories discussed include the
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theory of action, single and double-loop learning, systems theory, theory X, and
theory Y. Identified concepts are organizational learning, change, and team building.
Principles of organization include leadership in general, principal and teacher
leadership, and conflict.
As matters of organizational import, the influence of theory and development seems
indirect because of an “out of sight, almost out of mind” approach. As both direct
and indirect explanations of leadership rationales for organizational structure and
practices, however, organizational theory and development represents an outside-in
perspective.
Unfortunately, organizational theory and development are often marginalized as
schools and districts strive to operationalize day-to-day reform initiatives, for
example, the CM. Such oversight often proves shortsighted. Depending on where a
school or district is on the path to becoming a legitimate, culturally aware,
assessment-driven learning organization, it may treat underlying organizational
issues like the elephant in the living room—significant, but for whatever reason(s),
receiving only covert attention.
Review Process Reflection
In the process of bringing structural, conceptual, and evaluative cohesion to this
comprehensive review of CM literature, three sets of triads evolved: the overarching
conceptual framework for the review, its three primary divisions, and three
organizing sections within the three parts. The following is the rationale for making
these conceptual, as well as, evaluative divisions.
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Fullan’s school reform change model includes three perspectives: (a) internal
dynamics, (b) impinging outside influences, and (c) external, wider interest impact.
It provides a complimentary overarching framework due to a metaphoric and visual
conceptual appeal.
The review, in effect, represents a survey of CM literature that is somewhat
comprehensive in scope. The logic of dividing the larger chunks into smaller, more
manageable thematic sections facilitated evaluation of the content and helped
promote synthesis naturally throughout the review process.
This study shows a need for traditional research that focuses a lens on the
perspective of the CM practitioner: on the critical nature of coaches’ developmental
understanding alongside the assumptions that underlie the challenges they face. Can
organizations use the assumptions that drive experiences of CM practitioners to
improve their own practices, and subsequently, the teaching practice of their peers?
I examined (a) specialist teachers’ regard for the effectiveness of the model in
facilitating their work as ELA specialist teachers; (b) their views on their own
expertise, development, and district channels of support; (c) the impact of school
culture on their role and work; (d) experiential understandings they have gained;
and (e) the impact of their fundamental assumptions on their practice. The
literature (and my ten years experience serving in similar capacities) clearly
validates these areas of focus (Hart, 2003; Hawk & Hill, 2003; Joyce & Showers,
2002).
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The Grounded Theory Method
The Strauss and Corbin approach to grounded theory analysis was the primary
guide through the analysis process. They recommend three broad, sequential steps
to code data: open, axial, and selective coding. Although coding for process is part of
axial coding, it is treated separately to highlight the importance of structure to
process (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Glaser, one of the co-originators of grounded
theory, found the later addition of a conditional consequential matrix too contrived
and restricting to allow theory to evolve naturally, as it should. It is explored here to
heighten both awareness of and appreciation for the range of structural conditions
that influence coach support in this upstate New York urban district.
Step 1 - Micro Analysis
A detailed line-by-line analysis of interviews was necessary at the beginning to
generate categories and suggest relationships among them. This led to phone
follow-up interviews to fill in where there were gaps in the data.
Step 2 - Open Coding
The objective here was to discover which concepts in the data were the central
ideas. Proceeding question-by-question, I identified over a hundred concepts
(including identifying properties and dimensions). Participants’ permission to
proceed with analysis followed their review of concepts indicated per interview
response.
Coding identified concepts to which the majority of participants (at least 5) referred,
helped to narrow the focus to classifying categories connected to the interview
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question key concepts. This meant distinguishing conceptually meaningful
phenomena from lower levels of response.
Step 3 - Axial Coding
The next objective was to code axially by relating categories and subcategories. To
this end, I wrote some 120 concepts on individual index cards to critically explore
potential for category and subcategory associations. The ensuing axial coding round
reflects extension of subcategories into summaries and categories that are more
descriptive and the relationships between them. The resulting synthesis of data
yielded early structured thematic narratives.
With study-wide concepts evident, another round of axial coding evolved. I analyzed
categories showing study-wide significance against key sub-question categories.
Reflection revealed that recurring concept data did not seem free to “say” all that
might have been implicated when tied to sub-question (prominent) themes. Freeing
study wide categories of this restraint allowed other conceptual alliances to
manifest.
Another round of analysis stemmed from the need for awareness of participant
assumptions in preparation for answering the research question. In essence, how
can understanding coaches’ assumptions improve instructional practices? Here it
seemed essential to distinguish clearly between significant coach understandings
(perceptions) and assumptions that indeed seem to undergird their on-going work
with teachers, students, and administrators. According to Auerbach and Silverstein
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(2003), “Research issues are found by looking for perspectives that are left out, and
assumptions that need to be challenged” (p. 15).
Step 4 - Coding for Process
I coded for process, a part of axial coding and category building, through use of
personalizing, paradigms, and a matrix (Strauss and Corbin 1998). ST
personalization of coaching proved a developmental and sequential process.
Analysis of paradigms, on the other hand, aided description of coaching’s macro
(broad) and micro (narrow) impact levels on the developmental process of ST
coaching experiences. Together they prepare the way for the matrix.
As a coding device, a matrix maintains an eye toward the conditions and
consequences of coaching phenomena. It aids the conceptualization and portrayal of
relationship between levels of organizational impact on ST work. It further suggests
relationship between implementation of district policy and the nature and scope of
work actually provided by the coaching ELA STs.
Step 5 - Selective Coding
Story identification, descriptive story development, choosing a central category,
and ultimately, theory refinement all helped to achieve the desired end of grounded
theory, selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Analysis Summary
This is an analysis of seasoned urban educators trained to use the coaching model
(CM) to fulfill their duties as specialist teachers (STs). Researcher interest was in
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finding out what some of their perceptions of CM use are and how these have been
used to improve instruction in the Rochester City School District. The five analysis
phases are: (a) primary sub-question categories, (b) principal study-wide concepts,
(c) understanding versus assumption, (d) processual analysis, and (e) selective
coding. From Phase I the five sub-question categories and associated sub-categories
result in appropriate description of several indicated areas of coaching concern for
Rochester’s STs. They include model effectiveness, training and support, student
learning, cultural context, and experiential perception. Phase II describes and
analyzes concept categories with study wide implication. In essence, data on skills,
role, students, and challenges seem to extend the property and dimension aspects
of those tied to the literature based categories of Phase I.
Between the first two phases, there is overlap of several categories and subcategories. Expertise, students, and culture are prominent examples. For example,
the area of expertise shows conceptual overlap with that of skill. Differences in subcategories extend the property-dimension range of implicating data. In like manner,
the study-wide sub-categories for students in Phase II broaden conceptual
consideration of students beyond those in Phase II. Additionally, culture, while a key
category in Phase I, is one of several challenge areas in Phase II. Finally, yet
importantly, experience may, in effect, be seen to be potentially deepened by every
other category and sub-category and vice-versa. Thanks to overlap richness and
resulting reinforcement, the interconnection of data categories becomes apparent.
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Phase III separately identifies and integrates practitioner understanding and
assumption to aid preparation for answering the main research question.
Comparatively analyzing the two categories provides conceptual and critical
distinction. Consider overlap reinforcement here as well as in Phases One and Two.
With the exception of efficacy, in the previous phases, I identified every single subcategory of both understanding and assumption. Understanding and assumption,
then, while treated separately, are in effect, also cross-study in implication, and
deemed of critical necessity due to the need to distinguish between them in
answering the research question.
Phase IV, consists of coding for process by unpacking how STs personalize coaching
praxis, their three perspectives on process paradigms, and finally, a brief summary
of the district’s CM evolution. Looking at process from the three process
perspectives reveals the theoretical balance needed to develop grounded theory.
Regardless of gained insight, without awareness of processual parameters, what
would be the value of determining where and how or which and why data are
confirmed by foregoing research and literature? Without also observing and
reflecting on organizational structures and school site liberties and limitations, what
would be the good? What benefit might be derived from the discovery of issues,
experiences, strengths, weaknesses, whether understood or assumed? Indeed, there
would be little if any sensitivity for what in reality is required to embrace fully the
coaching mantle. Hence, process proves of critical sociological implication to what
may be learned from specialist-coaches in this big-five school district in upstate New
York?
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Thus, the way was prepared for Phase V, in which I identify Lessons Learned from
Experienced Specialist Teachers: Using the Coaching Model to Improve Pedagogic
Practice as the central category and articulate grounded theory.
Findings
I found the following:

Coaches understandably developing levels of understanding and assumption
can provide a cultural barometer for improvement in coaching while
showing district capacity to groom strong instructional support leaders.

STs need strategic support to grow into critical friends to school
administrators, especially principals, in their buildings.

A school culture biased against coaching stymies even a seasoned
practitioner.

Central Office district administration might encourage via monitoring the
progress of any intended upgrade in principal support of coaching
specialists. This could serve to strengthen and build upon existing systemic
infrastructures that make it possible for specialists to perform with greater
success the range of duties in this evolving role.

To improve and maximize STs as district professional and instructional
development resources, it is critical that the district develop critical
awareness at the levels of perceptual understanding and tacit assumption.
Indeed, the importance of such awareness is confirmed in the view that “The
perspectives we take, the perspectives we recognize or ignore, and those we
allow others to make for us, lie at the root of our biases” (Cabrera & Colosi,
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2009, p. 72). Clarity around the potential impact of ST assumptions leads to
understanding appropriate next steps to improve specialist navigation amid
developing district cultural contexts.
Study Conclusion
The Rochester City School District’s use of lead teacher instructional coaching has
developed over a ten-year period. Its evolution includes several variations: district
mentoring, literacy coaching, cadre team coaching, and most recently, collegial
coaching. In effect, each type demonstrates significant professional development
among district initiatives to improve instructional best practices—and this in a
district with an increasing population of at-risk learners.
Through microanalysis of the experiential perspective of lead teacher ELA
instructional supporters, the objective of this qualitative case study was to expand
the deep, critical understanding of CM praxis in this urban New York State district.
The study effectively employed a grounded-theory approach to data assessment and
then comparative analyzed practitioner understandings versus assumptions.
I recommended that schools and districts continue to use ELA specialists as schoollevel professional development resources. I further recommend that principals
remain attuned to the big picture of CM potential effectiveness, and finally, that STs
be presented with opportunities to improve their abilities to navigate the
developing coaching contexts in which they work.
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Coaching in the City School District has come far. This study has explored strategic
CM use involving several model variations, each with an important and timely
impact on ELA professional development.
In the final analysis, ten years of focus, exploration, and fiscal investment in
coaching as a critical strategy for systemic change in instructional practices has
proven beneficial in this high-needs educational context. This analysis deepened and
expanded critical understanding of specialist CM use. The hope is that the mission
will not be aborted before RCSD reaches the final goal: an educational system in
which equity is the norm.
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