Year TWO Report
Crossing
Bridge:
the
GED Credentials
and Postsecondary
Educational Outcomes
Crossing the Bridge:
GED Credentials and Postsecondary
Educational Outcomes
Year Two Report
Jizhi Zhang
Anne Guison-Dowdy
Margaret Becker Patterson
Wei Song
© 2011 American Council on Education. All rights reserved.
No part of this report may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
from the American Council on Education.
ACE, American Council on Education, GED, and GED Testing Service are registered trademarks of the American
Council on Education and may not be used without express written permission. The GED® and GED Testing
Service® brands are used by GED Testing Service LLC under license from the American Council on Education.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments................................................................................................ vi
A B ST R A CT .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i i
E x e c u t i v e S u m m ar y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i x
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Postsecondary Enrollment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Persistence and Graduation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Postsecondary Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Educational Background and Postsecondary Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
C h a p t e r I : Cr o s s i n g t h e B r i d g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Literature Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Postsecondary Enrollment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Postsecondary Persistence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Postsecondary Graduation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C h a p t e r II : Tra n s i t i o n s t o P o s t s e c o n d ar y E d u c a t i o n .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT OF GED TESTS PASSERS AND NON-PASSERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
WHO TRANSITIONED TO POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Characteristics of GED Tests Passers Who Enrolled in Postsecondary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Demographic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Academic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Social Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Postsecondary Enrollment Rates by Characteristics of GED Tests Passers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Postsecondary Education Enrollment Rates by Demographic Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Postsecondary Education Enrollment Rates by Academic Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Postsecondary Education Enrollment Rates by Social Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
TIME TO TRANSITION TO POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION AND INITIAL ENROLLMENT STATUS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
WHERE AND IN WHAT TYPES OF POSTSECONDARY INSTITUTIONS DID 2004
GED TESTS PASSERS ENROLL? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Enrollment Rates for GED Tests Passers and Non-passers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Who Transitioned to Postsecondary Education?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Time to Transition to Postsecondary Education and Initial Enrollment Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
C h a p t e r i i i : P e r s i s t e n c e a n d D e g r e e A t t a i n m e n t i n P o s t s e c o n d ar y E d u c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 1 5
POSTSECONDARY PERSISTENCE PATTERNS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Retention Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Graduation Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Dropout Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Transfer Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
COMPARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE-SEMESTER AND MULTIPLE-SEMESTER ENROLLEES’
POSTSECONDARY PERSISTENCE PATTERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Demographic Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Academic Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Social Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
COMPARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE-SEMESTER AND MULTIPLE-SEMESTER ENROLLEES’
POSTSECONDARY PERSISTENCE PATTERNS, BY GRADUATION STATUS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Single-semester Completers and Non-completers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Multiple-semester Completers and Non-completers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
CHARACTERISTICS OF GED POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION GRADUATES BASED ON TYPES OF DEGREE . . . . 23
Demographic Characteristics by Types of Degree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Academic Characteristics by Types of Degree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Social Characteristics by Types of Degree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Majors of Graduates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Persistence and Degree Attainment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Single-semester Enrollees and Multiple-semester Enrollees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
GED Postsecondary Graduates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
C h a p t e r i v : P o s t s e c o n d ar y I n s t i t u t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0
POSTSECONDARY INSTITUTIONS IN WHICH GED TESTS PASSERS FIRST ENROLLED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Institutional Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Institution Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Geographic Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Enrollment Size and Tuition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Selected Instructional/Program Offering and Special Learning Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Student Demographics and Financial Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Postsecondary Admission, Retention, and Graduation Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Selected Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Instructional Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Top 10 Institutions by 2004 GED Tests Passer Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
c h a p t e r v : GED C R EDENTI A L R ECIPIENTS ’ A ND T R A DITION A L HIGH SCHOOL G R A DU A TES ’
B A CKG R OUNDS A ND POSTSECOND A R Y EXPE R IENCES .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1
Data Source: BPS:04/09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Methodology, Sample, and Research Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Demographic and Background Characteristics of First-time Postsecondary Enrollees,
by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Age at Enrollment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Ethnic Origin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Parents’ Highest Level of Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Wherewithal of First-time Postsecondary Enrollees, by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . 43
Employment Status in 2003–04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Years to Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Student Financial Aid Received in 2003–04. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Highest Degree Expected in 2003–04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Risk Index in 2003–04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
First Postsecondary Institution Attended, by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Level of First Institution Attended. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Tuition and Fees of First Institution Attended. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Region of First Institution Attended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Postsecondary Experiences and Outcomes, by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Attendance Intensity in 2003–04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Remedial Courses in 2003–04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Number of Institutions Attended Through 2006 and 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Number of Stopouts Through 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Persistence and Degree Attainment Through 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Major Pursued During the First Year of Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Reasons for Leaving Postsecondary Education in 2004 and in 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Demographic and Background Characteristics of First-time Postsecondary Enrollees, by Educational
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Wherewithal of First-time Postsecondary Enrollees, by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
First Postsecondary Institution Attended, by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Postsecondary Experiences and Outcomes, by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1
R e f e r e n c e s .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2
Appendix............................................................................................................ 54
Enrollment and Graduation Rates for GED Tests Passers, by State: 2004 Cohort . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
LIST OF T A B LES
Table 2.1. Postsecondary Enrollment Status of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers and
Non-passers: 2004–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table 2.2.Demographic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Who Enrolled
and Did Not Enroll in Postsecondary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 2.3.Academic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Who Enrolled
and Did Not Enroll in Postsecondary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 2.4.Social Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Who Enrolled
and Who Did Not Enroll in Postsecondary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Table 2.5. Postsecondary Enrollment of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers, by Year: 2004–10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 3.1. Postsecondary Enrollment of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers, by Semester: 2004–10. . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 3.2. Postsecondary Enrollment of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Total Number of Semesters Enrolled: 2004–10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 3.3.Demographic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Enrolled in a Single Semester
or in Multiple Semesters: 2004–10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 3.4.Academic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Enrolled in a Single Semester
or in Multiple Semesters: 2004–10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 3.5.Social Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Enrolled in a Single Semester
or in Multiple Semesters: 2004–10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 3.6.Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Enrolled in a Single Semester or Multiple
Semesters, by Postsecondary Program Completion Status: 2004–10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 3.7.Demographic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Who Graduated,
by Degree Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 3.8.Academic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Who Graduated,
by Degree Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 3.9.Social Characteristics of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Who Graduated, by Degree Type. . . . . . . 27
Table 3.10.Most Common Postsecondary Majors of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers Who Graduated,
by Degree Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 4.1.Sector of Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 4.2.Regional Distribution of Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 4.3.Enrollment and Tuition at the Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 4.4.Selected Instructional/Program Offering and Special Learning Opportunities at the Postsecondary
Institutions for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers, by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Table 4.5. Gender and Ethnicity Distribution at the Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort
of GED Tests Passers, by Institutional Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Table 4.6.Undergraduates’ Age Distribution at the Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort
of GED Tests Passers, by Institutional Category and Attendance Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Table 4.7.Student Financial Aid at the Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Table 4.8. Institutions with Open Admissions Policies for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Table 4.9.Student Retention and Graduation Rates at the Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort
of GED Tests Passers, by Institutional Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 4.10.Selected Services at the Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 4.11. Instructional Staff and Student-Faculty Ratio at the Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort
of GED Tests Passers, by Institutional Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 4.12. Top 10 Postsecondary Institutions for 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Institutional Category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 5.1. Gender, Age, Ethnic Group, and Parents’ Highest Level of Education of Beginning Postsecondary
Students Who Enrolled in 2003–04, by Educational Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 5.2. Highest Degree Ever Expected by Beginning Postsecondary Students Who Enrolled in 2003–04,
by Educational Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 5.3. First-Year Remedial or Developmental Courses Taken by Beginning Postsecondary Students
Who Enrolled in 2003–04, by Educational Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 5.4. Persistence and Highest Degree/Certificate Attained for Beginning Postsecondary Students
First Enrolled in 2003–04, by Educational Background: 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 5.5.Reasons for Leaving Postsecondary Education of Students First Enrolled in 2003–04 Reported
in 2004 and in 2006, by Educational Background.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
LIST OF FIGU R ES
Figure 2.1. Postsecondary Education Enrollment Rates of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Demographic Characteristic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 2.2. Postsecondary Education Enrollment Rates of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Academic Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 2.3. Postsecondary Education Enrollment Rates of 2004 Cohort of GED Tests Passers,
by Social Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 2.4. Postsecondary Enrollment Status of 2004 Cohort GED Tests Passers for First Semester. . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 3.1. Postsecondary Education Enrollment of the 2004 Cohort GED Tests Passers,
by Semester: 2004–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 3.2. First- to Second-Semester Retention Rates and First- to Second-Year Retention Rates of 2004
Cohort GED Tests Passers, by Multiple-Semester Enrollment Status and Graduation Status. . . . . . . . 18
Figure 3.3. Postsecondary Education Graduation Rates, by Demographic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort
GED Tests Passers Who Enrolled, as of October 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 3.4. Postsecondary Education Graduation Rates, by Academic Characteristics of 2004 Cohort
GED Tests Passers Who Enrolled, as of October 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 3.5. Postsecondary Education Graduation Rates, by Social Characteristics of 2004 Cohort
GED Tests Passers Who Enrolled, as of October 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 3.6. Highest Postsecondary Education Degrees of 2004 Cohort GED Tests Passers Who Graduated,
as of October 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 5.1.Educational Background of Beginning Postsecondary Students, by Region of Institution
Where First Enrolled in 2003–04. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Acknowledgments
T
his report is the second-year report from a multiyear longitudinal study, Crossing the Bridge. The
authors thank all the people who asked thought-provoking questions about the first-year findings, especially members of the GED Testing Service Research Advisory Panel, jurisdictional GED
Administrators, and adult educators. The authors extend thanks to Adora Beard at GED Testing
Service for her administrative efforts to make this project a reality. The staff at National Student
Clearinghouse coordinated data matching, and the authors greatly appreciate their assistance. A special thank
you goes to Daphne Atkinson of GED Testing Service, B. Allan Quigley of St. Francis Xavier University
(retired), and Mikyung Ryu of the American Council on Education’s Center for Policy Analysis, for reviewing earlier drafts of the report and for their invaluable comments. Additional thanks go to American Council
on Education colleagues who edited and designed this report. For more information on Crossing the Bridge
research work and this paper, please contact Margaret Patterson at [email protected].
ac k n o w l edg m e n t s
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
vi
Abstract
D
o adults without a high school diploma
pursue postsecondary education? A majority of adults who pass the GED® Tests
(65.1 percent in 2009) indicate further education as a reason for testing. While the
United States continues to recover from an economic
recession, the need for adults to be prepared for
family-sustaining careers, and the need for employers
to have employees with postsecondary education–
level skills, is acute for national economic recovery
as well as for the success of individuals and employers. To gain those necessary skills, adults can no longer end their educational experiences with a secondary credential (or less).
About 43 percent of 2004 GED Tests passers enrolled
in postsecondary education. The enrollment rate
decreased as test passers’ age increased. Even so,
staying longer in secondary education may positively
relate to entering postsecondary education, and higher GED Tests battery scores seemed to increase GED
Tests passers’ tendencies to transition to postsecondary education. Moreover, approximately 40 percent
enrolled full time and 31.8 percent enrolled half time
for their first semester of postsecondary education.
Just 28.7 percent of all postsecondary enrollees continued directly from their first year to the second
year. For multiple-semester enrollees, 42.7 percent
successfully finished their first year of college and
continued to a second year. The first-year to secondyear retention rate for multiple-semester graduates
was 72.6 percent, indicating that if a postsecondary
enrollee with a GED credential makes it through the
second year of college, the probability of graduation
from postsecondary education is much higher. Of all
enrollees, approximately 62 percent were no longer
enrolled by 2010, and 26 percent were still enrolled
within the period of study. The graduation rate for
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
A second type of analysis focused on the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED
Tests passers first enrolled (GED 50-plus institutions)
in order to better profile the institutions that most
attract the GED Tests passers. At these institutions,
83.7 percent had open admissions policies, almost
doubling the percentage of non-GED institutions
with such a policy. However, the student retention
rates and graduation rates at the GED 50-plus institutions were lower than those at the non-GED institutions; particularly for graduation rates—the GED
50-plus institutions had significantly lower graduation
rates when compared to the non-GED institutions.
The postsecondary institutions that GED Tests passers most often chose were large, inexpensive, public
two-year colleges. The gender and ethnicity distribution at the GED 50-plus institutions was very comparable with those at the non-GED institutions. In
addition, the student-to-faculty ratio was higher at
the GED 50-plus institutions, and the percentage of
students receiving financial aid was lower at the GED
50-plus institutions.
Finally, comparisons by educational background
showed that GED Tests passers and traditional high
school graduates shared similar demographic and
background characteristics. However, GED Tests
passers tended to be older when they first enrolled
in postsecondary education, and their parents had
a lower level of education than did parents of traditional high school graduates. GED Tests passers generally appeared to be exposed to a higher number of
risk factors during their first year of enrollment than
were traditional high school graduates.
GED Tests passers received about 20 percent less
in financial aid for their first-year studies than did
traditional high school graduates. Comparable proportions of GED Tests passers and traditional high
school graduates received remedial instruction. While
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
vii
a b s t r ac t
The purpose of this report is to describe which
adults with GED credentials pursued postsecondary
education, when and where they enrolled, and how
they persisted, in the context of results for individuals, within institutional settings, and by educational
background.
postsecondary enrollees with GED credentials was
approximately 11.6 percent, and most of these graduates (93.5 percent) earned a multiple-semester postsecondary credential.
over three-fifths of GED Tests passers in 2003–04
ultimately expected a bachelor’s or master’s degree,
the educational expectations of GED Tests passers
seemed somewhat lower compared with those of traditional high school graduates. Nearly all GED Tests
passers who graduated five years later ended up
with a postsecondary certificate or associate degree;
about two-thirds of traditional high school graduates
tended to follow the bachelor’s degree path they predicted. Approximately half of GED Tests passers had
no postsecondary credential nor were enrolled as
of June 2009, versus about 35 percent of traditional
high school graduates.
a b s t r ac t
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
viii
Executive Summary
Introduction
D
While the United States continues to recover from
an economic recession, the need for adults to be
prepared for family-sustaining careers, and the need
for employers to have employees with postsecondary
education–level skills, is acute for national economic
recovery as well as for the success of individuals
and employers (Council for Advancement of Adult
Literacy [CAAL], 2008; Reder, 2007 and 2010; SREB,
2010). To gain those necessary skills, adults can no
longer end their educational experiences with a secondary credential (or less).
In order to reach more of the nearly 40 million
adults without a high school credential, and to
encourage those with GED credentials to continue
their education, the American Council on Education
is launching the GED 21st Century Initiative. This
scalable initiative has three key components: (1) a
national preparation program based on a multi-platform, accelerated approach; (2) a new GED assessment aligned with Common Core national standards
and that certifies high school equivalency as well
as career and college readiness; and (3) a postcredential transition network for successful transition
to postsecondary education and career opportunities
(Patterson, Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010).
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
e x ec u t i v e s u m m a r y
o adults without a high school diploma
pursue postsecondary education? More
than 18 million GED credentials have been
awarded in the more than 65 years of the
GED testing program, as adults without
high school credentials made a decision to take the
GED Tests (American Council on Education [ACE],
2010). Moreover, before testing, a majority of adults
who later passed the GED Tests in 2009 (ACE, 2010)
indicated further education as a reason for testing,
and nearly 43 percent of the 2003 population of GED
Tests passers enrolled in postsecondary education
by 2009 (Patterson, Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy,
2010). The GED credential is now a significant gateway to postsecondary education (Reder, 2007) in the
United States.
Data on postsecondary experiences of GED credential recipients are key to ACE’s planning of the GED
21st Century Initiative. Continuing a multiyear study
of the effect of the GED credential on postsecondary
enrollment, persistence, and completion, this report
presents the second-year findings for the 2004 population of GED test-takers—particularly GED Tests
passers—and is designed to add to the evidence
base. The purpose of this Crossing the Bridge, Year
Two report is to describe which adults with GED credentials pursued postsecondary education, when and
where they enrolled, and how they persisted, in the
context of results for individuals, within institutional
settings, and by educational background.
Our review of literature assisted us in determining
the focus for the Crossing the Bridge study, as well
as its methodology. Adults with GED credentials
represent a vital proportion of nontraditional adult
students in postsecondary education. And yet individuals with this credential need sufficient time after
testing to enroll in postsecondary programs. This
need must be acknowledged when considering time
to enrollment and retention rate. Enrollment of GED
Tests passers in postsecondary education also may
vary demographically.
The literature also has much to offer about persistence and completion as it debates how closely
related secondary preparation, family characteristics
such as income and parental education, and student
characteristics are to whether and when students
complete a postsecondary credential. Understanding
how GED credential recipients compare with traditional high school graduates in remedial course taking is of great consequence. Identifying GED credential recipients’ length of enrollment, as well as degree
type, is a first step to estimating how economically
beneficial short-term postsecondary experiences are.
A number of characteristics—including nontraditional
age, parental status, full-time employment, and their
own self-expectations—could put GED credential
recipients at risk of dropping out of postsecondary
education.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
ix
In addition, postsecondary attendance rates—whether
full time or part time—may be an important indicator of persistence. Institutional characteristics, such
as institutional selectivity and available resources per
student, may also be associated with time to degree.
Recent reports about the role of open admissions,
college costs, and financial aid raise questions that could
easily apply to adult students with GED credentials.
Postsecondary Enrollment
In the second chapter we provide a comprehensive picture of who the population of 2004 GED
Tests passers are, as well as when and where they
transitioned to postsecondary education. The 2004
cohort of GED Tests passers enrolled in postsecondary education at more than twice the rate (42.8 percent) of non-passers (17.1 percent) by October 2010.
Approximately 79 percent of enrollees were between
16 and 24 years old and 14.6 percent were 25 to
34 years old. Only 6.4 percent were older than 35
years. percentage distributions for gender, ethnicity,
and primary language were similar between postsecondary enrollees and non-enrollees.
Academic characteristics contained variables of GED
Tests battery score, taking Official GED Practice
Tests, and highest education level. Enrollees had a
higher percentage of GED Tests passers (24.5 percent) who scored above the 80th percentile on the
GED Tests compared to non-enrollees (16.6 percent).
Of 2004 GED Tests passers who enrolled, 63.8 percent reported taking the Official GED Practice
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Social characteristics comprised reasons for testing and employment status. GED Tests passers who
enrolled in postsecondary education more frequently
indicated an education reason of entering a two-year
or four-year college for taking the GED Tests at time
of testing than non-enrollees. Enrollees and nonenrollees reported a similar employment status when
testing.
After identifying primary characteristics for 2004
GED Tests passers by their postsecondary enrollment status, we investigated enrollment rates for key
demographic, academic, and social status subgroups.
Female GED Tests passers had a higher enrollment
rate compared with male GED Tests passers. No significant differences in enrollment rates for 2004 GED
Tests passers occurred among ethnic groups. GED
Tests passers whose primary language was English
had similar enrollment rates to those who primarily
spoke other languages.
e x ec u t i v e s u m m a r y
Like the first-year report, the Crossing the Bridge,
Year Two report considers the spectrum of postsecondary educational outcomes of adults with GED
credentials, from passing the GED Tests through
postsecondary graduation. In general, our findings
in the second-year report were highly comparable
to the first-year report. For both the 2003 and 2004
cohorts, approximately 43 percent of adults with
GED credentials enrolled in postsecondary education; of those enrollees, 62 percent were no longer
enrolled by the final year of the study, 26 percent
were still enrolled within the period of study, and
12 percent graduated. We also recognized the importance of examining institutional settings in more
detail and comparing data on GED credential recipients with data on traditional high school graduates.
Therefore, after examining our GED Testing Service
data, we framed the remaining chapters in the context of comparing postsecondary outcomes and institutional settings by educational background.
Tests. Enrollees had a higher proportion of GED
Tests passers who completed 11th and 12th grade
(43.1 percent) than non-enrollees (36.5 percent).
The postsecondary enrollment rate decreased as
GED Tests passers’ age increased. For age, 2004
GED Tests passers between 16 and 24 years old had
the highest enrollment rate, at 46.8 percent. GED
Tests passers who were aged 35 years and older
tended to enroll least often, with an enrollment rate
of 26.7 percent. This finding was in line with other
research about participation and barriers to participation for older adults compared to younger ones
(Maralani, 2006; Reder, 2007; Tyler, 2003).
GED Tests passers’ secondary education level and
GED testing performance seemed to have a positive
relationship with their postsecondary enrollment (as
previously found in Chimka, Reed-Rhoads, & Barker,
2007; Murtaugh, Burns, & Schuster, 1999). Higher
GED Tests battery scores seemed to increase GED
Tests passers’ tendency to transition to postsecondary
education. Close to 53 percent of GED Tests passers
in the highest GED Tests scores group (above the
80th percentile) enrolled in postsecondary education, while about 38 percent of those in the lowest
scores group (below the 20th percentile) transitioned
to postsecondary education. Adult educators must
encourage GED candidates to prepare thoroughly
for the GED Tests, not simply to achieve high scores
but also to gain skills needed to demonstrate a high
level of education and preparedness for postsecondary work.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
x
More than half (53.5 percent) of 2004 GED Tests
passers who indicated “enter two-year college” and
59.7 percent who indicated “enter four-year college”
as reasons for testing later enrolled. These comparisons suggested that GED credential recipients with
the goal of enrolling in a two-year college or a fouryear college when testing were more likely to actually do so, compared with GED credential recipients
who did not state these goals. Educators need to
continue to advocate for postsecondary education for
all learners and help them understand the benefits
of getting a postsecondary credential. Adult educators need to discuss postsecondary education as an
option for incoming adult learners, encourage their
commitment to further educational goals, and help
them realize the connection between committing to
their goals and persistence to completion.
Where did GED Tests passers enroll in postsecondary education? More than three-quarters of students
(76.5 percent) who passed the GED Tests initially
enrolled in colleges that offer programs of up to
two years; 22.9 percent attended four-year institutions initially. Also, 87.3 percent of GED Tests passers enrolled in public institutions and 12.7 percent
registered at private institutions, typically in the state
where they took the GED Tests (83.3 percent).
Lastly, approximately 40 percent of GED Tests passers enrolled full time and 31.8 percent enrolled half
time for their first semester of postsecondary education. Full- or part-time enrollment status appeared
to be related to postsecondary enrollees’ persistence
(Patterson, Song, Zhang, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010;
Reder, 2007). Less than half of GED postsecondary
enrollees enrolled for full-time attendance, which
might relate, at least in part, to the low graduation
rates for GED postsecondary enrollees. Future studies need to examine details of GED Tests passers’
postsecondary education experiences, including
their financial status, credits taken each year, their
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Persistence and Graduation
In the third chapter we focus on the persistence
and postsecondary credential attainment of the
2004 cohort of GED Tests passers through October
2010. Based on total number of semesters enrolled,
we divided GED Tests passers into two groups: (1)
single-semester enrollees and (2) multiple-semester
enrollees. We reported first-semester to secondsemester and first-year to second-year retention rates.
Graduation rates were calculated as measures of
postsecondary credential attainment. We then compared graduation rates by demographic, academic,
and social subgroups to examine how individual
characteristics may play a role in postsecondary credential attainment for GED Tests passers. Moreover,
we distinguished postsecondary graduates by types
of degree.
Males tended to enroll in a single semester more
frequently, and females for multiple semesters; otherwise, single and multiple-semester enrollees were
very similar. Enrollment peaked at more than 52,200
in 2005, gradually decreased to just over 41,500
through 2006, and remained steady around 37,000
for several years, with slight increases in 2009 and
2010. Half of GED Tests passers who enrolled in
postsecondary education continued from their first
semester to the second semester without stopping
out, which indicated that the first semester may play
a key role in GED Tests passers’ persistence in postsecondary education. But about 65 percent enrolled
for only one or two semesters. The median number
of semesters enrolled was two semesters, barely long
enough to complete a short-term program.
Moreover, the first-year to second-year retention rate
was even lower, which suggested that the majority of
GED Tests passers started to have doubts about their
postsecondary education at a very early stage, and
left soon after they had a taste of postsecondary education. This finding added to previous evidence on
low retention (Duke & Ganzglass, 2007; Patterson,
Song, & Zhang, 2009; Tinto, Russo, & Kadel, 1994;
Tyler, 2003). It was unclear whether type of course
taken, counseling services, support services, or nonacademic factors played a role in low retention.
Dropouts were defined as 2004 GED Tests passers
who made a transition to postsecondary education,
but hadn’t obtained a postsecondary credential as of
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
xi
e x ec u t i v e s u m m a r y
Our data analysis showed that the decision to enroll
in postsecondary education after GED testing was
generally not immediate but tended to occur within
three years of passing the GED Tests. The median
number of months from completion of the GED
Tests through enrollment in postsecondary education
was 15, with a range of one to 80 months. Do adults
with GED credentials need additional time to prepare
emotionally, financially, or organizationally for postsecondary work? These findings indicated that allowing enough time to elapse before expecting entry
into postsecondary programs is important (Boudett,
Murnane, & Willett, 2000; Ou, 2008; Reder, 2007).
academic performance, and relationships with peers
and instructors.
October 2010 and hadn’t enrolled in 2010. We found
that 26 percent of GED postsecondary enrollees still
took courses in 2010. While nearly 12 percent of
GED Tests passers who transitioned to postsecondary
education eventually earned a postsecondary credential, the dropout rate was as high as 62 percent
for the 2004 cohort, even higher than the 25 percent first-year dropout cited in the Tinto, Russo, and
Kadel study (1994). What led to the high postsecondary dropout rate for GED credential recipients who
already displayed educational resilience by passing
the GED Tests and enrolling in postsecondary education? What barriers prevented GED Tests passers
from being successful in postsecondary education?
Did perceptions of college or themselves (Behal,
1983), low skill levels (Reder, 2007), or strong negative life experiences (Tyler & Loftstrum, 2008) influence non-persistence? Other barriers could reflect
practicalities such as full-time work, financial need,
illnesses, or family responsibilities (Reder, 2007). To
what extent the barriers they faced were dispositional, institutional, or the result of everyday situations
and circumstances (Quigley, 1997) remained unclear.
Tests scores above the 80th percentile (30 percent),
compared with non-completers (20.9 percent).
Overall, the postsecondary graduation rate was
approximately 11.6 percent.1 Of 20,299 graduates,
6.5 percent completed single-semester programs, and
93.5 percent of those who graduated did so with a
postsecondary credential after multiple semesters of
enrollment. Female GED Tests passers had a slightly
higher graduation rate (13.4 percent) than that of
male GED Tests passers (10.5 percent). The older
GED Tests passers were, the higher their graduation rates were. The oldest age group (35 years and
older) had the highest graduation rate (20 percent)
among the age groups, which was almost twice that
of the 16- to 24-year-old age group (10.5 percent).
In the final part of Chapter III, we focus on the types
of degrees earned by GED Tests passers who successfully graduated from postsecondary education.
Approximately 40 percent of all postsecondary credentials they earned were associate degrees. About
one-third of postsecondary credentials were certificates (31.7 percent) and another one-fourth were
bachelor’s degrees (26.3 percent). Approximately
62 percent of associate degree holders were female,
compared with 53.4 percent of bachelor’s degree
holders.
1
Postsecondary Institutions
The fourth chapter aims to describe the characteristics of postsecondary institutions in which 2004 GED
Tests passers first enrolled. In order to profile more
clearly the institutions that most attract GED Tests
passers, we focused our analysis on the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests
passers first enrolled (i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and compared their institutional characteristics
with the institutions where 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e., the non-GED
institutions).
National Student Clearinghouse indicated that graduation may be underreported by some postsecondary institutions. However,
only 2 percent of institutions in our dataset had more than 50 GED Tests passers as students (a number at which we could
reasonably expect at least some graduates) yet reported no graduates. Therefore, we concluded that any graduation underreporting
was likely random and limited in scope.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
xii
e x ec u t i v e s u m m a r y
GED Tests passers whose primary language was
not English had a higher graduation rate (19 percent) than those reporting English as their primary
language (11.5 percent). GED Tests passers whose
highest grade level was 12th grade were almost
twice as likely to graduate from postsecondary education as the rest of GED Tests passers. GED passers
whose scores were above the 80th percentile had
the highest graduation rate compared to GED passers in other percentile groups. Also, more GED Tests
passers among postsecondary completers had GED
These findings on dropout and graduation rates indicated a need for further analysis of graduation patterns across time and across postsecondary credential
types. Adult students who approach educational
attainment one step at a time, stepping from certificate to diploma to associate degree and beyond,
could find themselves in postsecondary education
programs for many years as they build academic
confidence. Extending their time to graduation
heightens a potential risk for GED credential recipients to drop out because of issues such as burnout,
affordability, or need for full-time employment. Do
they need more support from their institutions or
others to complete (Reder, 2007)? Do they need
more time to finish as well as more support (Bound,
Lovenheim, & Turner; 2010)? A better understanding
would benefit not only those who don’t persist, but
also the remaining one-fourth of GED Tests passers
who are still working toward a postsecondary credential and haven’t graduated yet.
We extracted data from the Integrated Postsecondary
Education Data System (NCES/IPEDS, 2005). The
data from IPEDS allowed us to describe institutional
characteristics; student characteristics, admission,
retention and graduation; and special learning opportunities and services offered in the postsecondary
institutions in which GED credential recipients first
enrolled.
In total, 175,382 2004 GED Tests passers attended
2,451 institutions between 2004 and October 2010.
Among these institutions 1,371 are four-year institutions and 1,032 are two-year institutions, which are
about half of all IPEDS four-year and two-year institutions. We also found that GED Tests passers first
enrolled in 897 GED 50-plus institutions during 2004
through 2010, which included over 89 percent of all
GED Tests passer enrollees.
Among the GED 50-plus institutions, 81.8 percent
were public two-year institutions, 11 percent were
public four-year institutions, and 4.3 percent were
for-profit four-year institutions. The average student
enrollment at the GED 50-plus institutions was 8,014,
which is significantly higher than 938, the count of
the non-GED institutions. Tuition and fees at the
GED 50-plus institutions were $3,122, which is significantly lower than $11,113, the tuition and fees
at the non-GED institutions. Given that the institutions most frequently attended by GED Tests passers
were public two-year colleges, it was not surprising
that overall average student enrollment and tuition
at GED 50-plus institutions were close to those of
public two-year colleges (7,521 students and $2,062,
respectively).
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
At GED 50-plus institutions, on average, 64.8 percent
of fall 2005 students were white, 14.1 percent were
black, and 9.9 percent were Hispanic; 58.6 percent
of the students were women. These percentages
are comparable to those of non-GED institutions.
The percentage of women students (59.9 percent)
enrolled at the GED 50-plus institutions was slightly
higher than at non-GED institutions (54.8 percent).
The percentage of undergraduates younger than 20
was higher at GED 50-plus institutions (27.8 percent
versus 18.6 percent at non-GED institutions). How
much do gender, ethnicity, and age distribution at an
institution affect the choices of a GED Tests passer
who might have a different demographic background
from the main student body?
We examined the open admissions policy and financial aid at the GED 50-plus institutions. A total of
83.7 percent of GED 50-plus institutions had open
admissions policies (versus only 43.2 percent of nonGED institutions). A smaller proportion of the students at the GED 50-plus institutions received financial aid or student loan aid, which may be the result
of lower tuition cost at these institutions
We then examined the retention rates and graduation rates at the GED 50-plus institutions and the
non-GED institutions. At GED 50-plus institutions,
the median full-time retention rate was 59 percent,
the mean part-time retention rate was 41 percent,
and the graduation rate for the most recent cohort
was 25 percent; all these percentages are lower
than those of the non-GED institutions. Except for
retention and graduation rates, we found very few
indicators of the institutions’ quality. Despite the
shorter, two-year education programs and support
services provided, the GED 50-plus institutions still
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
xiii
e x ec u t i v e s u m m a r y
A majority (83.3 percent) of the 2004 cohort of GED
Tests passers first attended a postsecondary institution in the same state where they passed the GED
Tests. Twenty-six percent of the institutions in which
the GED Tests passers first enrolled were in the
Southeast, and 16.8 percent were in the Mideast.
Geographically, the institutions in which the GED
Tests passers first enrolled were generally representative of all IPEDS institutions. Did GED Tests passers enroll in a nearby institution for convenience?
Particularly for those who prepared for the GED
Tests through a community college, would it be
logical or convenient for them to stay in the same
college for a postsecondary credential? Or may they
simply follow the pattern of postsecondary enrollees nationally to enroll in their state of residence
(Bound, Lovenheim, & Turner; 2010)?
Our findings suggest that the postsecondary institutions GED Tests passers most likely chose are large,
inexpensive, public two-year colleges. The relatively
wide availability of adult basic education programs
and of remedial services at most of these institutions may help transition the GED Tests passers into
postsecondary education. Many of these institutions
also may offer more flexibility and support, such as
distance learning opportunities and on-campus daycare, to accommodate the students’ needs, which in
turn could relate to persistence (Bound, Lovenheim,
& Turner; 2010). However, without further individual-level study on the GED Tests passers’ decisionmaking process, we cannot determine if these factors
played a key role in the GED Tests passers’ decision
when they made their first choices of postsecondary
institutions.
face challenges of retaining and graduating their students as a whole. What can be done at GED 50-plus
institutions, or public two-year colleges in general,
to help students graduate is a very important and
urgent education policy issue.
Educational Background
and Postsecondary Experiences
In the final chapter, our longitudinal comparison of
students’ backgrounds, postsecondary experiences,
and outcomes expands our insights into the GED
Tests passer population (from Chapters II and III)
and the institutions they attended (from Chapter IV).
The data were from the 2004/2006 and 2004/2009
Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal
Study, a large-scale, longitudinal study of first-year
freshmen, sponsored by the National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES). Our analyses used all
three waves of data collection, namely 2003–04 baseyear, 2005–06 first follow-up, and 2008–09 second
follow-up data.
Remedial course taking was also similar for both
groups. This finding contradicts the literature suggesting GED credential recipients need more remedial courses (CAAL, 2008; Duke & Ganzglass, 2007;
Wirt et al., 2004) and deserves further study. The
outcomes of developmental instruction for both
groups should also receive further investigation. Are
first-year retention rates and graduation rates comparable when both educational background groups
received remedial education? Does it take longer for
students (from either group) who receive remedial
instruction to graduate (Chimka, Reed-Rhoads, &
Barker, 2007; Duke & Ganzglass, 2007; Reder, 2007;
Wirt et al., 2004)?
Differences among the two groups included age,
parents’ highest level of education, employment status
while enrolled, time to enrollment, risk index, and
amount of financial aid. GED credential recipients’
parents had a lower level of education than parents
2
Among all postsecondary enrollees who waited at
least one year to enroll in postsecondary education,
traditional high school graduates tended to wait longer to enroll than GED Tests passers did. This finding might be indicative of the role of the GED credential as a gateway to further education, as reflected
on passer-reported statistics on reasons for taking the
GED Tests.2
GED credential recipients tended to have moderate
to high degree expectations for themselves, though
lower than those of traditional high school graduates; more than three-fifths of GED Tests passers in
2003–04 ultimately expected a bachelor’s or master’s
degree. GED Tests passers’ somewhat lower expectations may be linked to the lower educational attainment of their parents. Another explanation could
be the fact that a substantial portion of credential
recipients are working and are slightly older. They
may expect to further their education but cannot
afford to stay in school for long, therefore choosing
a shorter route to advance their skills for the labor
market. Alternatively, psychological attributes, such
as comfort level with postsecondary studies, self-efficacy, locus of control, or self-confidence, could also
contribute to educational expectations. Becoming
academically confident may require setting a series
of educational goals—do GED credential recipients
tend to set final educational expectations from the
beginning?
Consistent with findings in Chapter IV, the institutions GED credential recipients selected were most
often two-year schools and institutions with lower
tuition and fees than the schools traditional high
school graduates chose. Postsecondary tuition and
fees seemed to be a core concern. The fact that
GED Tests passers received about 20 percent less in
financial aid for their first-year studies than traditional
high school graduates did is concerning and should
be further investigated in future studies. Was this difference due to a lack of GED Tests passers’ familiarity with navigating the postsecondary system and a
lack of support services to help them find their way?
Did GED Tests passers tend to receive less financial
GED Testing Service. (2010). 2009 GED testing program statistical report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
xiv
e x ec u t i v e s u m m a r y
We found that GED credential recipients were similar
to traditional high school graduates in gender and
ethnic group. Similar proportions of students attended postsecondary education full time and attended
a single institution, regardless of educational background. Of postsecondary students who left, both
groups most frequently cited personal reasons for
leaving.
of traditional high school graduates did. GED credential recipients tended to be older, be more often
employed full time, and receive less financial aid than
traditional high school graduates. GED Tests passers
appeared to be generally exposed to a higher number
of risk factors during their first year of enrollment than
traditional high school graduates were.
aid because they tended to enroll in larger, less
expensive institutions? Were they cautious about taking on college debt, given their age and employment
status?
Results on persistence and postsecondary credential
attainment showed that while more than a third of
GED Tests passers expected—or wanted—to receive
a bachelor’s degree when they first enrolled, those
who graduated five academic years later ended up
with a postsecondary certificate instead. The traditional high school graduates, on the other hand,
seemed to follow their self-predicted bachelor’s
degree path. Another troubling finding was that
about half of GED Tests passers who had enrolled in
2003–04 neither had a postsecondary credential nor
were enrolled in postsecondary education as of June
2009, in contrast to about 35 percent of students
from the traditional high school graduates group
who had neither earned a credential nor were still
enrolled by that time. Would increasing the time to
degree help identify more postsecondary graduates,
keeping in mind that longer enrollment could be a
double-edged sword—the positive side being more
time to finish successfully, and the negative side
being the increased risks to motivation that accompany lengthier enrollments? More attention and further
studies should focus on this population of GED Tests
passers who exit postsecondary education with no
credential. Do these students eventually come back?
Were there personal or academic signals that should
have functioned as red flags early on and could have
been acted upon?
e x ec u t i v e s u m m a r y
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
xv
chapter I
Crossing the Bridge
Introduction
D
o adults without a high school diploma
pursue postsecondary education? The
presence of nearly 40 million U.S. adults
aged 16 and older without a high school
credential (American Council on Education
[ACE], 2010) indicates that traditionally many have
not. However, more than 18 million GED credentials
have been awarded in the more than 65 years of
the GED testing program. Moreover, before testing,
a majority of adults who later passed the GED Tests
(65.1 percent in 2009; ACE, 2010) indicated further
education as a reason for testing, and 42.9 percent of the 2003 population of GED Tests passers 3
enrolled in postsecondary education by October 2009
(Patterson, Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010).
The GED credential is now a significant gateway to
postsecondary education (Reder, 2007) in America.
While the United States continues to recover from
an economic recession, the need for adults to be
prepared for family-sustaining careers, and the need
for employers to have employees with postsecondary education–level skills, is acute for national economic recovery as well as for success of individuals
and employers (Council for Advancement of Adult
Literacy [CAAL], 2008; Reder, 2007 and 2010; SREB,
2010). To gain those skills, adults can no longer end
their educational experiences with a secondary credential (or less). Tyler and Lofstrum (2010) called
3
Data on postsecondary experiences of GED credential recipients are key to ACE’s planning of the GED
21st Century Initiative. Continuing a multiyear study
of the effect of the GED credential on postsecondary
enrollment, persistence, and completion, this report
presents the second-year findings for the 2004 population of GED test-takers—particularly GED Tests
passers—and is designed to add to the evidence
base.
Like the first-year report, this Crossing the Bridge,
Year Two report considers the spectrum of postsecondary educational outcomes of adults with GED
credentials, from passing the GED Tests through
postsecondary graduation. We also recognize the
importance of examining the institutional settings in
more detail and comparing data on GED credential
recipients with data on traditional high school graduates. Therefore, after examining our GED Testing
Service data, we are framing the remaining chapters
in the context of comparing postsecondary outcomes
and institutional settings by educational background.
In short, the additional information in this secondyear report focuses on results of postsecondary
enrollees, within institutional settings, and by educational background.
We begin the report with a literature review in
Chapter I. Chapter II presents results on postsecondary enrollment, followed by persistence and graduation in Chapter III, from the 2004 cohort of GED
test-takers. In addition to looking at 2004 cohort
data, the report presents findings on the postsecondary institutions GED credential recipients attended
(Chapter IV) and compares postsecondary outcomes
of GED credential recipients with those of traditional
high school graduates (Chapter V).
The terms GED credential recipient, GED passer, and GED Tests passer are used interchangeably in this report.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
1
c h ap t e r I
In order to reach more of the nearly 40 million
adults without a high school credential, and to
encourage those with GED credentials to continue
their education, the American Council on Education
is launching the GED 21st Century Initiative. This
scalable initiative has three key components: (1) a
national preparation program based on a multi-platform, accelerated approach; (2) a new GED assessment aligned with Common Core national standards
and that certifies high school equivalency as well
as career and college readiness; and (3) a postcredential transition network for successful transition
to postsecondary education and career opportunities
(Patterson, Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010).
for further research to “potentially increase the postsecondary education levels of students [with GED
credentials] who are currently at the mercy of an
economy that offers few routes to economic stability
and self-sufficiency for those lacking any postsecondary education” (p. 824).
The purpose of this report is to describe which
adults with GED credentials pursued postsecondary
education, when and where they enrolled, and how
they persisted in the context of results for individuals, within institutional settings, and by educational
background. For Crossing the Bridge, Year Two—as
for the Year One report—we are opting to focus on
describing and reporting basic information. Multiple
follow-up studies providing a more in-depth look
into these topics are planned throughout 2011.
Literature Review
Postsecondary students with GED credentials may
also be considered nontraditional adult learners.
According to National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES) data, less than 10 percent of beginning postsecondary students in 2003–04 had GED credentials
(Berkner & Choy, 2008). However, this study did not
estimate the total count of postsecondary students
with GED credentials, and it remains unclear what
the total percentage of postsecondary students with
GED credentials is among all enrollees.
The GED credential offers an advantage relative to
postsecondary enrollment that high school noncompleters without a credential lack. Berktold, Geis,
and Kaufman (1998) disclosed that dropouts who
later completed either high school or the GED credential were three times more likely than dropouts
earning no credentials to enroll in postsecondary
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
In 2004, 55.7 percent of U.S. high school graduates
went directly to college. In 2005, 53.3 percent of
two-year postsecondary enrollees and 75.8 percent
of four-year postsecondary enrollees returned for a
second year of college (NCHEMS, 2009). Individuals
with GED credentials need sufficient time after testing to make the decision and prepare to enroll
in postsecondary programs (Boudett, Murnane, &
Willett, 2000; Reder, 2007) and may delay enrollment
(Ou, 2008). Three-tenths of the 2003 cohort of GED
Tests passers enrolled by the end of 2003, and twothirds of GED Tests passers enrolled for at least two
semesters (Patterson, Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy,
2010). How quickly did adult students with GED
credentials from the 2004 cohort enter postsecondary education, and what were their rates of retention,
after either one semester or one year?
Enrollment of GED Tests passers in postsecondary education may vary demographically, in terms
of age, gender, ethnicity, and other characteristics.
In the 2003 cohort of GED Tests passers, younger
adults with GED credentials tended to enroll in
postsecondary education more often, and females
entered postsecondary education more frequently
than males, particularly two-year colleges (Patterson,
Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010). Almeida,
Johnson, and Steinberg (2006), using 1988 data
from the National Education Longitudinal Study
(NELS), reported that African-American dropouts
who later earned credentials had significantly lower
postsecondary enrollment rates than their white
and Hispanic counterparts. They found that only
one-third of African-American dropouts with a high
school credential participated in postsecondary education programs, while half of white and Hispanic
dropouts who later earned credentials enrolled in
college. After comparing ethnic composition by educational background in 2003 National Assessment
of Adult Literacy (NAAL) data, Reder (2007) saw the
GED credential functioning as a potential “gateway”
(p. 8) to postsecondary education, and noted cultural
and language nuances of educational background as
important. Ethnicity was not a predictor of 2003 GED
Tests passer postsecondary enrollment or graduation in survival analyses (Patterson, Zhang, Song, &
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
2
c h ap t e r I
Postsecondary Enrollment
A sizable proportion of nontraditional adult students enrolls in postsecondary education and frequently attends two-year colleges (Lakin, Mullane, &
Robinson, 2008; NCHEMS, 2009; Patterson, Zhang,
Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010; Reder, 2007). A traditional postsecondary student in the United States is
considered an adult participating full time in postsecondary education who began college shortly after
earning a traditional high school diploma and maintained continuous enrollment through graduation
from a postsecondary program. One way to define a
nontraditional adult student is by age, that is, adults
older than the traditional 18- to 24-year-old college
student (Ryu, 2010). In 2005, 39 percent of college
students were 25 years or older (Lakin, Mullane, &
Robinson, 2008), and 19 percent of 25- to 39-year-old
adults with a high school credential were enrolled as
college students (NCHEMS, 2009). However, Maralani
(2006) found that older adults had a lower participation rate for postsecondary education than younger
adults did.
education programs. Tyler and Lofstrum (2008)
pointed out that non-GED Tests passers may enroll
at lower rates because without open-admissions
policies, they would be barred from enrolling—
which casts a positive relationship between obtaining
a GED credential and transitioning to postsecondary
education.
Guison-Dowdy, 2010)—in the 2004 cohort, would
ethnicity relate to enrollment and graduation?
Postsecondary enrollment may vary geographically,
and its lack is keenly felt in regions of the United
States that are struggling economically as well as
educationally (SREB, 2010). Bound, Lovenheim,
and Turner (2010) noted that 85 percent of college
students enrolled in the state where they reside.
Similarly, 83 percent of adults in the 2003 cohort of
GED Tests passers enrolled in postsecondary education in the state where they passed the GED Tests
(Patterson, Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010).
Would the majority of GED Tests passers from the
2004 cohort enroll in institutions in their state of residence as well?
Students who are inadequately prepared at the secondary level, regardless of educational background,
tend to need remedial coursework. A need for remedial education not only lengthens the time needed in
postsecondary education but can also impact whether an adult student even completes a postsecondary
credential, regardless of degree type (Chimka, ReedRhoads, & Barker, 2007; Duke & Ganzglass, 2007;
Reder, 2007; Wirt, et al., 2004). How extensively do
adults with GED credentials require remedial education (CAAL, 2008; Duke & Ganzglass, 2007)? A substantial percentage of adult students who attended
public two-year colleges, regardless of educational
background, took remedial coursework at the turn
of the 21st century (Wirt, et al., 2004). Understanding
how GED credential recipients, who most frequently
attend public two-year institutions (Patterson, Zhang,
Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010), compare with traditional high school graduates in remedial course taking, both at the individual and institutional levels, is
of great consequence.
Does a cru­cial initial time period determine college
student retention? Researchers also found that few
postsecondary enrollees with GED credentials complete the first year of post­secondary education (Duke
& Ganzglass, 2007; Patterson, Song, & Zhang, 2009;
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
A short-term certificate program or a single year in
another type of postsecondary program may benefit students. Bloom (2010) pointed to research that
indicated a substantial increase in earnings for adults
earning an occupational certificate, in contrast to
adult students dropping out of college with no postsecondary credential. Kane and Rouse (1995) found
that completing a single year of college credits significantly increased hourly wages and annual earnings by 4 to 7 percent. Murnane, Willett, and Boudett
(1999) confirmed that earnings that were received
after an additional year of college increased in the
range of 5.2 to 10.8 percent. Understanding length of
enrollment as well as degree type of GED credential
recipients is a first step to estimating how economically
beneficial short-term postsecondary experiences are.
Other researchers found that demographic and
academic achieve­ment variables are related to college students’ retention (Chimka, Reed-Rhoads, &
Barker, 2007; Murtaugh, Burns, & Schuster, 1999). A
number of characteristics—including nontraditional
age, parental status, full-time employment, and their
own self-expectations—could put adults with GED
credentials at risk of dropping out (Reder, 2007).
Postsecondary attendance rate, whether full time or
part time, may be an important indicator of persistence for adults with GED credentials (Patterson,
Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010; Reder, 2007).
c h ap t e r I
Postsecondary Persistence
The literature debates how closely related secondary preparation, family characteristics such as income
and parental education, and student characteristics
are to whether and when students complete a postsecondary credential (Bound, Lovenheim, & Turner;
2010; Chimka, Reed-Rhoads, & Barker, 2007; Horn,
2006; Murtaugh, Burns, & Schuster, 1999; Reder,
2007; Tinto, Russo, & Kadel, 1994).
Tyler, 2003). In addition, Tinto, Russo, and Kadel
(1994) reported that 25 percent of college students
overall dropped out of school after their first year.
Institutional characteristics, such as institutional
selectivity and available resources per student, may
also be associated with time to degree, according to
Bound, Lovenheim, & Turner (2010). Their recent
report raises questions that could easily apply to adult
students with GED credentials, relevant to the role
of open admissions, college costs (Patterson, Zhang,
Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010), and financial aid.
Postsecondary Graduation
In our Crossing the Bridge, Year One report we noted
a low graduation rate (nearly 12 percent) for postsecondary students within a seven-year time period after
they passed the GED Tests. The report raised the
point that many adult students with GED credentials
may not have graduated yet, even though by design
the study allowed seven years to elapse for each
annual cohort (Patterson, Zhang, Song, & GuisonDowdy, 2010). Time to graduation, also known as
time to degree, for beginning students from any
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
3
educational background has gradually increased,
particularly for public two-year institutions (Bound,
Lovenheim, & Turner, 2010). Since the Student Rightto-Know (SRTK) Act was enacted in 1990, NCES
studies of college graduation rates have allowed six
years for a student to attain a four-year degree, or
completion within 150 percent of expected time to
degree (Horn, 2006 and 2010; NPEC, 2010). Using
the 150 percent expectation for time to degree, the
2008 U.S. four-year (bachelor’s degree) college graduation rate was 54.7 percent and the two-year (associate degree) college graduation rate was 22 percent
(Horn, 2010). Differing graduation rates were reported by gender and ethnicity (NPEC, 2010).
Other researchers have found that various barriers
prevented GED Tests passers from being successful in postsecondary education. These barriers may
include: a perception that college is too difficult or
not for everyone (Behal, 1983), a lack of skills to
succeed in college (Reder, 2007), or strong negative life experiences that interfere with persistence
or prevent completion (Tyler & Lofstrum, 2008).
Other barriers could reflect practicalities such as fulltime work, financial need, or family responsibilities
(Reder, 2007; Tyler, 2003).
Summary
Our review of the literature assisted us in determining the focus for the study as well as its methodology. Adults with GED credentials represent a small
but substantial proportion of nontraditional adult
students. The GED credential offers an advantage
relative to postsecondary enrollment that high school
non-completers without a credential lack. The need
for sufficient time after testing for individuals with
GED credentials to enroll in postsecondary programs must be acknowledged in any consideration
of enrollment time periods and retention rates.
Enrollment of GED Tests passers in postsecondary
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
The literature has much to offer about persistence
and completion as it debates how closely related
secondary preparation, family characteristics such as
income and parental education, and student characteristics are to whether and when postsecondary
students complete a credential. Understanding how
GED credential recipients compare with traditional
high school graduates in remedial course taking is of
great consequence. Identifying length of enrollment,
as well as degree type, of GED credential recipients
is a first step to estimating how economically beneficial short-term postsecondary experiences are. A
number of characteristics—including nontraditional
age, parental status, full-time employment, and selfexpectations—could put adults with GED credentials
at risk of dropping out of college. Postsecondary
attendance rates, whether full time or part time,
may also be an important indicator of persistence.
Institutional characteristics, such as institutional selectivity and available resources per student, may also
be associated with time to degree.
METHODOLOGY
Data
In this Crossing the Bridge, Year Two report we
examine postsecondary outcomes of U.S. GED Tests
candidates from the second cohort during the 2004
calendar year, as we did with the first cohort from
2003. The 2004 cohort of candidates includes all
examinees who took the GED Tests in 2004, regardless of whether they completed the GED Tests—that
is, they may have started in 2004 and completed in
a later year. The 2004 cohort includes adults who
passed the GED Tests in 2004 in the United States
(GED Tests passers) as well as adults who tested but
did not pass the GED Tests in 2004 or in later years
(non-passers). In addition, we define subgroups
reflecting key demographic groups for further analysis. Our analysis of postsecondary outcomes focuses
on enrollment, persistence, and postsecondary credential completion.
We matched 2004 data on 575,061 adults from
the GED Testing Service International Database
(IDB) with post­secondary enrollment and completion records as of October 2010 from the National
Student Clearinghouse (NSC), a nonprofit organization estab­lished in the early 1990s to serve the higher
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
4
c h ap t e r I
Allowing twice as much time to elapse for completion of a postsecondary credential as the expected
traditional program length—such as four years for
an associate degree or eight years for a bachelor’s
degree—is becoming normal, following passage of
the 2008 Higher Education Opportunity Act (Horn,
2010). Beginning in 2009–10, data have been collected on degree completion within 200 percent of
expected time (Horn, 2010; NPEC, 2010). Using the
200 percent rate, the 2008 U.S. four-year (bachelor’s
degree) college graduation rate was 58.3 percent and
the two-year (associate degree) college graduation
rate was 28.4 percent.
education may vary demographically, in terms of
age, gender, ethnicity, and other characteristics. GED
Tests passers in different geographical areas may
enroll at different rates.
educa­tion community. NSC serves as a repository for
data from approximately 3,300 postsecondary institutions and holds records for 92 percent of the total
postsecondary student enrollment in the nation.
Using IDB and NSC data, we matched 203,623 adults
who enrolled in postsecondary programs between
2004 and October 2010. Of the 409,444 GED Tests
passers, 175,382 were matched as postsecondary
enrollees.
Analyses
We conducted descriptive analyses, comparisons with
institutional data from the Integrated Postsecondary
Education Data System (IPEDS), an institutional
postsecondary database from the National Center for
Educational Statistics (NCES/IPEDS, 2004), and comparisons with traditional high school graduate data
from the national Beginning Postsecondary Students
Longitudinal Study (NCES/BPS, 2004).
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Our data source for comparisons by educational
background was the NCES Beginning Postsecondary
Students Longitudinal Study (BPS). We used data
from BPS (NCES/BPS, 2004) to generate specific
cross-tabulated reports. We employed these data to
make descriptive comparisons by educational background. Additional information about data sources,
research questions, and our methodology is provided in more detail in individual chapters. For further explanation of our methodology, the reader is
referred to the Crossing the Bridge, Year One report,
available in PDF at www.GEDtest.org.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
c h ap t e r I
Because research indicates that most GED candidates
enter two-year (or shorter) postsecondary programs,
we believed that six full calendar years was sufficient time to examine enrollment and persistence
rates in programs of up to two years. For example, a
2004 GED Tests candidate whose data we analyzed
in 2010 might enroll in a postsecondary program
between 2004 and October 2010.
We also included data from IPEDS (NCES/IPEDS,
2004) in our study to explain institutional charac­
teristics and services in the postsecondary institutions
that GED Tests passers attended. These data come
from “a system of interrelated surveys conducted
annually by the U.S. Department’s National Center
for Education Statistics (NCES). IPEDS gathers infor­
mation from every college, university, and technical
and vocational institution that participates in the fed­
eral student financial aid programs. IPEDS provides
basic data needed to describe—and analyze trends
in—postsecondary education in the United States
in terms of the numbers of students enrolled, staff
employed, dollars expended, and degrees earned”
(NCES/IPEDS, 2004).
5
chapter II
Transitions to Postsecondary Education
M
ore than 400,000 high school dropouts
complete their secondary education
by passing the GED Tests each year.
Without any doubt, many of the thousands of GED Tests passers have both
ability and aspiration for a postsecondary education.
How did GED Tests passers’ journeys from GED credential to postsecondary education go? Did they pursue their educational dreams after GED testing? GED
Testing Service published a first-year report from a
longitudinal study of GED credential recipients and
their postsecondary education outcomes (Patterson,
Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010), which reported on the 2003 cohort of GED Tests passers’ transitions to postsecondary education. Following that initial report, this second-year study provides a national
snapshot of 2004 GED Tests passers’ transitions to
postsecondary education.
The chapter is composed of four major sections:
1. What are the percentages of the 2004 cohort of
GED Tests passers and non-passers who enrolled
in postsecondary education?
2. Who transitioned to postsecondary education?
Within this section, we describe demographic,
academic, and social characteristics of 2004 GED
Tests passers who enrolled in postsecondary
education. Furthermore, we explore how postsecondary education enrollment rates for GED Tests
passers varied by key demographic, academic,
and social variables.
c h ap t e r II
The major purpose of this chapter is to present an
overview of the 2004 cohort of GED Tests passers’
transitions to postsecondary education, through basic
descriptive statistics. It provides a comprehensive
picture of who, when, and where the 2004 GED
Tests passers transitioned to postsecondary education, as a reference tool for policy makers, adult
educators, and GED testing centers that are interested in detailed information on GED Tests passers’
postsecondary education experience in the United
States.
3. When did 2004 GED Tests passers transition to
postsecondary education after GED testing?
4. Where did 2004 GED Tests passers enroll in postsecondary education? In addition, we report the
Key Findings for Chapter II:
• The 2004 cohort included 575,061 GED Tests
candidates.
• GED Tests passers from the 2004 cohort enrolled in
postsecondary education at more than twice the rate
(42.8 percent) of non-passers (17.1 percent), which
replicated results for the 2003 cohort.
• A GED credential may provide an important bridge for
dropouts to access postsecondary education.
• African-American and Hispanic GED Tests passers
were no less likely to enroll in postsecondary education
than were white GED Tests passers.
• The postsecondary enrollment rate decreased as GED
Tests passers’ age increased.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
• Higher GED Tests battery scores seemed to relate
positively to GED Tests passers’ tendency to transition
to postsecondary education.
• GED Tests passers’ stated goal at the time of GED
testing might be a good indicator of whether they
would enroll in postsecondary education after passing
the GED Tests.
• More than two-thirds of 2004 GED Tests passers who
enrolled in a postsecondary institution did so within the
first three years after passing the GED Tests.
• Approximately 40 percent enrolled for full-time attendance and 31.8 percent for half-time attendance for
their first semester of postsecondary education. The
attendance status at enrollment seems related to postsecondary enrollees’ later successes.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
6
tABle 2.1
postsecondary enrollment Status of the 2004 cohort of
GeD ® tests passers and Non-passers (2004–10)
total 2004
cohort GeD
tests passers
and Nonpassers
Number
2004 cohort
GeD tests
passers
2004 cohort
GeD tests
Non-passers
selected the demographic characteristics of gender,
ethnicity, age group, primary language, and years
out of school. Academic characteristics related to the
variables of GED Tests battery score, whether individuals took Official GED Practice Tests, and highest
education level. Social characteristics were variables
of educational and employment reasons for testing
and employment status.
Number percent Number percent
postsecondary
enrollees
Non-enrollees
203,623
175,382
42.8
28,241
17.1
371,438
234,062
57.2
137,376
83.0
Overall
575,061
409,444
100.0
165,617
100.0
2004 cohort’s initial enrollment status and types of
institutions they attended for the first semester.
POSTSECONDARY ENROLLMENT OF GED TESTS
PASSERS AND NON-PASSERS
The 2004 cohort includes 575,061 GED Tests candidates, with 71.2 percent GED Tests passers and
28.8 percent non-passers.4
The emphasis of this report is on postsecondary outcomes of GED credential recipients. Therefore, the
remaining sections of Chapter II focus on GED credential recipients’ transitions to postsecondary education. GED non-passers who enrolled in postsecondary education were excluded from analysis.
WHO TRANSITIONED TO POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION?
The percentages of male (50.8 percent) and female
(49.2 percent) GED Tests passers were about the
same for 2004 enrollees. In comparison, non-enrollees were more frequently male (62.5 percent) than
female (37.5 percent).
For median age, 2004 enrollees were just one year
younger (20 years old) than non-enrollees (21 years
old). However, differences of distributions of age
groups between 2004 enrollees and non-enrollees
appeared, as shown in Table 2.2. Approximately
79 percent of enrollees were between 16 and 24
years old, and 14.6 percent were 25 to 34 years old.
Only 6.4 percent were older than 35 years. For nonenrollees, 67.4 percent were 16 to 24 years old and
13.1 percent were older than 35 years.
c h ap t e r II
Table 2.1 compares postsecondary enrollment percentages of GED Tests passers with those of GED
Tests non-passers. As shown in the table, the 2004
cohort of GED Tests passers enrolled in postsecondary education at more than twice the rate (42.8 percent) of non-passers (17.1 percent), which was consistent with the 2003 cohort (Patterson, Zhang, Song,
& Guison-Dowdy, 2010).
Demographic Characteristics
Table 2.2 (on page 8) presents demographic characteristics for 2004 GED Tests passers by their postsecondary enrollment status.
In keeping with the median age, 2004 enrollees
tended to have left school more recently than nonenrollees did. The median number of years since
leaving K–12 was two and four years for enrollees
and non-enrollees, respectively.
As shown in Table 2.2, the distributions for ethnicity and primary language were similar between
postsecondary enrollees and non-enrollees. White
was the largest ethnic group for both enrollees and
non-enrollees. Adults whose primary language was
English represented about 94 percent of both groups.
Characteristics of GED Tests Passers Who
Enrolled in Postsecondary Education
About 43 percent of 2004 GED Tests passers enrolled
in postsecondary education (and 57 percent did
not) by October 2010. Were there any major differences in terms of demographic, social, and academic
characteristics between those who enrolled and did
not enroll in postsecondary education? This study
4
GED Tests non-passers here refers to those who had not passed the GED Tests in 2004. Some of them may have passed the
GED Tests through retesting from 2005 to 2010.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
7
tABle 2.2
Demographic characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers Who enrolled and Did Not enroll in postsecondary
education
2004 cohort GeD tests passers
Who enrolled (N=175,382)
Demographic characteristics
Number
Gender:
Male
Female
age Group (in 2004):
16–24 Years Old
25–34 Years Old
35 Years and Older
age in 2004 (Median)
ethnic Group:
Hispanic
African American
White
American Indian/Alaska Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
primary Language:
English
Language Other Than English
Years Since Leaving K–12 System (Median)
Notes:
Missing
Missing
Missing
Missing
n
n
n
n
for
for
for
for
percent
2004 cohort GeD tests passers
Who Did Not enroll (N=234,062)
Number
percent
86,128
83,393
50.8
49.2
140,646
84,299
62.5
37.5
138,470
25,619
11,153
20 years old
79.0
14.6
6.4
157,440
45,582
30,666
21 years old
67.4
19.5
13.1
28,375
27,677
95,521
3,508
3,552
1,103
17.8
17.3
59.8
2.2
2.2
0.7
42,089
30,783
130,146
6,121
2,473
1,407
19.8
14.5
61.1
2.9
1.2
0.7
140,294
8,087
2 years
94.6
5.5
184,580
13,189
4 years
93.3
6.7
gender=14,978.
ethnic group=36,654.
primary language=63,294.
age group=514.
c h ap t e r II
Academic Characteristics
Table 2.3 exhibits basic academic characteristics,
including highest grade completed, taking Official
GED Practice Tests, and GED Tests performance.
Enrollees had a higher proportion of GED Tests passers who completed 11th and 12th grade (43.1 percent) compared with non-enrollees (36.5 percent).
Fewer 2004 GED Tests passers who transitioned to
postsecondary education (63.8 percent) reported taking the Official GED Practice Tests compared with
non-enrollees (70.2 percent).
GED Tests average battery scores were divided
into quintile groups to compare enrollees’ and
non-enrollees’ GED Tests performance. A quintile
group is defined as a subset of adjacent scores in
tABle 2.3
academic characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers Who enrolled and Did Not enroll in postsecondary
education
academic characteristics
highest Grade completed:
8th Grade (or below)
9th Grade
10th Grade
11th Grade
12th Grade
took the Official GeD practice tests
GeD tests Battery Mean Score:
Below 20th Percentile (450–480)
20–40th Percentile (481–510)
40–60th Percentile (511–542)
60–80th Percentile (543–586)
Above 80th Percentile (587–800)
2004 cohort GeD tests passers
Who enrolled (N=175,382)
Number
percent
2004 cohort GeD tests passers
Who Did Not enroll (N=234,062)
Number
percent
12,783
24,392
44,429
57,852
17,666
97,322
8.1
13.9
25.3
33.0
10.1
63.8
23,688
40,124
60,506
69,034
16,369
143,860
11.3
17.1
25.9
29.5
7.0
70.2
32,131
31,948
32,780
35,570
42,953
18.3
18.2
18.7
20.3
24.5
53,073
50,529
47,163
44,417
38,880
22.7
21.6
20.2
19.0
16.6
Notes:
Missing n for taking the Official GED Practice Tests=51,851.
Missing n for highest grade completed=42,621.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
8
tABle 2.4
Social characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers Who enrolled and Who Did Not enroll in postsecondary
education
Social characteristics
reasons for GeD testing:1
Enroll in Trade/Technical College
Enter Two-year College
Enter Four-year College
Skills Certification
Get First Job
Get Better Job
Employer Requirement
Public Assistance Requirement
Role Model for Family
Personal Satisfaction
employment/Student Status at GeD testing:
Employed Part-time
Employed Full-time
Unemployed
Full-time Student
Part-time Student
1
2004 cohort GeD tests passers
Who enrolled (N=175,382)
2004 cohort GeD tests passers
Who Did Not enroll (N=234,062)
Number
percent
Number
percent
28,864
54,058
45,113
11,546
10,017
53,310
10,350
2,178
27,660
75,046
16.5
30.8
25.7
6.6
5.7
30.4
5.9
1.2
15.8
42.8
45,048
47,035
30,451
18,570
15,090
84,101
18,887
2,864
44,417
115,527
19.3
20.1
13.0
7.9
6.5
35.9
8.1
1.2
19.0
49.4
23,440
40,566
50,843
19,207
14,816
13.4
23.1
29.0
11.0
8.5
23,405
53,741
67,084
24,127
19,060
10.0
23.0
28.7
10.3
8.1
Reasons for testing were not mutually exclusive; GED Tests candidates could select more than one educational reason.
Social Characteristics
We examined how enrollees were distinguished
from non-enrollees in terms of social characteristics
through their reported reasons for GED testing and
employment status at GED testing. As shown in
Table 2.4, 2004 GED Tests passers who enrolled in
postsecondary education more frequently indicated
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
an educational reason for testing (that is, entering a
two-year or four-year college) than non-enrollees.
Enrollees and non-enrollees reported similar employment status—unemployed or employed part time or
full time—at the time of testing.
Postsecondary Enrollment Rates by
Characteristics of GED Tests Passers
Our analysis of 2004 GED Tests passers showed that
there were no major differences between enrollees
and non-enrollees in terms of demographic, academic, and social characteristics. The distribution for
many variables displayed similar patterns for enrollees and non-enrollees.
After exploring primary characteristics for 2004 GED
Tests passers by their postsecondary enrollment status, we proceeded to investigate enrollment rates
disaggregated by demographic, academic, and social
status.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
9
c h ap t e r II
a distribution representing 20 percent of a sample
or a population. A quintile score is a raw score
corresponding to the 20th, 40th, 60th, or 80th percentile score. For 2004 GED Tests passers, quintile
scores of 480, 510, 542, and 586 represented the
20th, 40th, 60th, and 80th percentile GED Tests
scores, which ranged from 450 to 800. According
to Table 2.3, enrollees had a higher percentage of
GED Tests passers who scored above the 80th percentile (24.5 percent) compared to non-enrollees
(16.6 percent).
figuRe 2.1
postsecondary education enrollment rates of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Demographic characteristic
Age Group
Gender
FIGURE 2.1
38.0%
Male
49.7%
Female
46.8%
16–24 Years Old
25–34 Years Old
36.0%
35 Years and Older
26.7%
Primary
Language
Ethnic Group
Hispanic
40.3%
African American
47.3%
White
American Indian/
Alaska Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian/
Pacific Islander
English
Language Other
Than English
42.3%
36.4%
59.0%
43.9%
43.2%
38.0%
0
20
30
Percent
40
50
60
70
(N=409,444)
n
n
n
n
for
for
for
for
gender=14,978.
age group=514.
ethnic group=36,654.
primary language=63,294.
Postsecondary Education Enrollment
Rates by Demographic Status
Overall, 42.8 percent of the 2004 GED Tests passers
enrolled in postsecondary education by October 2010.
Figure 2.1 displays enrollment rates by gender, age
group, ethnicity, and primary language.
Female GED Tests passers (49.7 percent) had a higher
enrollment rate compared to their male counterparts
(38 percent). No significant differences in enrollment
rates for 2004 GED Tests passers occurred among ethnic groups, with the exception of Asians (59 percent),
who had a higher rate of enrollment than other ethnic
groups. Contrary to the findings of Almeida, Johnson,
and Steinberg (2006), our data indicated that AfricanAmerican and Hispanic GED Tests passers were no
less likely to enroll in postsecondary education than
whites. In fact, African-American GED Tests passers
(47.3 percent) had a higher enrollment rate compared
with Hispanic (40.3 percent) and white GED Tests
passers (42.3 percent), as shown in Figure 2.1.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
c h ap t e r II
Notes:
Missing
Missing
Missing
Missing
10
The enrollment rate decreased as GED Tests passers’
age increased. 2004 GED Tests passers between 16
and 24 years old had the highest enrollment rate, at
46.8 percent, compared with all other age groups.
The least likely to enroll in postsecondary education
were GED Tests passers aged 35 and older, with an
enrollment rate of 26.7 percent.
Based on primary language status, GED Tests passers
whose primary language was English had a similar
enrollment rate to those who primarily spoke other
languages.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
10
figuRe 2.2
postsecondary education enrollment rates of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by academic characteristic
FIGURE 2.2
GED Tests
Battery Score
Official GED
Practice
Tests (OPT)
Highest
Grade
Completed
8th Grade
(or below)
39.3%
37.8%
9th Grade
42.3%
10th Grade
45.6%
11th Grade
51.9%
12th Grade
40.4%
Took OPT
Below 20th Percentile
(450–480)
20–40th Percentile
(481–510)
40–60th Percentile
(511–542)
60–80th Percentile
(543–586)
Above 80th Percentile
(587–800)
37.7%
38.7%
41.0%
44.5%
52.5%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Percent
(N=409,444)
Postsecondary Education Enrollment
Rates by Academic Status
GED Tests passers who obtained a higher level of
secondary education were more likely to enroll in
postsecondary education, as shown in Figure 2.2.
The enrollment rate for GED Tests passers who completed 12th grade was 51.9 percent. In contrast, less
than 40 percent of GED Tests passers whose highest
education level was below 9th grade transitioned to
postsecondary education after passing the GED Tests.
Approximately 40 percent of GED Tests passers who
took Official GED Practice Tests enrolled in postsecondary education.
The higher the scores group of GED Tests passers
was, the higher the enrollment rate would be. Close
to 53 percent of GED Tests passers in the highest
GED Tests scores group (above the 80th percentile
group) enrolled in postsecondary education, while
about 38 percent of those in the lowest scores group
(below the 20th percentile group) transitioned to
postsecondary education.
they follow through and actually pursue their educational goals after earning the credential. More than
half (53.5 percent) of 2004 GED Tests passers who
indicated “enter two-year college” and 59.7 percent
who indicated “enter four-year college” as reasons
for testing later enrolled; these rates were much
higher than the approximately 39 percent enrollment
rate of those who reported employment reasons or
interest in trade/technical programs as reasons for
testing, as shown in Figure 2.3 (on page 12). These
statistics suggested that GED credential recipients
with the goal of enrolling in a two-year or four-year
college when testing were more likely to actually do
so, compared with GED credential recipients who
did not state these goals.
In regard to employment status at GED testing, there
were not many differences for enrollment rate among
different employment categories. GED credential recipients who worked part time when GED testing had a
higher percentage (50 percent) of enrolling in postsecondary education than those who were employed full
time (43 percent) and those who were unemployed
(43.1 percent).
Postsecondary Education Enrollment Rates by Social Status
A frequent concern about GED credential recipients
who state educational reasons for testing is whether
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
11
c h ap t e r II
Notes:
Missing n for taking Official GED Practice Tests=51,851.
Missing n for highest grade completed=42,621.
figuRe 2.3
postsecondary education enrollment rates of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Social characteristic
FIGURE 2.3
Enroll in Trade/Technical
College
39.1%
Reasons for GED Testing1
Enter Two-year College
53.5%
Enter Four-year College
59.7%
Skill Certification
38.3%
Get First Job
39.9%
Get Better Job
35.7%
Employer Requirement
38.8%
Public Assistance
Requirement
43.2%
Role Model for Family
38.4%
Employment/Student
Status at GED Testing
Personal Satisfaction
39.4%
Employed Part-time
50.0%
Employed Full-time
43.0%
Unemployed
43.1%
Full-time Student
44.3%
Part-time Student
43.7%
10
20
30
40
50
60
c h ap t e r II
0
70
Percent
(N=409,444)
1
Reasons for testing are not mutually exclusive; GED Tests candidates could select more than one educational reason.
TIME TO TRANSITION TO POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION
AND INITIAL ENROLLMENT STATUS
How long did it take for 2004 GED Tests passers
to transition to postsecondary education after passing the GED Tests? Our data analysis showed that
the decision to enroll in postsecondary education
after GED testing was generally not immediate, but
it tended to occur within three years of passing the
tests. More than two-thirds of 2004 GED Tests passers (69.3 percent) who enrolled in a postsecondary institution did so within the first three years
after passing the GED Tests (2004, 2005, or 2006)
as shown in Table 2.5. The median number of
months from completion of the GED Tests through
enrollment in postsecondary education was 15,
with a range of one to 80 months, and a standard
deviation of 22.4. After initial decreases through the
fourth year, annual enrollment rates remained steady
between 6 to 8 percent annually through 2010.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
tABle 2.5
postsecondary enrollment of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests
passers, by Year: 2004–10
Year
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in Year
Number
percent
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
52,506
48,269
20,570
14,623
13,270
13,993
11,817
30.0
27.6
11.8
8.4
7.6
8.0
6.8
Overall
175,048
100.0
Note: Missing n=334.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
12
figuRe 2.4
FIGURE 2.4
postsecondary enrollment Status of 2004 cohort GeD ®
tests passers for First Semester
Less-than
Half-time
Student
16.9%
Withdrawn
11.0%
Full-time
Student
40.2%
(76.5 percent) who passed the GED Tests initially
enrolled in colleges that offer programs of two years
or less; 22.9 percent attended four-year institutions
initially. Less than 1 percent chose colleges that offer
programs of less than two years. In addition, the vast
majority of GED Tests passers (87.3 percent) enrolled
in public institutions and 12.7 percent registered at
private institutions.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
Half-time
Student
31.8%
Notes:
Total number of 2004 cohort of GED passers who enrolled
in postsecondary education was 175,382.
Less than 0.05 percent of GED Tests passers were deceased
during the time of study.
Missing n=45,387.
WHERE AND IN WHAT TYPES OF POSTSECONDARY
INSTITUTIONS DID 2004 GED TESTS PASSERS ENROLL?
Policy makers and institutional leaders often are
interested in whether prospective students come to
their institutions from within the state or from outside the state. Our data showed that the vast majority
of GED Tests passers (83.3 percent) enrolled in institutions in the state in which they passed the GED
Tests. Only 16.7 percent left the state to enroll in a
college or university.
Much literature (e.g., NCHEMS, 2009; Patterson,
Song, Zhang, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010; Reder, 2007)
has revealed that GED Tests passers usually enroll in
two-year institutions. The same pattern was detected
in our data. More than three-quarters of students
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Who Transitioned to Postsecondary Education?
About 43 percent of 2004 GED Tests passers enrolled
in postsecondary education. Among all postsecondary enrollees, we found that enrollment rates varied
by passers’ demographic, academic, and social status. First, an interesting finding was that AfricanAmerican and Hispanic GED Tests passers were no
less likely to enroll in postsecondary education than
were whites. The enrollment rates were 40.3, 47.3,
and 42.3 percent for Hispanic, African-American, and
white ethnic groups, respectively. African Americans
had the highest enrollment rate among these three
groups. These rates were contradictory to research
findings of Almeida, Johnson, and Steinberg (2006),
which concluded that black dropouts who earned
high school–equivalent credentials had significant
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
13
c h ap t e r II
What was the initial postsecondary enrollment status
of 2004 GED Tests passers who enrolled for the first
semester? As displayed in Figure 2.4, 40.2 percent
of GED Tests passers who enrolled in a college or
university opted for full-time attendance for their first
semester of postsecondary education. Approximately
one-third (31.8 percent) enrolled on a half-time basis,
and 16.9 percent enrolled less than half time. About
11 percent withdrew from their institutions during
the first semester.
Enrollment Rates for GED Tests
Passers and Non-passers
GED Tests passers from the 2004 cohort enrolled in
postsecondary education at more than twice the rate
(42.8 percent) of non-passers (17.1 percent), which
replicated results for the 2003 cohort. Also, the findings echoed similar results from previous research.
Berktold, Geis, and Kaufman (1998) disclosed that
dropouts who either later completed high school
or the GED Tests were three times more likely than
uncredentialed dropouts to enroll in postsecondary education programs. Tyler and Lofstrum (2008)
pointed out that non-passers may enroll at lower
rates because without open-admissions policies, they
would be barred from enrolling—which cast a positive relationship between obtaining a GED credential
and transitioning to postsecondary education. The
findings suggest that a GED credential functions as a
significant bridge to dropouts’ postsecondary goals.
The GED credential provides an important pathway
for dropouts to get access to postsecondary education. Encouraging more high school dropouts to
complete their secondary education by passing the
GED Tests might be the first step to start their journey of pursuing postsecondary education.
lower postsecondary enrollment rates compared with
white and Hispanic dropouts.
Second, we found that the enrollment rate decreased
as GED Tests passers’ age increased. The youngest age group (16 to 24 years old) had the highest
enrollment rate of 46.8 percent, while the oldest age
group (35 years and older) had the lowest enrollment rate of 26.7 percent. The finding was in line
with what had been previously reported in other literature. Maralani (2006) also found that older adults
had a lower participation rate in postsecondary
education. Older adults are more likely to face barriers to further education while working full time or
raising families (Reder, 2007; Tyler, 2003) compared
to younger ones. Adult educators may benefit from
a better understanding of difficulties or barriers preventing more mature learners from entering postsecondary education.
Finally, GED Tests passers’ goal commitment at the
time of GED testing might be a good indicator of
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Time to Transition to Postsecondary
Education and Initial Enrollment Status
GED credential recipients may not follow up on their
postsecondary education goals immediately after
passing the GED Tests. More than two-thirds of 2004
passers who enrolled in a postsecondary institution
did so within the first three years. Do adults with
GED credentials need additional time to prepare
emotionally, financially, or organizationally for postsecondary work? This finding indicated that allowing enough time to elapse before expecting entry
into postsecondary programs is important (Boudett,
Murnane, & Willett, 2000; Ou, 2008; Reder, 2007).
Approximately 40 percent of GED credential recipients enrolled for full-time attendance and 31.8 percent for half-time attendance for their first semester
of postsecondary education. The attendance status
at enrollment seems related to postsecondary enrollees’ successes. Less than half of GED postsecondary
enrollees enrolled for full-time attendance, which
might relate, at least in part, to the low graduation
rates for GED postsecondary enrollees. More studies need to examine details of GED Tests passers’
postsecondary education experiences, including their
financial status, credits taken for each year, their academic performance, and relationship with peers and
instructors.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
14
c h ap t e r II
GED Tests passers’ secondary education level and
GED testing performance seemed to be related with
their postsecondary enrollment. About 52 percent
of GED Tests passers whose highest education level
was 12th grade enrolled in postsecondary education,
compared to 39.3 percent for those who completed
8th grade or lower. The finding denoted that staying longer in secondary education might positively
relate to entering postsecondary education. Also,
a positive relationship was detected between GED
testing performance and postsecondary enrollment.
The postsecondary enrollment rate increased from
37.7 percent to 52.5 percent across the five quintile
groups. Higher GED Tests battery scores seemed to
increase GED Tests passers’ tendency to transition to
postsecondary education. Adult educators who work
with potential GED candidates must encourage them
to prepare thoroughly for the GED Tests and structure learning with a focus on transition so that GED
credential recipients are better prepared for postsecondary academic learning.
whether they would enroll in postsecondary education after passing the GED Tests. More than half
(53.5 percent) of 2004 GED Tests passers who indicated “enter two-year college” and 59.7 percent of
2004 GED Tests passers who reported “enter fouryear college” as reasons for testing later enrolled.
Based on this result, the education world needs to
continue to advocate for postsecondary education
for all learners and help them realize the importance
of getting a postsecondary credential. Adult educators could help GED Tests takers identify their goals
for postsecondary education and explore possible
options of access to postsecondary education.
chapter III
Persistence and Degree Attainment
in Postsecondary Education
I
n this chapter we look at the postsecondary
experiences of GED Tests passers after they
have transitioned into postsecondary education,
focusing on their persistence and postsecondary credential attainment.
After we examined the general patterns of GED Tests
passers’ persistence and postsecondary credential
attainment in postsecondary education, one question remained: Did GED Tests passers differ from
one another in terms of demographic, academic, and
social characteristics based on their persistence and
postsecondary credential attainment status? Therefore,
basic statistics were calculated for passers based on
their persistence status. Two sets of descriptive statistics were reported: (1) We described demographic,
academic, and social characteristics of two groups,
single-semester and multiple-semester enrollees; and
(2) we compared characteristics of GED credential
Key Findings for Chapter III:
• Approximately two-thirds of 2004 GED Tests passers
(67.2 percent) who enrolled maintained enrollment for
two or more semesters.
• The total number of GED Tests passers who enrolled
in postsecondary education peaked in 2005.
• The first-semester to second-semester retention rate
for GED postsecondary enrollees was 50.7 percent; in
contrast, the first-year to second-year retention rate
was much lower, about 29 percent.
• Only 11.6 percent of GED Tests passers who enrolled
in postsecondary education successfully obtained a
postsecondary credential by October 2010.
• Older passers had the highest graduation rate compared with the other two age groups.
• GED Tests passers whose highest grade level completed was 12th grade had the highest graduation rate
compared to those whose highest completed grade
levels were lower.
• GED Tests passers whose tests scores were in
the 80th percentile had the highest graduation rate
among percentile groups.
• About 26 percent of postsecondary enrollees with
GED credentials were still working toward a postsecondary credential in 2010 and hadn’t graduated yet;
during this period of study, 62 percent were no longer
enrolled.
• More females earned advanced postsecondary credentials than males; about 62 percent of associate
degree holders were female.
• Hispanic and African-American GED Tests passers did
not have a lower postsecondary graduation rate than
white passers.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
15
c h ap t e r III
First, we examined the overall persistence and
postsecondary credential attainment patterns of the
2004 cohort of GED postsecondary enrollees, as of
October 2010. By looking at longitudinal enrollment
records of GED Tests passers, we were able to track
their postsecondary enrollment six years after passing the GED Tests. We reported the first-semester
to second-semester and the first-year to second-year
retention rates to provide important indicators for
GED Tests passers’ persistence in postsecondary
education. Then graduation rates were calculated as
measures of postsecondary credential attainment of
GED Tests passers who enrolled in postsecondary
education as of October 2010. Graduation rates by
demographic, academic, and social subgroups were
compared to examine how individual characteristics
play a role in postsecondary credential attainment for
GED Tests passers.
recipients who successfully obtained a postsecondary
credential with those who hadn’t as of October 2010,
disaggregated by whether they enrolled in a single
semester or multiple semesters.
tABle 3.1
Last, we focused on GED Tests passers who had
successfully obtained a postsecondary credential by
October 2010. Are there any unique characteristics
that allow GED postsecondary graduates to achieve
their postsecondary education goals after dropping out
of secondary education? Moreover, we distinguished
graduates by types of degree title. Characteristics were
compared among graduates who had a diploma/certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree.
Semester
Semester
Number
1/1/04–6/30/04
7/1/04–12/31/04
1/1/05–6/30/05
7/1/05–12/31/05
1/1/06–6/30/06
7/1/06–12/31/06
1/1/07–6/30/07
7/1/07–12/31/07
1/1/08–6/30/08
7/1/08–12/31/08
1/1/09–6/30/09
7/1/09–12/31/09
1/1/10–6/30/10
7/1/10–12/31/10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
postsecondary enrollment of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests
passers, by Semester: 2004–10
POSTSECONDARY PERSISTENCE PATTERNS
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in Semester1
Number
percent
13,995
40,809
52,216
50,152
46,641
41,584
40,006
37,847
37,789
36,484
37,799
38,895
40,671
34,672
8.0
23.3
29.8
28.6
26.6
23.7
22.8
21.6
21.5
20.8
21.6
22.2
23.2
19.8
Percentages do not sum to 100 percent as the 2004 cohort
of GED Tests passers could be enrolled in multiple
semesters.
Note: Because data were collected in September 2010, the
semester labeled 7/1/10–12/31/10 is lower than actual
enrollment counts.
1
Table 3.1 shows the number of 2004 GED Tests
passers who enrolled in each of 14 semesters from
2004 to 2010. (Note that enrollment in a semester
includes not only beginning enrollment but also later
semester enrollments, and that 2004 GED Tests passers had to have a valid beginning and ending enrollment date to be included.) Figure 3.1 provides a
c h ap t e r III
figuRe 3.1
postsecondary education enrollment of the 2004 cohort GeD ® tests passers, by Semester: 2004–10
FIGURE 3.1
60,000
52,216
50,152
50,000
46,641
41,584
40,809
40,006
37,847
Number Enrolled
40,000
37,789
36,484
40,671
38,895
37,799
34,672
30,000
20,000
13,995
10,000
0
2/
/3
31
0/
/1
10
9
–1
10
1/
7/
10
1/
1/
–1
09
1/
7/
–6
2/
/3
31
0/
/0
09
8
09
1/
1/
–1
08
1/
7/
–6
2/
/3
31
0/
/0
08
7
08
1/
1/
–1
07
1/
7/
–6
2/
/3
31
0/
/0
07
6
07
1/
1/
–1
06
1/
7/
–6
2/
/3
31
0/
/0
06
5
06
1/
1/
7/
1/
05
–1
–6
2/
/3
31
0/
/0
05
4
–6
05
1/
1/
–1
04
1/
7/
1/
1/
04
–6
2/
/3
31
0/
/0
04
0
Semester
Note: Because data were collected in September 2010, the semester labeled 7/1/10–12/31/10 is lower than actual enrollment costs.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
16
graphic display of Table 3.1 data. Enrollment peaked
at more than 52,200 in 2005, gradually decreased to
more than 41,500 through 2006, and remained steady
around 37,000 for several years, with slight increases
in 2009 and 2010.
Of the 2004 GED Tests passers who transitioned to
postsecondary education, about 65 percent of them
enrolled for only one or two semesters. The median
number of semesters enrolled was two, ranging from
one to 14 semesters. More than half of GED Tests
passers (52.6 percent) who made the transition to
postsecondary education therefore maintained no
more than one year of college enrollment, which
might allow them to finish a short-term certificate
or diploma program. Table 3.2 displays the total
number of semesters enrolled for 2004 GED Tests
passers. Approximately 35 percent of GED postsecondary enrollees maintained at least four semesters
of enrollment.
Retention Rates
Retention rates commonly measure the percentage
of freshmen who re-enroll the next academic year as
sophomores. The primary reason that retention rates,
along with graduation rates, are important is that
retention rates are perceived as indicators of academic quality and student success. Postsecondary education literature has demonstrated that the first-year to
second-year retention rate is critical for postsecondary credential attainment.
For GED Tests passers, most might aim at earning
a short-term certificate or diploma, which does not
require multiple-semester enrollment. Therefore, we
provided two types of persistence rates. One was the
first-year to second-year retention rate, which was
in line with other postsecondary research. The other
was the first-semester to second-semester retention
rate, which was applicable to the majority of postsecondary enrollees with GED credentials.
Figure 3.2 (on page 18) displays the first-semester
to second-semester and -year rates. Overall, half
(50.7 percent) of 2004 GED Tests passers who
enrolled continued from the first semester they
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
postsecondary enrollment of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests
passers, by total Number of Semesters enrolled: 2004–10
total Number of 2004 cohort of GeD tests passers enrolled
Semesters enrolled
Number
percent
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
52,962
31,950
20,283
14,345
10,400
7,829
6,140
5,225
4,145
3,329
2,581
1,536
857
154
32.8
19.8
12.5
8.9
6.4
4.8
3.8
3.2
2.6
2.1
1.6
1.0
0.5
0.1
Overall
161,736
100.0
Note: Missing n=13,646.
enrolled to the next consecutive semester, regardless of their graduation status. The first-semester to
second-semester retention rate was 81.1 percent for
GED postsecondary graduates.
Of those who enrolled in at least two semesters,
75.4 percent continued their study consecutively
from the first semester to the second semester. The
remaining 24.6 percent left after their first semester
but enrolled in a later semester. We also found that
86.8 percent of multiple-semester enrollees who successfully obtained a postsecondary credential continued from their first semester to their second semester, as presented in Figure 3.2.
For the first-year to second-year retention rate, we
found that 28.7 percent of all GED postsecondary enrollees continued directly from their first year
to the second year, which was much lower than
the first-semester to second-semester retention rate
(50.7 percent). The first-year to second-year rate for
GED postsecondary graduates (67.9 percent) stood in
glaring contrast to that of GED postsecondary enrollees (28.7 percent), which indicated that if a GED
postsecondary enrollee could make it through the
second year of college, the probability of graduation
would be much higher. Looking only at multiplesemester enrollees, 42.7 percent successfully finished
their first year of college and continued to their
sophomore year. And the first-year to second-year
retention rate for multiple-semester enrollees who
graduated was 72.6 percent.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
17
c h ap t e r III
Among all 2004 passers who enrolled in postsecondary education, 32.8 percent of them registered for
only one semester and about two-thirds maintained
at least two semesters’ enrollment. Based on their
total number of semesters enrolled, we divided GED
Tests passers into two groups: (1) single-semester
enrollees and (2) multiple-semester enrollees.
tABle 3.2
figuRe 3.2
First-semester to Second-semester retention rates and First-year to Second-year retention rates of 2004 cohort GeD ®
tests passers, by Multiple-Semester enrollment Status and Graduation Status
FIGURE 3.2
First-semester to Second-semester Graduation Rate
First-year to Second-year Retention Rate
100
90
86.8%
81.1%
80
75.4%
72.6%
67.9%
70
Percent
60
50
50.7%
42.7%
40
30
28.7%
20
10
0
All 2004 Cohort of
GED Tests Passers
Who Graduated from
Postsecondary
Education
(N=20,299)
Graduation Rates
Of all 175,382 GED Tests passers who transitioned
to postsecondary education, 20,299 of them successfully obtained a postsecondary credential, approximately 11.6 percent.5 Of 20,299 graduates, 1,321
(6.5 percent) completed single-semester programs,
and 18,978 (93.5 percent) graduated with a multiplesemester postsecondary credential.
Furthermore, we continued to examine graduation
rates by key demographic, academic, and social
groups. The demographic, academic, and social
groups were defined the same as in Chapter II (see
pages 5, 7, and 8 for definitions).
For demographic variables, female GED Tests passers had a slightly higher graduation rate (13.4 percent) than that of males (10.5 percent), as shown in
Figure 3.3 (on page 19). A linear increasing pattern
for graduation rates was detected for age group;
5
2004 Cohort of
GED Tests Passers
Enrolled in
Multiple Semesters
(N=117,139)
2004 Cohort of
GED Tests Passers
Enrolled in
Multiple Semesters
Who Graduated
(N=19,274)
the older the GED Tests passers were, the higher
their graduation rates were. The oldest age group
(35 years and older) had the highest graduation rate
(20.0 percent) among the age groups, which was
almost twice that of the 16- to 24-year-old age group
(10.5 percent). Hispanic (10.8 percent) and AfricanAmerican GED Tests passers (11.1 percent) did
not differ from white GED Tests passers in regards
to postsecondary education gradation rates. Asian
GED Tests passers had the highest graduation rate
(20.0 percent) among all ethnic groups. It was interesting to note that GED Tests passers whose primary
language was not English had a higher graduation
rate (19.0 percent) than those reporting English as
their primary language (11.5 percent).
GED Tests passers whose highest secondary grade
level completed was 12th grade graduated from postsecondary education at almost twice the rate of the
rest of GED Tests passers, as shown in Figure 3.4
National Student Clearinghouse indicated that graduation may be underreported by some postsecondary institutions. However,
only 2 percent of institutions in our dataset had more than 50 GED Tests passers as students (a number at which we could
reasonably expect at least some graduates) yet reported no graduates. Therefore, we concluded that any graduation underreporting
was likely random and limited in scope.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
18
c h ap t e r III
All 2004 Cohort of
GED Tests Passers
Enrolled in
Postsecondary
Education
(N=175,382)
figuRe 3.3
postsecondary education Graduation rates, by Demographic characteristics of 2004 cohort GeD ® tests passers Who
enrolled, as of October 2010
FIGURE 3.3
Age Group
Gender
Male
10.5%
Female
13.4%
16–24 Years Old
10.5%
25–34 Years Old
16.0%
35 Years and Older
20.0%
Primary
Language
Ethnic Group
Hispanic
10.8%
African American
11.1%
White
American Indian/
Alaska Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian/
Pacific Islander
English
Language Other
Than English
12.5%
9.8%
20.0%
10.8%
11.5%
19.0%
0
5
10
15
20
25
Percent
(N=175,382)
n
n
n
n
for
for
for
for
gender=5,860.
age group=140.
ethnic group=15,634.
primary language=27,001.
figuRe 3.4
postsecondary education Graduation rates, by academic characteristics of 2004 cohort GeD ® tests passers Who enrolled,
as of October 2010
FIGURE 3.4
Highest
Grade
Completed
8th Grade
(or below)
10.8%
10.1%
9th Grade
10th Grade
10.4%
11th Grade
10.9%
GED Tests
Battery Score
Official GED
Practice
Tests (OPT)
12th Grade
20.5%
Took OPT
11.0%
Did Not Take OPT
13.5%
Below 20th Percentile
(450–480)
20–40th Percentile
(481–510)
40–60th Percentile
(511–542)
60–80th Percentile
(543–586)
Above 80th Percentile
(587–800)
9.9%
9.6%
10.7%
11.9%
17.3%
0
5
10
15
20
25
Percent
Notes:
Missing n for taking Official GED Practice Tests=22,767.
Missing n for highest grade completed=18,269.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
(N=175,382)
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
19
c h ap t e r III
Notes:
Missing
Missing
Missing
Missing
Dropout Rates
Dropouts were defined as 2004 GED Tests passers
who made a transition to postsecondary education
but have not obtained any postsecondary credential
as of October 2010 and haven’t enrolled during 2010.
We found that 26 percent of GED postsecondary
enrollees were still taking courses in 2010 and about
12 percent had earned a postsecondary credential
by October 2010. Therefore, we concluded that the
dropout rate was 62 percent.
(on page 19). For GED Tests passers who reported
their highest grade level as 11th grade and lower,
there were no differences in graduation rates.
Surprisingly, GED Tests passers who took the Official
GED Practice Tests had a slightly lower graduation
rate (11 percent) than those not taking the Official
GED Practice Tests (13.5 percent). GED Tests passers
whose scores were above the 80th percentile had the
highest graduation rate compared to the rest of passers. Graduation rates for the 20th, 40th, and 60th percentile groups were similar. The results suggested
that there might be a certain skill level as a threshold
associated with whether a GED credential recipient
later graduates from postsecondary education.
Transfer Rates
Approximately three-fourths (74.8 percent) of 2004
GED Tests passers remained in the same postsecondary institution where they initially enrolled. The
remaining fourth (25.2 percent) transferred to another
institution. Therefore, we concluded that the transfer
rate was 25.2 percent. Some transfer was associated
with movement to a college or university offering
Figure 3.5 displays postsecondary education graduation rates by reasons for testing and employment
status. No major differences of graduation rates were
observed based on different educational and employment reasons for testing.
figuRe 3.5
postsecondary education Graduation rates, by Social characteristics of 2004 cohort GeD ® tests passers Who enrolled, as
of October 2010
Enroll in Trade/Technical
College
12.9%
Enter Two-year College
12.4%
Reasons for GED Testing1
Enter Four-year College
12.8%
Skill Certification
10.9%
Get First Job
9.2%
Get Better Job
10.8%
Employer Requirement
10.0%
Public Assistance
Requirement
10.1%
Role Model for Family
10.6%
Personal Satisfaction
Employment/Student
Status at GED Testing
c h ap t e r III
FIGURE 3.5
10.8%
Employed Part-time
13.1%
Employed Full-time
12.7%
Unemployed
10.0%
Full-time Student
14.8%
Part-time Student
12.3%
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Percent
(N=175,382)
1
Reasons for testing are not mutually exclusive; GED Tests candidates could select more than one educational reason.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
20
advanced coursework; other transfer was lateral.
More information on student transfer is presented in
Chapter V.
COMPARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLESEMESTER AND MULTIPLE-SEMESTER ENROLLEES’
POSTSECONDARY PERSISTENCE PATTERNS
About one-third of GED Tests passers enrolled
for only one semester and two-thirds maintained
enrollment for two or more semesters. To identify
characteristics of GED postsecondary enrollees who
enrolled for a single semester and those who registered for multiple semesters, we compared the
distributions of key variables within each demographic, academic, and social group, as displayed in
Table 3.3, Table 3.4 (on page 22), and Table 3.5
(on page 22), respectively.
Academic Characteristics
Nearly 51 percent of multiple-semester enrollees and
44.4 percent of single-semester enrollees completed
at least 11th grade. Also, there were more passers
whose GED Tests scores were above the 60th percentile enrolled for multiple semesters (42.8 percent)
compared with those registering for only one semester (34.6 percent). These percentages suggested a
positive association between higher levels of secondary skills and longer postsecondary involvement.
c h ap t e r III
Demographic Characteristics
GED Tests passers who enrolled for a single semester did not differ from those who enrolled for multiple semesters in terms of ethnicity, primary language,
and years out of high school. For both groups, the
vast majority of GED Tests passers (about 79 percent) were 16 to 24 years old in 2004. White passers
made up approximately 60 percent of both groups.
More than 90 percent of GED Tests passers reported
English as their primary language, regardless of the
number of their total semesters of enrollment. The
only difference was the distribution of gender. We
found that the single semester group had a higher percentage of male GED Tests passers, whereas
the multiple semester group had a larger proportion
of female passers
tABle 3.3
Demographic characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers enrolled in a Single Semester or in Multiple
Semesters: 2004–10
Demographic characteristics
Gender:
Male
Female
age in 2004 (Median)
age Group in 2004:
16–24 Years Old
25–34 Years Old
35 Years and Older
ethnic Group:
Hispanic
African American
White
American Indian/Alaska Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
primary Language:
English
Language Other Than English
Years Since Leaving K–12 System (Median)
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in a Single Semester
(N=52,926)
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in Multiple Semesters
(N=108,774)
Number
Number
percent
percent
29,350
21,800
19 years old
57.4
42.6
49,254
56,032
19 years old
46.8
53.2
42,104
7,523
3,283
79.6
14.2
6.2
85,558
16,072
7,066
78.7
14.8
6.5
8,564
8,347
29,071
1,210
723
349
17.7
17.3
60.2
2.5
1.5
0.7
17,521
16,952
59,413
1,959
2,648
684
17.7
17.1
59.9
2.0
2.7
0.7
43,197
1,952
2 years
95.7
4.3
86,444
5,722
2 years
93.8
6.2
Notes:
Percentages reflect sample sizes with missing data already excluded.
Missing n for gender=5,300.
Missing n for age group=130.
Missing n for ethnic group=14,283.
Missing n for primary language=24,421.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
21
tABle 3.4
academic characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers enrolled in a Single Semester or in Multiple
Semesters: 2004–10
academic characteristics
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers enrolled in a
Single Semester (N=52,926)
took the Official GeD practice tests
highest Grade completed :
8th Grade (or below)
9th Grade
10th Grade
11th Grade
12th Grade
GeD tests Battery Mean Score:
Below 20th Percentile (450–480)
20–40th Percentile (481–510)
40–60th Percentile (511–542)
60–80th Percentile (543–586)
Above 80th Percentile (587–800)
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers enrolled in
Multiple Semesters (N=108,774)
Number
percent
Number
percent
30,946
64.0
58,231
61.4
4,480
8,012
14,020
17,052
4,216
9.4
16.8
29.3
35.7
8.8
7,134
14,102
26,694
36,791
12,611
7.3
14.5
27.4
37.8
13.0
11,969
11,426
11,260
10,242
8,065
22.6
21.6
21.3
19.4
15.2
20,884
19,802
21,482
22,133
24,473
19.2
18.2
19.7
20.3
22.5
Notes:
Percentages reflect sample sizes with missing data already excluded.
Missing n for taking the Official GED Practice Tests=20,932.
Missing n for highest grade completed=16,624.
tABle 3.5
Social characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers enrolled in a Single Semester or in Multiple
Semesters: 2004–10
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in Multiple Semesters
(N=108,774)
Number
percent
Number
percent
9,635
14,967
11,086
3,899
3,383
17,921
3,572
757
8,946
24,115
18.2
28.2
20.9
7.4
6.4
32.7
6.7
1.4
16.9
45.5
16,689
35,501
31,274
6,646
5,753
31,716
5,870
1,236
16,382
44,898
15.3
32.6
28.8
6.1
5.3
29.2
5.4
1.1
15.1
41.3
6,289
11,632
16,407
5,972
4,375
11.9
22.0
31.0
11.3
8.3
15,681
26,204
30,225
11,690
9,382
14.4
24.1
27.8
10.8
8.6
reasons for GeD testing:1
Enroll in Trade/Technical College
Enter Two-year College
Enter Four-year College
Skills Certification
Get First Job
Get Better Job
Employer Requirement
Public Assistance Requirement
Role Model for Family
Personal Satisfaction
employment/Student Status at GeD testing:
Employed Part-time
Employed Full-time
Unemployed
Full-time Student
Part-time Student
c h ap t e r III
Social characteristics
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in a Single Semester
(N=52,926)
Note: Percentages reflect sample sizes with missing data already excluded.
1
Reasons for testing were not mutually exclusive; GED Tests candidates could select more than one educational reason.
Social Characteristics
Single-semester and multiple-semester enrollees
indicated similar patterns in reasons for testing. An
exception was that more multiple-semester enrollees
(28.8 percent) reported entering a four-year college as a reason for testing compared with those of
single-semester enrollees (20.9 percent). At the time
of GED testing, employment statuses were similar for
both groups.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Overall, we concluded that there were no major differences in terms of demographic, academic, and
social characteristics at the time of GED testing
between GED Tests passers who enrolled for one
semester and those who maintained at least two
semesters of enrollment. Exceptions occurred for
females, GED Tests passers with higher grade level
completion or skill levels, and those with a goal of
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
22
entering a four-year college, who tended to enroll
for multiple semesters.
COMPARING CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLESEMESTER AND MULTIPLE-SEMESTER ENROLLEES’
POSTSECONDARY PERSISTENCE PATTERNS BY
GRADUATION STATUS
Single-semester Completers and Non-completers
More male GED Tests passers enrolled in only one
semester compared with females, regardless of their
completion status. By age, though the youngest age
group (16- to 24-year-olds) was the largest group
for both completing and non-completing singlesemester enrollees, the percentage distributions of
the three age groups varied from completers to noncompleters. The percentage of the oldest age group
(35 years and older) among completers (12.4 percent) was twice that of non-completers (6.1 percent).
Also, we observed that the percentage of the 25- to
34-year-old age group increased from 14 percent for
non-completers to 24.5 percent for completers.
The median number of years out of high school for
completers was five years, which was higher than
that of non-completers (two years). No major differences between completers and non-completers were
detected for ethnicity or primary language.
As we examined whether there were differences
between completers and non-completers in terms of
academic and social characteristics, we found that
both groups were similar to each other within singlesemester enrollees. Similarities included their highest grade level completed, GED Tests performance,
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Multiple-semester Completers and Non-completers
In contrast to single-semester enrollees, more females
with GED credentials enrolled for multiple semesters
and completed a postsecondary credential. Our single-semester analysis revealed that older GED Tests
passers were proportionately more likely to complete
postsecondary education. The same pattern was
detected for multiple-semester completers and noncompleters. The percentage of completers among
the 35 years and older age group (10.5 percent) was
almost twice that of non-completers (5.7 percent).
Meanwhile, the median number of years since leaving high school was four years for completers, which
was higher than that for non-completers (two years).
In regard to their academic characteristics, the percentage of GED Tests passers with the highest grade
level completed as 12th grade was almost twice as
high for completers (20.3 percent) than for non-completers (11.4 percent). Also, there were more GED
Tests passers whose GED Tests scores were above
the 80th percentile for completers (30 percent), compared with non-completers (20.9 percent). The positive association between higher levels of secondary
skills and longer-term postsecondary involvement
that we noted earlier is even stronger for multiplesemester completers than non-completers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GED POSTSECONDARY
EDUCATION GRADUATES BASED ON TYPES OF DEGREE
In this section, we focus on GED Tests passers who
successfully graduated from postsecondary education. What was the highest postsecondary credential
that they obtained as of October 2010? What were
their majors? What were the demographic, academic,
and social characteristics of GED Tests passers with
different types of postsecondary education?
Four types of postsecondary credentials were identified for GED Tests passers. Figure 3.6 (on page 25)
presents postsecondary credential titles of 2004 GED
Tests passers who graduated from postsecondary
education. Approximately 40 percent of all postsecondary credentials were associate degrees. About
one-third of postsecondary credentials were certificates (31.7 percent) and another one-fourth were
bachelor’s degrees (26.3 percent). An additional 347
GED Tests passers earned an advanced credential
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
23
c h ap t e r III
In addition to comparing characteristics of singlesemester and multiple-semester enrollees, we examined whether there were differences between groups
based on their graduation status. We questioned
whether those who completed had different characteristics from those who did not, and more specifically, at what point—either through further enrollment
or through completion—characteristics were likely
to change, if at all. As a result, four groups were
selected for analysis: (1) single-semester enrollees
who did not complete their postsecondary education;
(2) single-semester enrollees who completed postsecondary education; (3) multiple-semester enrollees
who did not complete postsecondary education; and
(4) multiple-semester enrollees who completed their
postsecondary education. Table 3.6 (on page 24)
displays details of comparisons for the four groups.
reasons for testing, and employment status at time
of GED testing. The only contrast for single-semester
enrollees was for age group, as noted above.
tABle 3.6
characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers enrolled in a Single Semester or Multiple Semesters, by
postsecondary program completion Status: 2004–10
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in a Single Semester
characteristics
Without completing
(N=48,525)
Number
percent
28,573
21,270
22 years old
57.3
42.7
41,271
7,200
3,119
80.0
14.0
6.1
8,392
8,106
28,297
1,177
706
342
completing
(N=1,205)
Number
777
530
24 years old
Without completing
(N=97,919)
percent
Number
percent
completing
(N=19,274)
Number
percent
59.5
40.6
41,423
45,614
22 years old
47.5
52.5
8,041
10,418
24 years old
43.6
56.4
833
323
164
63.1
24.5
12.4
72,234
12,434
5,075
80.5
13.8
5.7
13,324
3,649
1,991
70.3
19.2
10.5
17.9
17.2
60.2
2.5
1.5
0.7
171
241
774
33
17
7
13.8
19.4
62.2
2.7
1.4
0.6
14,734
14,229
48,530
1,660
1,970
574
18.0
17.4
59.4
2.0
2.4
0.7
2,787
2,723
10,083
299
678
110
16.0
15.6
62.3
1.7
3.9
0.6
42,077
1,891
2 years
95.7
4.3
1,120
61
5 years
94.8
5.2
71,287
4,277
2 years
94.4
5.6
14,617
1,445
4 years
91.0
9.0
30,174
67.4
772
67.8
48,589
62.1
9,642
58.2
4,361
7,813
13,693
16,649
4,061
9.4
16.8
29.4
35.8
8.7
119
199
327
403
155
9.9
16.5
27.2
33.5
12.9
5,909
11,899
22,551
31,005
9,216
7.3
14.8
28.0
38.5
11.4
1,225
2,203
4,143
5,786
3,395
7.3
13.2
24.7
34.5
20.3
11,657
11,134
10,958
10,005
7,887
22.6
21.6
21.2
19.4
15.3
312
292
302
237
178
23.6
22.1
22.9
17.9
13.5
17,731
16,905
18,077
18,307
18,776
19.8
18.8
20.1
20.4
20.9
3,153
2,897
3,405
3,826
5,697
16.6
15.3
17.9
20.2
30.0
9,290
14,656
10,909
3,791
3,307
16,816
3,463
728
8,703
23,463
18.0
28.4
21.1
7.3
6.4
32.6
6.7
1.4
16.9
45.4
345
311
177
108
76
475
109
29
243
652
26.1
23.5
13.4
8.2
5.8
36.0
8.3
2.2
18.4
49.4
13,454
29,245
25,789
5,560
4,936
26,578
4,987
1,055
13,797
37,699
15.0
32.6
28.7
6.2
5.5
29.6
5.6
1.2
15.4
42.0
3,235
6,256
5,485
1,086
817
5,138
883
181
2,585
7,199
17.1
33.0
28.9
5.7
4.3
27.1
4.7
1.0
13.6
37.9
6,148
11,297
16,021
11.9
21.9
31.0
141
335
386
10.7
25.4
29.2
12,805
21,490
25,690
14.3
23.9
28.6
2,876
4,714
4,565
15.2
24.8
24.1
c h ap t e r III
DeMOGraphIc characterIStIcS
Gender:
Male
Female
age in 2004 (Median)
age Group in 2004:
16–24 Years Old
25–34 Years Old
35 Years and Older
ethnic Group:
Hispanic
African American
White
American Indian/Alaska Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
primary Language:
English
Language Other Than English
Years Since Leaving K–12 System (Median)
acaDeMIc characterIStIcS
took the Official GeD practice tests
highest Grade completed:
8th Grade (or below)
9th Grade
10th Grade
11th Grade
12th Grade
GeD tests Battery Mean Score:
Below 20th Percentile (450–480)
20–40th Percentile (481–510)
40–60th Percentile (511–542)
60–80th Percentile (543–586)
Above 80th Percentile (587–800)
SOcIaL characterIStIcS
reasons for GeD testing: 1
Enroll in Trade/Technical College
Enter Two-year College
Enter Four-year College
Skills Certification
Get First Job
Get Better Job
Employer Requirement
Public Assistance Requirement
Role Model for Family
Personal Satisfaction
employment/Student Status at GeD testing:
Employed Part-time
Employed Full-time
Unemployed
2004 cohort of GeD tests passers
enrolled in Multiple Semesters
Notes:
Percentages reflect sample sizes with missing data already excluded.
For single-semester enrollees: Missing n for gender=1,812. Missing n for age group=52. Missing n for ethnic group=4,694.
Missing n for primary language=7,813.
For multiple-semester enrollees: Missing n for gender=3,488. Missing n for age group=78. Missing n for ethnic group=9,589.
Missing n for primary language=16,608.
For single-semester enrollees: Missing n for taking the Official GED Practice Tests=7,019. Missing n for highest grade completed=5,182.
For multiple-semester enrollees: Missing n for taking the Official GED Practice Tests=13,913. Missing n for highest grade completed=11,442.
1
Reasons for testing were not mutually exclusive; GED Tests candidates could select more than one educational reason.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
24
figuRe 3.6
highest postsecondary education Degrees of 2004 cohort
GeD ® tests passers WhoFIGURE
Graduated, 3.6
as of October 2010
Bachelor’s
Degree
26.3%
Master’s
Degree
or Above
2.3%
Certificate
31.7%
beyond a bachelor’s degree, accounting for 2.3 percent. For the following section, descriptive statistics
were not provided for GED Tests passers with master’s
degree and higher credentials because of the small
proportion.
Demographic Characteristics by Types of Degree
Male and female GED Tests passers were equally likely to obtain a certificate, as presented in
Table 3.7. However, more females earned higherlevel postsecondary credentials. Approximately
62 percent of associate degree holders were female,
as well as 53.4 percent of bachelor’s degree holders.
Associate
Degree
39.7%
Notes:
Missing n for degree type=5,146.
Total number of 2004 cohort GED tests passers who
graduated =20,299.
tABle 3.7
Demographic characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers Who Graduated, by Degree type
Degree type
Demographic characteristics
Gender:
Male
Female
age in 2004 (Median)
age Group in 2004:
16–24 Years Old
25–34 Years Old
35 Years and Older
ethnic Group:
Hispanic
African American
White
American Indian/Alaska Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
primary Language:
English
Language Other Than English
Years Since Leaving K–12 System (Median)
certificate
associate Degree
Bachelor's Degree
Number
percent
Number
percent
Number
percent
2,403
2,353
21 years old
50.5
49.5
2,224
3,603
20 years old
38.2
61.8
1,802
2,064
19 years old
46.6
53.4
3,152
1,090
562
65.6
22.7
11.7
4,100
1,196
711
68.3
19.9
11.8
3,224
510
250
80.9
12.8
6.3
569
891
2,836
80
86
24
12.7
19.9
63.2
1.8
1.9
0.5
992
839
3,276
110
273
43
17.9
15.2
59.2
2.0
4.9
0.8
604
419
2,371
43
217
18
16.5
11.4
64.6
1.2
5.9
0.5
4,113
264
4 years
94.0
6.0
4,345
562
3 years
88.6
11.5
2,960
363
2 years
89.1
10.9
Notes:
Percentages reflect sample sizes with missing data already excluded.
Missing n for gender=5,300.
Missing n for ethnic group=14,283.
Missing n for primary language=24,421.
Missing n for age group=130.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
25
c h ap t e r III
Younger adults with GED credentials tended to earn
higher degree types, whereas older adults tended to
complete shorter-term programs. The average age of
GED Tests passers in 2004 was 21, 20, and 19 years
old, respectively, for graduates with a certificate,
an associate, and a bachelor’s degree. The proportion of the 16- to 24-year-old age group increased
from a postsecondary certificate (65.6 percent) to
higher-level credentials (80.9 percent for bachelor’s
degrees). In contrast, fewer GED Tests passers
who were 35 years and older obtained a bachelor’s
degree. The percentage having a certificate or associate degree for the age group of 35 years and older
was almost twice that of graduates with a bachelor’s
degree. Shorter-term postsecondary programs may
offer a faster way to increase mature GED Tests passers’ chances of getting better pay or entry to a new
career path.
The ethnic distributions showed similar patterns
for the three types of postsecondary credentials.
White GED Tests passers were the biggest group
across three types of postsecondary credentials,
about 60 percent. African-American GED Tests passers had proportionately higher rates for certificates
(19.9 percent) and lower rates for bachelor’s degrees
(11.4 percent). GED Tests passers with a primary
language other than English had higher percentages
for an associate (11.5 percent) and bachelor’s degree
(10.9 percent) than that for a certificate (6 percent).
Academic Characteristics by Types of Degree
Table 3.8 provides percentage distributions of key
academic variables by types of degree. Our data
analysis indicated that highest grade level completed
seemed to be related to types of postsecondary credential that GED Tests passers obtained. As displayed
in Table 3.8, 16.2 percent of GED Tests passers with
12th grade as the highest grade level completed
earned a certificate, and 21 percent and 26.5 percent,
respectively, earned associate and bachelor’s degrees.
GED testing performance, as a proxy for secondary
skills, might also be associated with the type of postsecondary credential that GED Tests passers earned.
For bachelor’s degree holders, more than one-third
(34.9 percent) scored above the 80th percentile,
which was more than four times the rate for graduates with a certificate (8 percent). On the contrary,
more than half of certificate holders (52.9 percent)
had GED Tests scores at the 40th percentile or lower,
versus 26.9 percent for bachelor’s degree.
Also worth noting was that the percentages of GED
Tests passers taking the Official GED Practice Tests 6
(OPT) decreased from those earning a certificate
(66.5 percent) to those earning a bachelor’s degree
(50.4 percent). Taking the OPT was more prevalent
among certificate holders than any other postsecondary credential type. Those earning higher-level
c h ap t e r III
tABle 3.8
academic characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers Who Graduated, by Degree type
Degree type
academic characteristics
Official the GeD practice tests (Opt):
Took the OPT
Did Not Take the OPT
highest Grade completed:
8th Grade (or below)
9th Grade
10th Grade
11th Grade
12th Grade
GeD tests Battery Mean Score:
Below 20th Percentile (450–480)
20–40th Percentile (481–510)
40–60th Percentile (511–542)
60–80th Percentile (543–586)
Above 80th Percentile (587–800)
certificate
associate Degree
Bachelor's Degree
Number
percent
Number
percent
Number
percent
2,809
1,413
66.5
33.5
3,007
2,238
57.3
42.7
1,793
1,764
50.4
49.6
388
665
1,168
1,443
708
8.9
15.2
26.7
33.0
16.2
346
623
1,295
1,829
1,087
6.7
12.0
25.0
35.3
21.0
209
371
748
1,244
926
6.0
10.6
21.4
35.6
26.5
1,398
1,142
1,076
807
386
29.1
23.8
22.4
16.8
8.0
1,052
1,053
1,221
1,374
1,311
17.5
17.5
20.3
22.9
21.8
542
530
677
847
1,390
13.6
13.3
17.0
21.3
34.9
Notes:
Percentages reflect sample sizes with missing data already excluded.
Missing n for gender=5,300.
Missing n for ethnic group=14,283.
Missing n for primary language=24,421.
Missing n for age group=130.
6
The OPT are required by jurisdictional or test center policy in a growing number of jurisdictions. This analysis did not control
for policy requirements.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
26
tABle 3.9
Social characteristics of 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers Who Graduated, by Degree type
Degree type
Social characteristics
reasons for GeD testing1:
Enroll in Trade/Technical College
Enter Two-year College
Enter Four-year College
Skill Certification
Get First Job
Get Better Job
Employer Requirement
Public Assistance Requirement
Role Model for Family
Personal Satisfaction
employment/Student Status at GeD testing:
Employed Part-time
Employed Full-time
Unemployed
Full-time Student
Part-time Student
1
certificate
associate Degree
Bachelor's Degree
Number
percent
Number
percent
Number
percent
1,331
1,464
774
381
273
1,655
306
82
827
2,182
27.7
30.4
16.1
7.9
5.7
34.4
6.4
1.7
17.2
45.4
782
2,339
1,833
315
238
1,537
268
45
831
2,252
13.0
38.9
30.5
5.2
4.0
25.6
4.5
0.8
13.8
37.5
297
1,037
1,836
157
141
719
157
24
356
1,221
7.5
26.0
46.1
3.9
3.5
18.0
3.9
0.6
8.9
30.6
587
1,209
1,406
595
441
12.2
25.1
29.2
12.4
9.2
889
1,590
1,381
729
510
14.8
26.5
23.0
12.1
8.5
752
894
707
797
358
18.9
22.4
17.7
20.0
9.0
Reasons for testing were not mutually exclusive; GED Tests candidates could select more than one educational reason.
have responded to a need to find work by opting for
short-term postsecondary programs that could help
them meet the need quickly.
Social Characteristics by Types of Degree
The percentages of GED Tests passers reporting different reasons for testing were about the same across
the three types of postsecondary credentials, except
for reasons of enrolling in trade/technical school,
entering a two-year or four-year college, and getting
a better job (See Table 3.9). It seemed that passers
followed their initial plan along their postsecondary education pathways. More GED Tests passers
who earned a postsecondary certificate indicated
enrolling in trade/technical programs, compared
with those earning associate and bachelor’s degrees.
Forty-six percent of bachelor’s degree holders chose
reasons for testing as entering a four-year college.
When taking the GED Tests, a higher percentage
(34.4 percent) of later postsecondary graduates with
a certificate reported reasons of getting a better job
compared with associate (25.6 percent) and bachelor’s degree holders (18 percent).
Majors of Graduates
Next we looked at postsecondary majors of 2004
passers. Majors were available only for those who
had completed their postsecondary program. We
categorized majors according to the Occupational
Outlook Handbook: 2010–2011, published by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2009). Table 3.10 displays the most five common postsecondary majors
of graduates according to the Occupational Outlook
Handbook categories, disaggregated by types of degree.
In terms of employment status, GED Tests passers
who were employed part time when testing tended
to earn bachelor’s degrees more frequently (18.9 percent) than certificates (12.2 percent). Those who
were unemployed when taking the GED Tests eventually earned a certificate (29.2 percent) or associate
degree (23 percent) more often than a bachelor’s
degree (17.7 percent). Unemployed test-takers may
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
tABle 3.10
Most common postsecondary Majors of 2004 cohort of
GeD ® tests passers Who Graduated, by Degree type
Degree type
certificate
associate Degree
Bachelor's Degree
Major
Nurse Assistant/Aide
Nursing
Business
Computer Information Systems
Phlebotomy
Liberal Arts/Liberal Studies
Nursing
General Studies
Criminal Justice/Law Enforcement
Education
Psychology
Management
Business Administration
English
Biology
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
27
c h ap t e r III
postsecondary credentials may already have had skill
levels high enough to take GED Tests without first entering adult education programs or attempting the OPT.
The majors most often chosen were in the categories of professional occupations, service occupations, or management and business. For graduates
with a certificate, the most popular major was nurse
assistant/aide. For associate degree holders, nursing
and liberal arts were the most often chosen majors.
Psychology and management were the most popular
majors for bachelor’s degree graduates. Further study
of majors of graduates is planned.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
Persistence and Degree Attainment
• Approximately two-thirds of 2004 GED Tests passers (67.2 percent) who enrolled maintained enrollment for two or more semesters. The median
number of semesters enrolled was two, ranging
from one to 14 semesters.
tests scores were in the 80th percentile had the
highest graduation rate.
• We found about 26 percent of GED postsecondary
enrollees still taking courses in 2010, and about
12 percent of all GED postsecondary enrollees
had earned a postsecondary credential by October
2010. Therefore, we concluded that the dropout
rate was 62 percent.
Single-semester Enrollees and
Multiple-semester Enrollees
• About one-third of GED Tests passers enrolled
in only one semester, and two-thirds enrolled in
multiple semesters.
• Only 11.6 percent of GED Tests passers who
enrolled in postsecondary education successfully
obtained a postsecondary credential by October
2010. Of all graduates, 1,321 (6.5 percent) completed single-semester programs, and 18,978
(93.5 percent) graduated with a postsecondary
credential requiring multiple semesters.
• The percentage of the oldest age group who
became postsecondary completers was almost
twice that of non-completers, regardless of the
total number of semesters enrolled. The finding
was in line with the analysis of graduation rates.
Older GED Tests passers were more likely to
graduate from postsecondary education.
• Generally speaking, graduation rates did not vary
significantly based on GED Tests passers’ demographic, academic, and social characteristics. Some
subgroups did have a higher graduation rate.
For example, the oldest GED Tests passers had
the highest graduation rate compared with the
other two age groups. Also, Hispanic and AfricanAmerican passers did not have a lower graduation
rate than white passers. GED Tests passers with
12th grade as the highest grade level completed
had the highest graduation rate compared to those
who completed lower grades. GED testing performance seemed to be related to passers’ postsecondary graduation rate. GED Tests passers whose
• For multiple-semester enrollees, highest grade
level completed and GED testing performance
seemed to be related to GED Tests passers’ graduation status. The percentage of GED Tests passers
with 12th grade as the highest grade level completed who became postsecondary completers
was almost twice that of non-completers. Also,
there were more passers with tests scores above
the 80th percentile for completers compared with
non-completers.
• The total number of GED Tests passers who
enrolled in postsecondary education peaked in
2005, about one year after GED candidates passed
their GED Tests. After 2007, enrollment remained
steady.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
28
c h ap t e r III
• The first-semester to second-semester retention rate for GED postsecondary enrollees was
50.7 percent. In contrast, the first-year to second-year retention rate was much lower, about
29 percent.
• GED Tests passers who enrolled in a single
semester did not differ from those who enrolled
in multiple semesters in terms of demographic,
academic, and social characteristics. Several
exceptions were observed: (1) More male GED
Tests passers enrolled in a single semester than
females, though in contrast, more females enrolled
in multiple semesters; (2) more GED Tests passers
whose highest secondary grade level completed
was 11th grade and higher enrolled in multiple
semesters; and (3) GED Tests passers whose GED
Tests battery scores were above the 80th percentile had a higher percentage of multiple-semester
enrollees.
GED Postsecondary Graduates
• More females earned advanced postsecondary credentials than males. About 62 percent of associate
degree holders were female.
• Though the youngest age group (16 to 24 years
old) had the largest proportion among all other
age groups across the three postsecondary credential types (certificate, associate, and bachelor’s), a
pattern was noticed that proportionately more of
the younger GED Tests passers had an advanced
postsecondary credential compared with older
passers.
The findings for the 2004 cohort of GED Tests passers were consistent with those of the 2003 cohort.
Though most GED Tests passers who enrolled in
postsecondary education maintained about two
semesters of enrollment, the economic value of this
one year could still be important based on other
research studies. Kane and Rouse (1995) found that
completing a single year of college credits increased
hourly wages and annual earnings by 4 to 7 percent.
Murnane, Willet, and Boudett (1999) confirmed that
earnings resulting from an additional year of college
increased, ranging from 5.2 percent to 10.8 percent.
Modest increases in earnings could be a benefit for
the majority of GED Tests passers in our study who
participated in multiple semesters of postsecondary
education.
Only half of GED Tests passers who enrolled in
postsecondary education could make it through from
their first semester to a second semester without
stopping out a semester, which indicated that the
first semester plays an important role in GED Tests
passers’ persistence in postsecondary education.
Moreover, the first-year to second-year retention rate
was even lower, which suggested that the majority
of passers started to have doubts about their postsecondary education at a very early stage and left
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
The postsecondary dropout rate was 62 percent for
the 2004 cohort. What caused the high dropout rate
of GED credential recipients who had already displayed educational resilience by passing the GED
Tests and enrolling in postsecondary education?
What barriers prevented GED Tests passers from
being successful in postsecondary education? These
barriers may include a perception that college is too
difficult or not for everyone (Behal, 1983), a lack of
skills to succeed in college (Reder, 2007), or strong
negative life experiences that interfere with persistence or prevent completion (Tyler & Loftstrum,
2008). More qualitative studies are needed to uncover the dynamics of GED credential recipients and
their postsecondary experiences.
A final concern from the results of Chapter III was
the mere 12 percent of postsecondary enrollees with
GED credentials who eventually earned a postsecondary credential. We observed that those with higher skill levels—whether demonstrated through high
GED Tests scores, through not needing the OPT, or
through completion of 12th grade—graduated from
postsecondary education programs more frequently.
However, it remains essential that higher education
develop a better understanding of how to prepare
and support those GED Tests passers with lower skill
levels to not only transition and persist for more than
one semester, but also complete their postsecondary
education. The same holds true for males or young
GED Tests passers. Do they need more support from
their institutions or other sources to complete (Reder,
2007)? Do they need more time to finish, as well as
support (Bound, Lovenheim, & Turner; 2010)? This
better understanding would benefit not only those
who do not persist, but also the remaining quarter
of GED Tests passers who are still working toward a
postsecondary credential and have not graduated yet.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
29
c h ap t e r III
• Highest grade level and GED testing performance
seemed to be related to types of postsecondary
credential that GED Tests passers obtained from
postsecondary education. Sixteen percent of GED
Tests passers with 12th grade as the highest grade
level completed earned the postsecondary credential title of certificate, and 21 percent and 26.5 percent earned associate and bachelor’s degrees,
respectively. For bachelor’s degree holders, more
than one-third of them (34.9 percent) had GED
Tests scores above the 80th percentile, which was
more than four times that of 80th percentile passers earning a certificate (8 percent).
soon after they had a taste of postsecondary education. What happened after GED credential recipients
made the transition to postsecondary education that
prevented them from completing, particularly in their
first semester? What were those barriers that prevented GED credential recipients from successfully completing postsecondary education? Further research
studies should be designated to investigate details
of GED Tests passers’ postsecondary experience,
including their course-taking behaviors, academic
performance, and financial situation.
chapter IV
Postsecondary Institutions
POSTSECONDARY INSTITUTIONS IN WHICH GED TESTS
PASSERS FIRST ENROLLED
T
o many GED Tests passers, starting postsecondary education may be a challenge. One
of the first tasks necessary to beginning
a postsecondary education is selecting an
institution to attend. Compared with traditional high school graduates, GED credential recipients may have initially chosen very different institutions when they started their postsecondary education. This chapter aims to describe the characteristics
of the postsecondary institutions that the 2004 cohort
of the GED credential recipients first chose when
they enrolled in postsecondary education.
We extracted the 2005 IPEDS data (NCES/IPEDS,
2005) to describe institutional characteristics, as 2005
is the peak year in which GED Tests passers enrolled
in postsecondary education after they passed the
GED Tests. We were able to link the institutions in
the NSC data with the IPEDS data through a commonly used institution code assigned by the Office of
Postsecondary Education (OPEID Number). The data
from IPEDS allow us to describe institutional characteristics; student characteristics, admission, retention,
and graduation; and special learning opportunities
and services offered in the postsecondary institutions
in which GED credential recipients first enrolled.In
total, the 2004 cohort of GED Tests passers attended
2,451 institutions 7 between 2004 and October 2010,
Key Findings for Chapter IV:
• The postsecondary institutions that GED Tests passers tended to choose were large, inexpensive, public
two-year colleges.
• At the GED 50-plus institutions, 83.7 percent had open
admissions policies, almost doubling the percentage
of the non-GED institutions with such policies.
• GED 50-plus institutions were more likely to offer
occupational programs, adult basic education programs, distance learning opportunities, remedial services, and on-campus daycare for students’ children.
• More than 80 percent of the GED Tests passers
enrolled in an institution that was located in the same
state where they passed the GED Tests, i.e., in their
home state.
• The gender and ethnicity distribution at the GED
50-plus institutions was comparable to those at the
non-GED institutions.
• The student-to-faculty ratio was higher at the GED
50-plus institutions, and the percentage of students
receiving financial aid was lower at the GED 50-plus
institutions.
• Student retention rates and graduation rates at the
GED 50-plus institutions were lower than those at the
non-GED institutions.
This number is slightly lower than the number of institutions in the raw data matched back from the National Student
Clearinghouse because we combined some branch campus data to main campuses to be consistent with IPEDS reporting.
7
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
30
c h ap t e r IV
We extracted data from the Integrated Postsecondary
Education Data System (IPEDS) to describe characteristics of those institutions in which GED Tests
passers enrolled. IPEDS is a system of interrelated
surveys conducted annually by the U.S. Department
of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES) to gather information from every college, university, and technical and vocational institution that
participates in the federal student financial aid programs. The completion of all IPEDS surveys is mandatory for institutions that participate in or are applicants for participation in any federal student financial
aid program (such as Pell Grants and federal student
loans). More than 6,700 institutions complete IPEDS
surveys each year.
as shown in Table 4.1. Among these institutions
1,371 are four-year and 1,032 are two-year institutions, representing about half of all IPEDS four-year
and two-year institutions. Compared with all IPEDS
institutions, in which 72.2 percent are two-year or
four-year colleges, the institutions in which GED
Tests passers first enrolled are nearly all two-year
and four-year colleges (98 percent). Because very
few institutions that the 2004 GED Tests passers first
enrolled in are less-than-two-year institutions, the
following analyses in this chapter will mainly focus
on the two-year and four-year institutions, making
the comparison between the institutions where GED
Tests passers first enrolled and other IPEDS institutions more meaningful.
presenting some general information on the institutions’ sector and geographic location, our analysis
focused on comparing the characteristics of the
postsecondary institutions that 50 or more 2004 GED
Tests passers first enrolled in (here after referred to
as GED 50-plus institutions) with those that the 2004
GED Tests passers did not choose (hereafter referred
to as non-GED institutions).
Institutional Characteristics
Institution Sector
Table 4.1 presents the institution sector of all IPEDS
institutions, of all institutions that 2004 GED Tests
passers first enrolled in, and of the GED 50-plus
institutions.
A further examination of the number of 2004 GED
Tests passers enrolled per institution found 897
institutions in which 50 or more GED Tests passers
first enrolled during the period from 2004 to 2010.
The enrollees at these institutions represented over
89 percent of all GED Tests passer enrollees. The
concentration of GED Tests passer enrollment at
these institutions, which are about 37 percent of all
the institutions that GED Tests passers first enrolled
in, provided a good opportunity to study what kind
of institutions most attract GED Tests passers when
they start postsecondary education. Therefore, after
c h ap t e r IV
Among the two-year and four-year GED 50-plus
institutions, 81.8 percent are public two-year institutions, 11 percent are public four-year institutions,
and 4.3 percent are private, for-profit four-year institutions. This distribution suggests that the institution
choice for the majority of the GED Tests passers is
mainly concentrated in public institutions, especially
two-year colleges.
tABle 4.1
Sector of postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional category 1
Sector of postsecondary Institution
Four-year or above and two-year Institutions
Four-year or Above Institutions
Public
Private Not-for-profit
Private For-profit
Two-year Institutions
Public
Private Not-for-profit
Private For-profit
Subtotal
Less-than-two-year Institutions (public and private)
Sector Unknown
Overall
1
all IpeDS Institutions
all Institutions into
Which GeD tests passers
First enrolled
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Number
percent
Number
percent
Number
653
1,627
417
2,697
13.2
32.8
8.4
54.4
526
723
122
1,371
21.9
30.1
5.1
57.1
98
14
38
150
11.0
1.6
4.3
16.8
1,187
233
844
2,264
4,961
72.2%
1,807
26.3%
100
1.5%
23.9
4.7
17.0
45.6
100.0
910
40
82
1,032
2,403
98.0%
37
1.5%
11
0.4%
37.9
1.7
3.4
42.9
100.0
731
1
12
744
894
99.7%
1
0.1%
2
0.2%
81.8
0.1
1.3
83.2
100.0
6,868
2,451
897
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
percent
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
31
tABle 4.2
regional Distribution of postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional category 1
region (States)
New england (ct, Me, Ma, Nh, rI, Vt)
Mideast (De, Dc, MD, NJ, NY, pa)
Great Lakes (IL, IN, MI, Oh, WI)
plains (Ia, KS, MN, MO, Ne, ND, SD)
Southeast (aL, ar, FL, Ga, KY, La, MS, Nc, Sc, tN, Va, WV)
Southwest (aZ, NM, OK, tX)
rocky Mountains (cO, ID, Mt, Ut, WY)
Far West (aK, ca, hI, NV, Or, Wa)
1
all IpeDS Institutions
all Institutions into
Which GeD tests
passers First enrolled
Number
percent
Number
432
1,171
1,026
635
1,629
707
241
987
6.3
17.1
15.0
9.3
23.8
10.3
3.5
14.4
164
406
345
260
629
215
84
316
GeD 50-plus
Institutions
percent
Number
6.8
16.8
14.3
10.7
26.0
8.9
3.5
13.1
percent
39
97
136
76
273
92
37
146
4.4
10.8
15.2
8.5
30.5
10.3
4.1
16.3
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
tABle 4.3
enrollment and tuition at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
enrollment Size and tuition
Institutions
reporting
Information
Mean
Number
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
98
98
98
52
52
51
729
729
730
13
13
13
892
892
892
Institutions
reporting
Information
Mean
Number
13,726
10,715
$4,575
5,875
4,623
$13,184
7,521
4,448
$2,062
1,146
1,065
$12,166
8,014
5,097
$3,122
122
122
75
1,158
1,158
803
255
255
188
923
923
466
2,458
2,458
1,532
2,825
2,313
$6,357
1,111
971
$14,139
1,444
902
$2,147
333
305
$10,281
938
781
$11,113
c h ap t e r IV
public Four-year
Total Enrollment (Number)
Full-time Equivalent Enrollment (Number)
Tuition and Fees ($)
Total Enrollment (Number)
Full-time Equivalent Enrollment (Number)
Tuition and Fees ($)
Total Enrollment (Number)
Full-time Equivalent Enrollment (Number)
Tuition and Fees ($)
Total Enrollment (Number)
Full-time Equivalent Enrollment (Number)
Tuition and Fees ($)
Total Enrollment (Number)
Full-time Equivalent Enrollment (Number)
Tuition and Fees ($)
Non-GeD Institutions
Note: Statistics on enrollment are for fall 2005; statistics on tuition and fees are for 2005–06.
1
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
Geographic Location
As described in Chapter II, a majority (83.3 percent)
of the 2004 cohort of GED Tests passers first enrolled
in a postsecondary institution in the same state where
they passed the GED Tests; only 16.7 percent first
enrolled in a college out of the state. The geographic
distribution of the postsecondary institutions where
the 2004 cohort of GED Tests passers first enrolled is
similar to the distribution of all IPEDS institutions by
region, as shown in Table 4.2. Twenty-six percent of
the institutions in which the GED Tests passers first
enrolled were in the Southeast, and 16.8 percent were
in the Mideast. Other concentrated percentages were
in the Great Lakes area, the Plains, and the Far West.
A further examination of the GED 50-plus institutions
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
showed that the regional distribution of these institutions is also consistent with that of all IPEDS institutions, except that the percentage of the GED 50-plus
institutions in the Southeast was higher at 30.5 percent, while the percentage of these institutions in the
Mideast was lower at 10.8 percent. This consistency
suggests that the institutions in which the GED Tests
passers first enrolled when they started postsecondary education are generally representative of all IPEDS
institutions in terms of geographic distribution.
Enrollment Size and Tuition
The average student enrollment and tuition cost of
the GED 50-plus institutions and the non-GED institutions
are summarized in Table 4.3.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
32
private two-year colleges, among which the number
of the GED 50-plus institutions was only 13.
The average student enrollment at the GED 50-plus
institutions was 8,014, which is significantly higher
than 938, the average enrollment size of the nonGED institutions. The average tuition and fees at the
GED 50-plus institutions were $3,122, which is significantly lower than $11,113, the average tuition and
fees at the non-GED institutions.
Selected Instructional/Program Offering
and Special Learning Opportunities
Table 4.4 lists the availability of selected educational
program offering and special learning opportunities
at the institutions. Among all four-year and twoyear GED 50-plus institutions, 89.7 percent offered
occupational programs, 81.8 percent offered adult
basic education, 96.9 percent offered distance learning opportunities, and 47.1 percent offered weekend
or evening college. These percentages are all much
higher than those of the non-GED institutions.
Given that the institutions that the GED Tests passers most frequently attended were public two-year
colleges, it is not surprising that the overall average
student enrollment and tuitions at the GED 50-plus
institutions were close to those of the public twoyear colleges in general (7,521 students and $2,062,
respectively). The overall average student enrollment
and tuitions at the non-GED institutions were mostly
determined by those of private four-year and twoyear colleges.
Even for public two-year institutions, the GED
50-plus institutions tended to offer adult basic education (92.3 percent), distance learning (98.8 percent),
and weekend or evening college (47.3 percent) more
frequently than the non-GED institutions (68.6 percent, 67.2 percent, and 16.2 percent, respectively).
This distribution suggests that GED Tests passers
tend to enroll in those institutions that provide adult
basic education and flexible educational programs.
Table 4.3 also shows that, for every type of institution, the student enrollment size of the GED 50-plus
colleges was significantly larger than that of the
non-GED institutions; and that the tuition costs at
the GED 50-plus institutions were lower than those
of the non-GED institutions, with the exception of
c h ap t e r IV
tABle 4.4
Selected Instructional/program Offering and Special Learning Opportunities at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004
cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
public Four-year
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
1
Instructional/program
Offering and Special
Learning Opportunities
Occupational Program
Adult Basic Education
Distance Learning Opportunities
Weekend/Evening College
Occupational Program
Adult Basic Education
Distance Learning Opportunities
Weekend/Evening College
Occupational Program
Adult Basic Education
Distance Learning Opportunities
Weekend/Evening College
Occupational Program
Adult Basic Education
Distance Learning Opportunities
Weekend/Evening College
Occupational Program
Adult Basic Education
Distance Learning Opportunities
Weekend/Evening College
Institutions
reporting
Information
Non-GeD Institutions
program
provided
(Number)
Number
percent
98
98
98
98
52
52
52
52
730
730
730
730
13
13
13
13
893
893
893
893
62
53
92
53
10
2
46
21
722
674
721
345
7
1
6
2
801
730
865
421
63.3
54.1
93.9
54.1
19.2
3.9
88.5
40.4
98.9
92.3
98.8
47.3
53.9
7.7
46.2
15.4
89.7
81.8
96.9
47.1
Institutions
reporting
Information
(Number)
123
123
123
123
1,172
1,172
1,172
1,172
271
271
271
271
929
929
929
929
2,495
2,495
2,495
2,495
program
provided
Number
38
6
84
16
243
17
487
230
255
186
182
44
722
23
104
126
1,258
232
857
416
percent
30.9
4.9
68.3
13.0
20.7
1.5
41.6
19.6
94.1
68.6
67.2
16.2
77.7
2.5
11.2
13.6
50.4
9.3
34.4
16.7
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
33
Student Demographics and Financial Aid
The ethnicity and gender distribution at postsecondary institutions by GED Tests passer enrollment
size is presented in Table 4.5. At the GED 50-plus
institutions, an average of 64.8 percent of fall 2005
students were white, 14.1 percent were black, and
9.9 percent were Hispanic; 58.6 percent of the students were women. These percentages were comparable to those of the non-GED institutions, with differences of less than three percentage points in each
gender or ethnic group. At public two-year institutions, the ethnicity distribution within these two institutional groups was also close, while the percentage
of women students (59.9 percent) enrolled at the
GED 50-plus institutions was higher than that at the
non-GED institutions (54.8 percent).
Table 4.6 (on page 35) presents the age distribution
of the undergraduates at the postsecondary institutions
by GED Tests passer enrollment size. Overall, at the
GED 50-plus institutions, the median percentage for
the undergraduates who were younger than 20 years
was 27.8 percent, and the median percentages for
those who were 20 to 24 years old, 25 to 29 years old,
and 30 years or older were 30.1 percent, 12.3 percent,
and 27.9 percent, respectively. At the non-GED institutions, the median percentage for the undergraduates
who were younger than 20 years was 18.6 percent,
and the median percentages for those who were 20
to 24 years old, 25 to 29 years old, and 30 years or
older were 34.5 percent, 15.8 percent, and 26.6 percent, respectively. This age distribution suggests that
the GED 50-plus institutions had a higher percentage
of undergraduates under the age of 20, compared
with the non-GED institutions. However, for both
public four-year and private four-year institutions, a
higher percentage of undergraduates under the age of
20 enrolled at the non-GED institutions. This implies
that more students enrolled at these institutions shortly
after graduating from high school.
The age distribution of undergraduates at postsecondary institutions by full-time or part-time enrollment status is also displayed in Table 4.6, which
follows similar patterns as the age distribution of
all students across the GED 50-plus institutions and
Gender and ethnicity Distribution at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional
category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
ethnicity/Gender
Institutions
reporting
Information
Mean
percent
Number
public Four-year
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
1
White, Non-Hispanic
Black, Non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Asian or Pacific Islander
Women
White, Non-Hispanic
Black, Non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Asian or Pacific Islander
Women
White, Non-Hispanic
Black, Non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Asian or Pacific Islander
Women
White, Non-Hispanic
Black, Non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Asian or Pacific Islander
Women
White, Non-Hispanic
Black, Non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Asian or Pacific Islander
Women
98
98
98
98
98
52
52
52
52
52
729
729
729
729
729
13
13
13
13
13
892
892
892
892
892
Non-GeD Institutions
Institutions
reporting
Information
Mean
percent
Number
67.8
11.7
8.5
3.1
57.9
56.9
19.0
9.8
2.7
45.5
65.1
13.8
10.0
4.1
59.9
53.5
27.2
11.2
1.9
41.0
64.8
14.1
9.9
3.9
58.6
122
122
122
122
122
1,158
1,158
1,158
1,158
1,158
255
255
255
255
255
923
923
923
923
923
2,458
2,458
2,458
2,458
2,458
72.4
6.5
5.6
6.2
53.4
62.2
12.3
6.1
4.9
53.2
62.5
16.8
7.6
1.8
54.8
61.5
18.1
9.7
3.3
73.2
62.5
14.6
7.6
4.0
60.9
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
34
c h ap t e r IV
tABle 4.5
tABle 4.6
Undergraduates’ age Distribution at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional
category 1 and attendance Status
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
public Four-year
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
1
age Group
Younger Than 20
20–24 Years Old
25–29 Years Old
30 Years and Older
Younger Than 20
20–24 Years Old
25–29 Years Old
30 Years and Older
Younger Than 20
20–24 Years Old
25–29 Years Old
30 Years and Older
Younger Than 20
20–24 Years Old
25–29 Years Old
30 Years and Older
Younger Than 20
20–24 Years Old
25–29 Years Old
30 Years and Older
Non-GeD Institutions
attendance Status
attendance Status
Institutions
Institutions
Full-time part-time reporting
all
Full-time part-time
reporting
all
Students
Students Information Students
Students
Students
Information Students
(Number)
(Median
percent)
(Median
percent)
(Median
percent)
98
98
98
98
50
52
52
52
729
729
729
729
13
13
13
13
890
892
892
892
27.6
41.4
11.9
16.9
13.8
34.8
20.4
27.9
28.5
29.2
12.2
29.0
14.6
39.0
21.7
24.5
27.8
30.1
12.3
27.9
33.6
46.9
9.7
9.5
16.9
37.2
19.5
23.8
39.9
34.1
9.7
14.6
16.2
39.6
20.5
23.7
38.1
35.2
9.9
14.4
12.3
27.8
17.7
37.1
5.6
26.0
21.9
43.2
19.3
25.8
14.4
38.6
4.5
40.5
23.7
29.2
17.6
26.2
14.8
38.5
(Number)
95
102
102
96
817
876
842
829
250
253
253
253
875
919
910
902
2,037
2,150
2,107
2,080
(Median
percent)
(Median
percent)
(Median
percent)
31.6
40.6
9.7
17.8
21.5
39.5
13.3
23.3
23.3
26.4
13.9
30.9
14.2
34.0
18.4
27.5
18.6
34.5
15.8
26.6
36.2
46.4
7.9
7.6
25.4
43.6
12.4
15.4
23.2
30.1
14.3
25.9
15.0
34.2
18.2
26.2
20.8
36.2
15.5
22.8
9.2
25.0
16.2
42.8
6.1
24.6
16.0
44.7
19.9
20.3
13.0
36.5
5.5
28.0
20.0
37.5
7.8
24.9
16.7
40.6
non-GED institutions. The ages of part-time undergraduates tended to be older than those of full-time
undergraduates.
Table 4.7 (on page 36) summarizes statistics on
student financial aid at the postsecondary institutions by GED Tests passer enrollment. Overall, at the
GED 50-plus institutions, 66.4 percent of all students
received at least one type of financial aid, including
federal grant, state or local grant, institutional grant,
or student loan aid. This percentage is lower that
that of the non-GED institutions, which is 76.4 percent. Further, at the GED 50-plus institutions, less
than a quarter of the students (22.5 percent) received
student loans, and the average student loan amount
was $3,030. Both percentage and loan amount at
the 50-plus institutions were lower than those at the
non-GED institutions, where nearly half (49.4 percent) of the students received student loan aid, and
the average student loan amount ($4,690) was about
50 percent higher than that of the GED 50-plus
institutions.
The lower percentage of the students receiving any
kind of financial aid or student loan and the lower
average student loan amount at the GED 50-plus
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
c h ap t e r IV
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
institutions may be the result of the shorter, less
expensive programs at these institutions, thus fewer
students would need financial assistance than their
peers at the non-GED institutions.
Postsecondary Admission, Retention,
and Graduation Rate
Whether a postsecondary institution has an open
admissions policy is an important factor in GED
Tests passers’ decision to enroll (Bound, Lovenheim,
& Turner, 2010; Tyler & Lofstrum, 2008; Patterson,
Zhang, Song, & Guison-Dowdy, 2010). The open
admissions policy statistics are presented in
Table 4.8 (on page 36). At the GED 50-plus institutions, 83.7 percent had open admissions policies;
at the non-GED institutions, only 43.2 percent had
open admissions policies. More than 95 percent of
the public two-year GED 50-plus institutions had
open admissions policies.
Statistics on college acceptance rates can also be
informative. The acceptance rate—calculated by the
number of admissions granted divided by the total
number of applicants—shows how competitive an
institution can be. However, in the IPEDS system only
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
35
tABle 4.7
Student Financial aid at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
Institutions
reporting
Information
Financial aid
Mean
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
1
Students Received Any Financial Aid (Percent)
Students Received Student Loan Aid (Percent)
Amount of Student Loan Aid Received ($)
Students Received Any Financial Aid (Percent)
Students Received Student Loan Aid (Percent)
Amount of Student Loan Aid Received ($)
Students Received Any Financial Aid (Percent)
Students Received Student Loan Aid (Percent)
Amount of Student Loan Aid Received ($)
Students Received Any Financial Aid (Percent)
Students Received Student Loan Aid (Percent)
Amount of Student Loan Aid Received ($)
Students Received Any Financial Aid (Percent)
Students Received Student Loan Aid (Percent)
Amount of Student Loan Aid Received ($)
Institutions
reporting
Information
Mean
Number
Number
public Four-year
Non-GeD Institutions
98
98
98
51
51
51
729
729
598
13
13
12
891
891
759
78.3
40.5
$3,535
85.7
70.5
$5,825
63.1
15.9
$2,646
88.1
71.7
$6,143
66.4
22.5
$3,030
77
77
68
817
817
653
247
247
85
887
887
736
2,028
2,028
1,542
75.0
51.4
$3,685
75.3
51.7
$4,995
70.1
11.4
$3,119
70.1
57.8
$4,694
76.4
49.4
$4,690
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
c h ap t e r IV
tABle 4.8
Institutions with Open admissions policies for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
Institutions
reporting
Information
(Number)
Non-GeD Institutions
Institutions with
Open admissions policy
Number
percent
Institutions
reporting
Information
(Number)
Institutions with
Open admissions policy
Number
percent
public Four-year
98
33
33.7
123
19
15.5
private Four-year
52
10
19.2
1,172
270
23.0
public two-year
730
699
95.8
271
253
93.4
private two-year
Overall
1
13
5
38.5
929
535
57.6
893
747
83.7
2,495
1,077
43.2
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
institutions that do not allow open admissions reported data on the number of applications received and
admissions granted for postsecondary credential-seeking entering students. As only a small number of GED
50-plus institutions did not have an open admissions
policy, we did not compare the acceptance rates of
the entering students between the institution groups
by GED Tests passers enrollment size.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
We then further examined the retention rates and
graduation rates at the GED 50-plus institutions and
the non-GED institutions. The retention rate was calculated as the percentage of the fall cohort from the
prior year that re-enrolled at the institution as either
full- or part-time students in the following year.
The graduation rate was calculated as the percentage of a cohort of first-time, full-time postsecondary
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
36
tABle 4.9
Student retention and Graduation rates at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by
Institutional category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
retention and
Graduation rates
Institutions
reporting
Information
Median
percent
Number
public Four-year
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
1
Retention Rate of Full-time Students
Retention Rate of Part-time Students
Graduation Rate
Retention Rate of Full-time Students
Retention Rate of Part-time Students
Graduation Rate
Retention Rate of Full-time Students
Retention Rate of Part-time Students
Graduation Rate
Retention Rate of Full-time Students
Retention Rate of Part-time Students
Graduation Rate
Retention Rate of Full-time Students
Retention Rate of Part-time Students
Graduation Rate
89
89
89
41
41
41
726
726
726
10
10
10
866
866
866
Institutions
reporting
Information
Median
percent
Number
66.0
42.0
32.0
64.0
44.0
41.0
58.0
40.0
23.0
64.0
46.0
34.5
59.0
41.0
25.0
40
40
40
276
276
276
225
225
225
285
285
285
826
826
826
64.5
43.5
36.0
64.0
48.0
46.0
57.0
43.0
36.0
70.0
66.0
55.0
64.0
50.0
47.0
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
At the GED 50-plus institutions, the median full-time
retention rate was 59 percent, the median parttime retention rate was 41 percent, and the median
graduation rate for the most recent IPEDS cohort
was 25 percent; all these percentages are lower
than those of the non-GED institutions. At the GED
50-plus public two-year colleges where GED Tests
passers most frequently chose to enroll, even though
the full-time and part-time retention rates were comparable with those at the non-GED public two-year
institutions, the median graduation rate (23 percent)
was still much lower than that of the non-GED public two-year institutions (36 percent).
Selected Services
Whether a postsecondary institution offers certain
services to accommodate a candidate’s needs or
schedule may also be an important factor when
a candidate chooses to enroll in that institution.
Table 4.10 (on page 38) presents the availability
of selected services at the postsecondary institutions
by the 2004 GED Tests passer enrollment status.
At the GED 50-plus institutions, 97.9 percent provided remedial services, 99.9 percent provided academic or career counseling services, 95.1 percent
provided employment services for students, 89.8 percent provided placement services for completers,
and 59.7 percent provided on-campus daycare for
students’ children. All these percentages are higher
than those at the non-GED institutions—particularly
in terms of the availability of remedial services
(51.1 percent), employment services for students
(64.1 percent), and on-campus daycare (8.9 percent).
This difference seemed to imply that the institutions
that were better able to accommodate the GED Tests
passers’ academic needs (by providing remedial services), foster their eagerness to improve their career
perspective (by providing employment services), and
support their family needs (by providing on-campus
daycare for students’ children) tended to attract larger numbers of GED Tests passers.
Instructional Staff
Table 4.11 (on page 38) presents the average number of instructional staff and the student-to-faculty
ratio8 at the postsecondary institutions by GED Tests
passer enrollment size. The average number of fulltime–equivalent instruction, research, and public
service staff at the GED 50-plus institutions was 270,
The student-to-faculty ratio was calculated by the number of full-time–equivalent students divided by the number of full-time–
equivalent instruction, research, and public service faculty members.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
37
c h ap t e r IV
credential-seeking students who completed their
studies within 150 percent of normal time (Horn,
2006 and 2010; NPEC, 2010). The results are summarized in Table 4.9.
8
Non-GeD Institutions
tABle 4.10
Selected Services at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by Institutional category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
public Four-year
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
Institutions
reporting
Information
Remedial Services
Academic/Career Counseling Services
Employment Services for Students
Placement Services for Completers
On-campus Day Care for Students' Children
Remedial Services
Academic/Career Counseling Services
Employment Services for Students
Placement Services for Completers
On-campus Day Care for Students' Children
Remedial Services
Academic/Career Counseling Services
Employment Services for Students
Placement Services for Completers
On-campus Day Care for Students' Children
Remedial Services
Academic/Career Counseling Services
Employment Services for Students
Placement Services for Completers
On-campus Day Care for Students' Children
Remedial Services
Academic/Career Counseling Services
Employment Services for Students
Placement Services for Completers
On-campus Day Care for Students' Children
Service
provided
(Number)
Number
percent
98
98
98
98
98
52
52
52
52
52
730
730
730
730
730
13
13
13
13
13
893
893
893
893
893
86
98
97
96
63
47
51
50
46
1
730
730
690
647
469
11
13
12
13
0
874
892
849
802
533
87.8
100.0
99.0
98.0
64.3
90.4
98.1
96.2
88.5
1.9
100.0
100.0
94.5
88.6
64.3
84.6
100.0
92.3
100.0
0.0
97.9
99.9
95.1
89.8
59.7
Institutions
reporting
Information
Service
provided
(Number)
Number
percent
123
123
123
123
123
1,172
1,172
1,172
1,172
1,172
271
271
271
271
271
929
929
929
929
929
2,495
2,495
2,495
2,495
2,495
63
117
97
99
37
640
1,076
743
709
86
260
270
189
227
70
312
767
569
762
28
1,275
2,230
1,598
1,797
221
51.2
95.1
78.9
80.5
30.1
54.6
91.8
63.4
60.5
7.3
95.9
99.6
69.7
83.8
25.8
33.6
82.6
61.3
82.0
3.0
51.1
89.4
64.1
72.0
8.9
c h ap t e r IV
1
Services
Non-GeD Institutions
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
tABle 4.11
Instructional Staff and Student-Faculty ratio at the postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ® tests passers, by
Institutional category 1
GeD 50-plus Institutions
Sector of
Institution
Instructional Staff/Student-Faculty
ratio
Institutions
reporting
Information
Mean
Number
public Four-year
private Four-year
public two-year
private two-year
Overall
1
Full-time Equivalent Instructional/Research and
Public Service Staff (Number)
Student-to-Faculty Ratio
Full-time Equivalent Instructional/Research and
Public Service Staff (Number)
Student-to-Faculty Ratio
Full-time Equivalent Instructional/Research and
Public Service Staff (Number)
Student-to-Faculty Ratio
Full-time Equivalent Instructional/Research and
Public Service Staff (Number)
Student-to-Faculty Ratio
Full-time Equivalent Instructional/Research and
Public Service Staff (Number)
Student-to-Faculty Ratio
Non-GeD Institutions
Institutions
reporting
Information
Mean
Number
98
634.4
115
98
18.4
115
305.6
13.4
52
183.3
1,122
80.7
17.1
52
27.3
1,122
729
231.2
249
62.1
729
19.6
249
14.2
13
49.5
919
15.9
13
23.0
919
19.9
892
270.0
2,405
64.8
892
20.0
2,405
17.7
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first enrolled
(i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll (i.e.,
the Non-GED institutions).
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
38
considerably larger than a mean of 64.8 at the nonGED institutions. However, the average student-tofaculty ratio of 20.0 at the GED 50-plus institutions
was higher than that of the non-GED institutions
(17.7), which might be associated with the larger
student enrollment size and lower tuition costs at the
GED 50-plus institutions.
DISCUSSION
In this chapter we focused our analysis on the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED
Tests passers first enrolled when they started postsecondary education (i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions).
More precisely, we compared their institutional characteristics with those of the institutions in which the
2004 GED Tests passers did not first choose to enroll
(i.e., the non-GED institutions), in order to better
profile the institutions that most attracted the GED
Tests passers when they first enrolled in postsecondary education.
We found that, among the GED 50-plus postsecondary institutions, 81.8 percent were public two-year
institutions. The average student enrollment size at
these institutions was considerably larger, and the
average tuition and fees at these institutions was
much lower than that of the non-GED institutions.
In addition, at the GED 50-plus institutions, 83.7 percent had open admissions policies, almost doubling
the percentage of non-GED institutions with such
a policy. GED 50-plus institutions were also more
likely to offer occupational programs, adult basic
education programs, distance learning opportunities,
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
top 10 postsecondary Institutions for 2004 cohort of GeD ®
tests passers, by Institutional category 1
Institution Name
State
University of phoenix–phoenix hohokam campus
portland community college
Miami Dade college
Broward college
Florida State college at Jacksonville
college of Southern Nevada
Western International University
Milwaukee area technical college
St. petersburg college
central New Mexico community college
Arizona
Oregon
Florida
Florida
Florida
Nevada
Arizona
Wisconsin
Florida
New Mexico
GeD tests
passers
enrollment
Size
(Number)
1
6,359
1,279
959
891
874
831
824
747
740
700
Institutional categories consist of: the postsecondary institutions in which 50 or more 2004 GED Tests passers first
enrolled (i.e., the GED 50-plus institutions) and the institutions where the 2004 GED Tests passers did not first
choose to enroll (i.e., the Non-GED institutions).
remedial services, and on-campus daycare for students’ children. However, the student retention rates
and graduation rates at the GED 50-plus institutions
were lower than those at the non-GED institutions;
particularly for graduation rates—the GED 50-plus
institutions had significantly lower graduation rates
when compared to the non-GED institutions.
Our findings suggest that the postsecondary institutions that GED Tests passers tended to choose were
large, inexpensive, public two-year colleges. The relatively wide availability of adult basic education programs and remedial services at these institutions may
have helped transition the GED Tests passers into
postsecondary education. These institutions also offer
more flexibility and support, such as distance learning opportunities and on-campus daycare, to accommodate the students’ needs. However, without further individual-level study on the GED Tests passers’
decision-making process, we were not able to know
for sure if these factors played a key role in the GED
Tests passers’ decision when they made their first
choices of postsecondary institutions. As mentioned
earlier, more than 80 percent of the GED Tests passers enrolled in an institution that was located in the
same state where they passed the GED Tests, i.e.,
in their home state. This finding was very close to
the percentage reported in Bound, Lovenheim, and
Turner (2010). Did the GED Tests passers just enroll
in an institution merely for convenience? Particularly
for those who prepared for the GED Tests through a
community college, would it be logical or convenient
for them to stay in the same college to earn their
postsecondary credential?
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
39
c h ap t e r IV
Top 10 Institutions by 2004 GED Tests Passer Enrollment
Which colleges were the most popular among the
2004 GED Tests passers who enrolled in postsecondary education? Table 4.12 lists the top 10 institutions
by 2004 GED Tests passer enrollment size when
they first started postsecondary education. The most
popular institution was University of Phoenix, which
offers most programs online (so is not exclusive to
Arizona) and was chosen by over 6,300 GED Tests
passers in the 2004 cohort when they first enrolled
in postsecondary education. The other nine institutions were mostly state or local campuses that first
enrolled between 700 and 1,300 GED Tests passers in the 2004 cohort. Four of them are based in
Florida; the remaining five are based in Oregon,
Nevada, Arizona, Wisconsin, and New Mexico,
respectively.
tABle 4.12
We also noticed that the gender and ethnicity distribution at the GED 50-plus institutions was comparable with that at the non-GED institutions. Did
these factors play any role in the GED Tests passers’
choice of postsecondary institutions? How much do
gender, ethnicity, and age distribution at an institution affect the choices of a GED Tests passer who
might have a different demographic background
from the main student body at that institution? In
addition, the student-to-faculty ratio was higher at
the GED 50-plus institutions, and the percentage of
students receiving financial aid was lower at the GED
50-plus institutions. How much does the availability
of financial aid and of the institution faculty affect
GED Tests passers’ choices of institutions?
Further, except for retention rates and graduation
rates, we found very few indicators of the institutions’ education quality. Despite the shorter, twoyear education programs and the support services
provided, the GED 50-plus institutions still face the
challenge of retaining and graduating their students.
We had no information on how effectively these
institutions, whether GED 50-plus or non-GED,
served students with GED credentials, individually or
collectively. However, determining what can be done
at the GED 50-plus institutions, or in public two-year
colleges in general, to help all students graduate is
an important and urgent education policy issue.
Finally, a limitation of this chapter is that we examined the characteristics only of the institutions in
which the GED Tests passers first enrolled, not the
institutions from which the GED Tests passers graduated. Given that the postsecondary graduation rate
for the GED Tests passers was low and that convenience might play a role in the GED Tests passers’
enrollment decisions, it is critical to study the kinds
of institutional characteristics or services that may
help GED Tests passers graduate. We plan to conduct a follow-up study examining the relationship
between institutional characteristics and the GED
Tests passers’ graduation status.
c h ap t e r IV
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
40
chapter V
GED Credential Recipients’ and Traditional
High School Graduates’ Backgrounds and
Postsecondary Experiences
I
n Chapter V, our longitudinal comparison of
background and postsecondary experiences
and outcomes of GED credential recipients
with those of traditional high school graduates
employs a different methodological approach
and dataset from previous chapters in this report.
The purpose of this comparison is to expand on the
insights into the GED Tests passer population (from
Chapters II and III) and the institutions they attended
(from Chapter IV) in contrast to the population of
traditional high school graduates. Findings presented
in Chapter V are expanded upon in two separate
2011 papers (Guison-Dowdy & Patterson, in press).
These forthcoming papers explore in greater detail
the postsecondary experiences and outcomes of GED
credential recipients and of traditional high school
graduates, and also provide results disaggregated by
key demographic subgroups.
Key Findings for Chapter V:
• GED Tests passers received about 20 percent less in
financial aid for their first-year studies than did traditional high school graduates.
• About the same proportion of GED credential recipients and traditional high school graduates received
remedial or developmental instruction during their first
year of postsecondary education.
• Enrollees from both educational background groups
experienced stability in the number of institutions
attended—unlike the stereotype of GED Tests passers
as a fickle and mobile population.
• Among enrollees with one or more years between high
school graduation or passing the GED Tests and their
first year in postsecondary education, traditional high
school graduates waited longer to enroll in postsecondary education than did GED Tests passers.
• A great majority of GED Tests passers and traditional
high school graduates alike had zero stopout during
their first two years.
• GED Tests passers were generally older when they
first enrolled in postsecondary education and their
parents had a lower level of education than those of
traditional high school graduates.
• The educational expectations of GED Tests passers in 2003–04 appeared somewhat lower compared
with those of traditional high school graduates; more
than a third of GED Tests passers wanted a bachelor’s degree when they first enrolled, but earned a
postsecondary certificate. The traditional high school
graduates, on the other hand, seemed to follow their
self-predicted bachelor’s degree path.
• GED Tests passers in general appeared to be exposed
to a higher number of risk factors during their first year
of enrollment than traditional high school graduates
were.
• Private situations and financial struggles that enrollees
experienced after first enrolling, rather than academic
problems, were reported as the main reasons for leaving the postsecondary system for both educational
background groups.
• About half of GED Tests passers and 35 percent of
traditional high school graduates who had enrolled in
2003–04 neither earned a postsecondary credential
nor were enrolled in postsecondary education as of
June 2009.
• More than two-thirds of enrollees in both groups
worked on at least a part-time basis and a majority
attended classes full time during their freshman year.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
41
c h ap t e r V
• First-time enrollees, whether GED Tests passers or
traditional high school graduates, were more frequently female and white.
Data Source: BPS:04/09
The data used in Chapter V are from the 2004/2009
Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal
Study,9 a large-scale, longitudinal study sponsored by
the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
of the U.S. Department of Education. This study follows a nationally representative cohort of freshmen
from the year they first enrolled into the postsecondary system and aims at capturing their postsecondary experiences, aspirations, and transition to the
workforce. The great majority of students in the
BPS:04/09 cohort first enrolled during the 2003–04
academic year, while GED credential recipients from
the IDB/NSC dataset could have enrolled at any
point between the time they passed the GED Tests
and 2010.
Methodology, Sample, and Research Questions
Of the students interviewed in 2003–04, about
8 percent (representing about 298,200 students)
had a GED credential and 88 percent (representing about 3,357,300 students) had a traditional high
school diploma, and were included in the sample for
Chapter V analyses.
Chapter V explores four focal research questions:
1. Given the unique secondary school experiences
and life challenges of GED credential recipients,
are their demographic and background characteristics different from those of traditional high
school graduates?
2. Wherewithal—that is, the necessary means and
resources—during the first year of enrollment
9
3. Do GED credential recipients select postsecondary
institutions that differ from those attended by traditional high school graduates?
4. How do the postsecondary experiences and outcomes of GED credential recipients compare with
those of traditional high school graduates?
Demographic and Background Characteristics
of First-time Postsecondary Enrollees, by
Educational Background
Demographic and background information for GED
credential recipients and traditional high school
graduates are displayed in Table 5.1 (on page 43).
Characteristics of postsecondary enrollees in these
tables include gender, age at enrollment, ethnicity,
and parents’ highest level of education.
c h ap t e r V
We presented and analyzed BPS data in Chapter V
from the U.S. Department of Education’s Datalab
system. We reported tables and figures for both
groups of GED credential recipients and traditional
high school graduates and indicated estimates, relative standard errors (RSE) percent of estimates, and
weighted sample sizes. The relative standard error
(RSE) percent, which is associated with the standard
error statistic, is used to assess the reliability of each
estimate within a given sample for use in producing
confidence intervals. The higher the RSE percent, the
lower the reliability of the sample estimate, and vice
versa.
being an important component of future success
in postsecondary education, how do GED credential recipients compare with traditional high school
graduates in terms of years to enrollment, employment status, degree expectations at enrollment,
and risk of postsecondary dropout? What specific
assets and characteristics could potentially contribute to—or impede—enrollees’ postsecondary
experiences and outcomes?
Gender
A larger percentage of freshmen from both the GED
credential recipients group (about 60 percent) and
the traditional high school graduates group (about
58 percent) were female (see Table 5.1).
Age at Enrollment
GED Tests passers from the BPS:04/06 dataset
tended to be older than their high school graduate
counterparts when they first entered postsecondary education (see Table 5.1). The median age of
first-time enrollees from that cohort as of December
31, 2003, was 18 years old for high school graduates and 24 years old for GED Tests passers. Nearly
46 percent of GED credential recipients from the
BPS:04/06 dataset were between 16 and 23 years old
when they first enrolled in postsecondary education,
whereas almost 83 percent of high school graduates
belonged to that same age group. Additionally, more
than half (54.1 percent) of GED Tests passers from
Percentages for some variables from the BPS:04/06 data wave might differ slightly from those for the BPS:04/09 data wave, due
to a small attrition rate across all three waves of data collection.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
42
tABle 5.1
Gender, age, ethnic Group, and parents’ highest Level of education of Beginning postsecondary Students Who enrolled in
2003–04, by educational Background
educational Background
Demographic characteristics
GeD credential recipients
traditional high School Graduates
39.9 (5.0)
60.1 (3.4)
42.5 (1.5)
57.5 (1.1)
15.4 (9.6)
8.2 (13.4)
22.3 (7.3)
22.4 (7.4)
31.7 (5.7)
46.0 (1.7)
25.2 (1.9)
11.4 (4.2)
6.3 (6.0)
11.2 (4.2)
18.4 (9.0)
16.7 (11.2)
61.0 (4.0)
1.9 ! (46.8)
2.0 (26.1)
0.04 !! (104.4)
15.0 (4.5)
13.6 (5.7)
66.1 (1.6)
0.6 (16.0)
4.3 (6.3)
0.4 (24.3)
17.9 (9.8)
35.2 (5.2)
4.7 (21.0)
14.3 (9.5)
19.4 (10.2)
8.4 (14.0)
6.7 (4.9)
27.6 (2.2)
4.0 (5.6)
15.7 (2.8)
27.3 (2.0)
18.8 (2.5)
(percent) (rSe percent)
Gender:
Male
Female
age at entry Into postsecondary, as of 12/31/2003:
15–18 Years1
19 Years
20–23 Years
24–29 Years
30 Years and Older
ethnic Group:2
Hispanic/Latino
Black/African American
White
American Indian/Alaska Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
parents' highest Level of education:3
Did Not Complete High School
High School Diploma or Equivalent
Vocational or Technical Training
Associate Degree or Less Than Two Years of College
Bachelor's Degree or Two or More Years of College But No Degree
Master's Degree or Above
(percent) (rSe percent)
the BPS:04/06 dataset were 24 years of age or older,
while the corresponding percentage for traditional
high school graduates was low, at 17.5 percent.
Ethnic Origin
As reflected in Table 5.1, a majority of first-time
enrollees from the BPS:04/06 dataset were white, for
both GED Tests passers (61 percent) and high school
graduates (66.1 percent).
Parents’ Highest Level of Education
As indicated in Table 5.1, parents of first-time enrollees most often completed high school or its equivalent for both GED Tests passers and traditional high
school graduates (35.2 percent and 27.6 percent,
respectively). Furthermore, about 42 percent of GED
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
c h ap t e r V
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 Beginning Postsecondary Students
Longitudinal Study, First Follow-up (BPS:04/06).
RSE=Relative Standard Error.
!=Interpret data with caution. Relative standard error (RSE) between 30 and 50 percent.
!!=Interpret data with caution. Relative standard error (RSE) > 50 percent.
1
The first age category included 15 year-old high school students. GED Tests passers by definition must be at least age 16.
2
“Other” and “Two or More Ethnicities” were included in the “Non-White” category.
3
Parents' highest level of education was based on the highest level of education attained by either parent.
Notes:
Weighted sample sizes for gender and age: GED credential recipients n=298,200 and traditional high school graduates
n=3,357,300.
Weighted sample sizes for ethnicity: GED credential recipients n=282,600 and traditional high school graduates n=3,224,800.
Weighted sample sizes for parents' highest level of education: GED credential recipients n=279,000 and traditional high
school graduates n=3,284,400.
Tests passers’ parents attended college, with or without attaining a postsecondary credential, which was
the case for nearly 62 percent of traditional high
school graduates’ parents. More than twice as many
parents (17.9 percent) of GED credential recipients
who enrolled in postsecondary education did not finish high school, compared with parents of traditional
high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary
education (6.7 percent).
Wherewithal of First-time Postsecondary
Enrollees, by Educational Background
Another research question in Chapter V considers
the wherewithal of postsecondary enrollees. In other
words, specific assets and characteristics that could
potentially contribute to—or impede—enrollees’
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
43
postsecondary experiences and outcomes were selected
from BPS:04/06 variables. These variables were employment status, years to enrollment, student financial aid,
highest degree expected, and risk index at enrollment.
expected to receive up to a bachelor’s degree
(including postsecondary certificates); while a majority (54.4 percent) of traditional high school graduates
aimed at completing at least a master’s degree.
Employment Status in 2003–04
Nearly as many GED Tests passers (32.5 percent) as
high school graduates (30.9 percent) did not have a
job during the first year they enrolled in postsecondary education. However, more than a third (35.9 percent) of GED credential recipients held full-time
employment, versus 22.4 percent of traditional high
school graduates. A higher percentage of traditional
high school graduates (46.7 percent) worked part
time while enrolled in postsecondary education.
Risk Index in 2003–04
Risk index in 2003–04 is a composite made of seven
variables that could negatively affect students’ postsecondary experiences and outcomes: time to enrollment, no traditional high school diploma, part-time
enrollment, financial independence, having dependents, being a single parent, and working full time
while enrolled. For example, if an enrollee accumulated five of the above criteria (up to a maximum
of seven), he or she was identified as having a risk
index of five. The assumption is that the higher the
risk index, the higher the threat of dropout from
postsecondary education. We note that by definition,
all GED credential recipients have a risk index of
at least one, as not having a high school diploma is
one of the seven variables in the composite index.
Student Financial Aid Received in 2003–04
For those students who received financial assistance
(from any state, federal, institutional, and other funding sources, and of any type, such as grants, scholarships, loans, work-study, and assistantships) during
the first year they enrolled in postsecondary education, the mean dollar amount received was $7,677 for
high school graduates and $6,071 for GED Tests passers. In other words, GED Tests passers received about
20 percent less in financial aid for their first-year studies than traditional high school graduates did.
Highest Degree Expected in 2003–04
As shown in Table 5.2, as of 2004, more than twice
as many GED Tests passers (10.4 percent) as high
school graduates (4 percent) expected to go only
as far as receiving a certificate—which involves a
short-term enrollment in the postsecondary system.
Additionally, 61.6 percent of GED Tests passers (versus 44.6 percent of traditional high school graduates)
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Exactly half (50 percent) of traditional high school
graduates had a risk index of zero in 2003–04 and,
as expected, no GED credential recipients had a zero
risk index. GED Tests passers appeared to be generally exposed to a higher number of risk factors
than traditional high school graduates were. Overall,
c h ap t e r V
Years to Enrollment
The mean number of years to enrollment was calculated using the year of the student’s high school
graduation or the year of the student’s passing the
GED Tests and their first year enrolled in postsecondary education. The mean number of years to
enrollment for all enrollees, regardless of whether
they waited or not before enrolling, was 3.3 years
for traditional high school graduates and 5.9 years
for GED credential recipients. The mean number
of years for GED credential recipients to enroll in
postsecondary education—for those enrollees who
waited at least one year—was 8.5 years, versus 10.1
years for traditional high school graduates.
tABle 5.2
highest Degree ever expected by Beginning
postsecondary Students Who enrolled in 2003–04,
by educational Background
highest Degree
Student
ever expected
(as of 2004)
No Degree or certificate
certificate
associate Degree
Bachelor's Degree
Master's Degree or post-Ba/
post-Ma certificate
Doctoral Degree or Firstprofessional Degree
educational Background
GeD credential
recipients
(percent) (rSe
percent)
traditional high
School Graduates
(percent) (rSe
percent)
1.5 ! (32.4)
10.4 (8.6)
17.2 (9.2)
34.0 (5.4)
1.0 (13.5)
4.0 (6.3)
8.9 (4.8)
31.7 (1.8)
26.9 (6.6)
36.7 (1.5)
10.0 (10.8)
17.7 (2.6)
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, 2003–04 Beginning Postsecondary
Students Longitudinal Study, First Follow-up (BPS:04/06).
RSE=Relative Standard Error.
!=Interpret data with caution. Relative standard error (RSE)
between 30 and 50 percent.
Note:
Weighted sample sizes: GED credential recipients
n=298,200 and traditional high school graduates
n=3,357,300.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
44
Level of First Institution Attended
While 82.9 percent of GED credential recipients first
attended an institution of two years or less in 2003–
04, only 53.2 percent of the traditional high school
graduates did so. This result for GED Tests passers
is in keeping with findings from Chapter II. On the
other hand, about 17 percent of GED Tests passers
and 47 percent of traditional high school graduates
first attended four-year institutions.
about 89 percent of GED Tests passers experienced
at least one other risk factor in addition to not having a high school diploma. GED credential recipients
tended to have a risk index of five (24.4 percent) or
four (19.9 percent), while traditional graduates tended
to have a risk factor of zero (50 percent) or one
(18.5 percent).
First Postsecondary Institution Attended,
by Educational Background
Tuition and Fees of First Institution Attended
The mean cost for tuition and fees at the first institution attended was more than 30 percent lower
for GED credential recipients ($3,877) than for high
school graduates ($5,768), at least in part because
the former tended to attend public two-year-or-less
institutions.
Following our examination of institutional settings in
Chapter IV, we also questioned whether GED credential recipients and traditional high school graduates
first attended postsecondary institutions that were different in nature because of the varying backgrounds
and wherewithal that each group exhibited. This section addresses that question further using BPS:04/06
data. Information covers level, region, and tuition and
fees of first institution attended.
Region of First Institution Attended
As highlighted in Figure 5.1, high percentages of
both GED credential recipients (44.5 percent) and
figuRe 5.1
educational Background of Beginning postsecondary Students, by region 1 of Institution Where First enrolled in 2003–04
GED Credential Recipients (n=297,000)*
c h ap t e r V
FIGURE 5.1
Traditional High School Graduates (n=3,312,800)*
22.5%
Western Region
20.2%
24.6%
Midwestern Region
19.9%
35.2%
Southern Region
44.5%
17.7%
Northeastern Region
15.4%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Percent
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 Beginning Postsecondary
Students Longitudinal Study, First Follow-up (BPS:04/06).
* Weighted sample sizes.
1
U.S. regional classification from the Census Bureau. The Northeastern region consists of: CT, ME, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA,
RI, and VT. The Midwestern region consists of: IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE, ND, OH, SD, and WI. The Southern
region consists of: AL, AR, DE, DC, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, and WV. The Western region
consists of: AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NV, NM, OR, UT, WA, and WY.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
45
tABle 5.3
First-year remedial or Developmental courses taken by Beginning postsecondary Students Who enrolled in 2003–04, by
educational Background
remedial or Developmental courses
educational
Background
took any
remedial or
Developmental
course
Writing
Study Skills
reading
english
Mathematics
(percent) (rSe percent) (percent) (rSe percent) (percent) (rSe percent) (percent) (rSe percent) (percent) (rSe percent) (percent) (rSe percent)
GeD credential
recipients
traditional high School
Graduates
19.5 (8.1)
7.1 (16.1)
2.9 ! (31.5)
5.6 (4.2)
6.6 (4.7)
16.6 (2.8)
20.9 (2.2)
8.0 (3.9)
2.3 (6.9)
6.5 (18.4)
6.0 (16.7)
15.7 (9.7)
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 Beginning Postsecondary Students
Longitudinal Study, First Follow-up (BPS:04/06).
RSE=Relative Standard Error.
!=Interpret data with caution. Relative standard error (RSE) falls between 30 and 50 percent.
Note: Weighted sample sizes: GED credential recipients n=298,200 and traditional high school graduates n=3,357,300.
Postsecondary Experiences and Outcomes,
by Educational Background
The final research question for Chapter V relates to
the postsecondary experiences and outcomes of firsttime postsecondary enrollees at different points in
time (first year of enrollment, three years after enrolling, and five years after enrolling) during the course
of their involvement in the postsecondary system.
Information analyzed in this section includes attendance intensity, remedial course taking, and major
pursued during their first year. We also analyzed the
number of institutions attended and the number of
transfers through 2006 and 2009, number of stopouts
through 2006, persistence and postsecondary credential attainment after five years of enrollment, and
reasons for leaving postsecondary education in 2004
and in 2006.
Attendance Intensity in 2003–04
A majority of GED credential recipients (58.2 percent) and of traditional high school graduates
(69.4 percent) attended school exclusively full
time during the first year that they were enrolled,
although GED Tests passers tended to do so less
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
often, as illustrated by the 10 percentage-point difference between the two groups.
Yet, as highlighted before, GED Tests passers tended
to hold a full-time job during their freshman year
(35.9 percent) while a lower percentage of traditional high school graduates (22.4 percent) did so.
Moreover, nearly 50 percent of GED credential recipients worked full time while also attending college
full time during the first year they enrolled, about the
same as traditional high school graduates.
Remedial Courses in 2003–04
As reflected in Table 5.3, about the same percentage of GED credential recipients (19.5 percent) and
of traditional high school graduates (20.9 percent)
received remedial or developmental instruction during the first year they enrolled into postsecondary
education. More precisely, comparable percentages
of GED Tests passers and of traditional high school
graduates sought remedial instruction in writing and
reading, study skills, English, and mathematics.
Number of Institutions Attended
Through 2006 and 2009
The great majority of GED credential recipients
(85.3 percent) and of traditional high school graduates (75 percent) attended only one institution during
their first two academic years, that is, until the end
of the 2006 academic year. When we examined the
number of institutions that 2003–04 enrollees attended through 2009, it appeared that both educational
background groups remained relatively stable compared with the statistic as of 2006—although GED
Tests passers and traditional high school graduates
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
46
c h ap t e r V
of traditional high school graduates (35.2 percent)
first enrolled in a postsecondary institution located
in the Southern region, with more GED Tests passers enrolling in this region compared with traditional high school graduates. Lower percentages of
both GED Tests passers and high school graduates
(between around 15 percent and 17 percent) were
enrolled in institutions from the Northeastern region.
tABle 5.4
persistence and highest Degree/certificate attained for Beginning postsecondary Students First enrolled in 2003–04, by
educational Background: 2009
persistence Status
(as of June 2009)
educational
Background
GeD credential
recipients
traditional
high School
Graduates
received
Degree/
certificate,
Still enrolled
received
Degree/
certificate,
Not enrolled
(percent) (rSe percent)
(percent) (rSe percent)
highest Degree/certificate attained1
(as of June 2009)
Did Not receive Did Not receive
Degree/
Degree/
certificate,
certificate,
Still enrolled
Not enrolled
(percent) (rSe percent)
(percent) (rSe percent)
certificate
associate
Degree
Bachelor's
Degree
(percent) (rSe percent)
(percent) (rSe percent)
(percent) (rSe percent)
8.1 (12.9)
25.9 (7.0)
16.5 (10.8)
49.5 (4.7)
61.0 (6.3)
31.2 (11.8)
7.8 (26.6)
5.0 (5.4)
45.8 (1.6)
14.9 (4.1)
34.3 (2.0)
16.1 (4.7)
18.1 (4.0)
65.7 (1.2)
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 Beginning Postsecondary Students
Longitudinal Study, Second Follow-up (BPS:04/09).
RSE=Relative Standard Error.
1
Highest degree/certificate ever attained was reported only for students who did attain a certificate or degree by June 2009
regardless of whether they were still enrolled in postsecondary or not as of June 2009.
Notes:
Weighted sample sizes for persistence status: GED credential recipients n=271,300 and traditional high school graduates
n=3,304,800.
Weighted sample sizes for degree attainment: GED credential recipients n=92,159 and traditional high school graduates
n=1,678,393.
Number of Stopouts Through 2006
NCES defines a stopout as a break in enrollment
of five or more consecutive months. It may not be
accurate to say that a student definitely dropped out,
when he or she might come back and finish later;
dropout students themselves might consider they
have simply stopped out and will decide to re-enroll
at a later time. About 81 percent of GED Tests passers and 84 percent of high school graduates had
zero stopout episodes from enrollment in 2003–04
through 2006, while nearly 18 percent of GED credential recipients and 16 percent of traditional high
school graduates experienced one stopout episode.
Persistence and Degree Attainment Through 2009
As displayed in Table 5.4, among students who had
enrolled in 2003–04, 34 percent of GED Tests passers
and 50.8 percent of traditional high school graduates
received a postsecondary credential by June 2009.
Using this information as a proxy of the postsecondary graduation rate, we calculated that more than
half of traditional high school graduates and nearly a
third of GED credential recipients from the 2003–04
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
cohort of beginning postsecondary students had
graduated five full academic years after first enrolling, regardless of whether they were still enrolled or
not by June 2009. Furthermore, nearly half of GED
credential recipients (49.5 percent) were not enrolled
as of June 2009 and had not received a postsecondary credential, whereas a somewhat comparable
proportion of traditional high school graduates
(45.8 percent) had already received their postsecondary credential but were no longer enrolled in postsecondary education.
Relating to specific highest postsecondary credentials
that graduates received as of June 2009, regardless
of whether they were still enrolled in postsecondary education or not, GED credential recipients
were more inclined overall to complete a certificate
(61.0 percent), and traditional high school graduates,
a bachelor’s degree (65.7 percent).
Major Pursued During the First Year of Enrollment
About one-third of all enrollees, regardless of their
educational background (33.2 percent of GED Tests
passers and 32.3 percent of traditional high school
graduates), were not in a degree program or had no
declared major the first year they attended college.
GED credential recipients’ most pursued major was
in health (17.5 percent) while that of traditional high
school graduates was in humanities, education, or
social/behavioral sciences (18.5 percent combined).
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
47
c h ap t e r V
both had expectedly higher mobility in later semesters compared with their first two years of postsecondary education. More precisely, nearly 67 percent
of GED Tests passers and 60 percent of high school
graduates attended only one institution through 2009.
Reasons for Leaving Postsecondary
Education in 2004 and in 2006
As shown in Table 5.5, no large differences existed
between GED credential recipients and traditional
high school graduates and no major cross-sectional
gaps were found between 2004 and 2006 data collection waves in relation to student reasons for leaving
the postsecondary system. Personal factors were the
single most reported reason, and nearly half of all
leavers selected this reason in 2004 and 2006. With
no less than 27 percent of GED Tests passers and
traditional high school graduates selecting that cause
in 2004, financial reasons were the second most
often specified reasons for leaving, while in 2006 the
second most often reported reason for GED Tests
passers was family responsibilities.
Discussion
In future studies that further examine the postsecondary experiences and outcomes of GED Tests
passers and traditional high school graduates, it
would be worth comparing postsecondary education
enrollees’ backgrounds and demographics with those
of students in the secondary system, in order to identify whether postsecondary transitions vary for some
subpopulations.
Wherewithal of First-time Postsecondary
Enrollees, by Educational Background
GED Tests passers appeared to be generally exposed
to a higher number of risk factors during their first
year of enrollment than traditional high school
graduates were. For example, while about the same
proportions of GED Tests passers and traditional
high school graduates were employed during the first
year they enrolled in postsecondary education, more
GED credential recipients than traditional high school
graduates held full-time positions. Even with flexible
scheduling or careful sequencing of coursework, this
tABle 5.5
reasons for Leaving postsecondary education of Students First enrolled in 2003–04 reported in 2004 and in 2006, by
educational Background
reasons
for Leaving
postsecondary
in 2004 and in
2006
reasons for Leaving postsecondary education1
personal
reasons
Other reason(s)
Financial
reasons
(percent)
(rSe percent)
(percent)
(rSe percent)
(percent)
(rSe percent)
reaSONS FOr LeaVING pOStSecONDarY eDUcatION (2004)
GED
Credential
44.7 (8.3)
31.8 (12.0)
27.9 (13.1)
Recipients
Traditional
High School
54.5 (3.3)
23.2 (5.4)
30.8 (5.7)
Graduates
reaSONS FOr LeaVING pOStSecONDarY eDUcatION (2006)
GED
Credential
52.7 (7.4)
20.1 (14.2)
18.6 (13.7)
Recipients
Traditional
High School
48.2 (3.1)
22.7 (5.4)
22.7 (5.8)
Graduates
Family
Dissatisfied With
responsibilities the program
Scheduling
problems
academic
problems
Finished Desired
called for
classes
Military Service
(percent)
(rSe percent)
(percent)
(rSe percent)
(percent)
(rSe percent)
(percent)
(rSe percent)
(percent)
(rSe percent)
(percent)
(rSe percent)
25.2 (14.3)
20.1 (15.6)
8.7 (24.5)
6.8 (20.2)
3.8 ! (39.8)
21.0 (6.3)
16.1 (8.2)
8.3 (11.5)
14.0 (10.1)
3.6 (17.9)
21.1 (14.5)
10.3 (17.3)
17.6 (13.7)
11.1 ! (30.8)
8.1 (25.6)
0.5 !! (90.4)
13.2 (7.0)
13.5 (9.4)
15.4 (8.1)
9.6 (13.9)
5.3 (11.5)
2.8 (15.4)
Information
not collected
in 2004
Information
not collected
in 2004
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003-04 Beginning Postsecondary Students
Longitudinal Study, First Follow-up (BPS:04/06).
RSE=Relative Standard Error.
!=Interpret data with caution. Relative standard error (RSE) falls between 30 and 50 percent.
!!=Interpret data with caution. Relative standard error (RSE) > 50 percent.
1
Interviewees could select as many reasons as applied.
Notes:
Weighted sample sizes (2004): GED credential recipients n=75,600 and traditional high school graduates n=501,800.
Weighted sample sizes (2006): GED credential recipients n=101,600 and traditional high school graduates n=612,200.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
48
c h ap t e r V
Demographic and Background Characteristics
of First-time Postsecondary Enrollees,
by Educational Background
When we examined demographic and background
characteristics, it was interesting to find that firsttime enrollees, regardless of educational background,
tended to be female and white. However, GED Tests
passers were inclined to be older when they first
enrolled in postsecondary education and their parents had lower levels of education than parents of
traditional high school graduates.
employment status could put them at a disadvantage compared with enrollees who did not work or
worked part time and who could therefore spend
more time studying. Investigating postsecondary education outcomes for enrollees who worked full time
while enrolled, compared with those who did not,
could provide more insight into these initial findings.
Among enrollees with one or more years between
high school graduation or passing the GED Tests and
their first year in postsecondary education, traditional
high school graduates waited longer to enroll in
postsecondary education than GED Tests passers did.
This finding might be indicative of the role of the
GED credential as a springboard to further education.
More precisely, 65.1 percent of all U.S. passers stated
in 2009 that they took the GED Tests for educational
reasons; specifically, 31.6 percent and 22.9 percent
reported that they wanted to enroll in a two-year or
four-year college, respectively.10
It is a concern that GED Tests passers received
about 20 percent less in financial aid for their firstyear studies than traditional high school graduates
did, and this point should be further investigated in
future studies. Was this difference due to a lack of
passers’ familiarity with how to navigate the postsecondary system and a lack of support services to
help them find their way? Did GED Tests passers
tend to receive less financial aid because they tended
to enroll in larger, less expensive institutions, as
described in Chapter IV? Were they cautious about
First Postsecondary Institution Attended,
by Educational Background
Postsecondary education tuition and fees seemed
to be a core concern for GED Tests passers. As an
illustration, GED credential recipients who pursued
mid- or long-term degree plans appeared to consider
the cost of their education carefully, as they enrolled
in institutions with lower tuition and fees compared
with their high school graduate counterparts. Vigilant
institutional communication and counseling about
tuition assistance should aim to address this mid- and
long-term disconnect.
Postsecondary Experiences and Outcomes,
by Educational Background
Enrollees from both educational background groups
experienced stability in the number of institutions
attended—a contrast to the grim, widespread portrait of GED Tests passers being a fickle and mobile
population.
Several findings attested to the determination and
the motivation of postsecondary students regardless of their educational background, keeping in
mind that more than two-thirds of enrollees in both
groups worked at least on a part-time basis and that
a majority attended classes full-time during their
freshman year. A great majority of GED Tests passers and traditional high school graduates alike had
zero stopout during their first two years. However, it
would be valuable to look at the number of stopout
episodes through 2009 and not through 2006 only in
order to better appreciate the full scope of the stopout episodes. Unfortunately, no such information was
collected for the third wave of BPS:04/09.
Private situations and financial struggles that enrollees experienced after first enrolling seemed at the
core of leaving the postsecondary system for both
GED Tests passers and traditional high school graduates. Academic problems were not among the main
reasons that leavers reported. However, it would be
worth investigating what encompasses personal and
other reasons, those two being somewhat blanket
categories that deserve more investigation. Increased
social support and financial assistance—which would
both necessitate leveraged funding—appear to be
American Council on Education (ACE). (2010). 2009 GED testing program statistical report. Washington, DC: Author.
10
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
49
c h ap t e r V
The educational expectations of GED Tests passers in 2003–04 seemed somewhat lower than those
of traditional high school graduates. That could be
explained by the fact that a substantial portion of
GED credential recipients were working and were
slightly older—perhaps in charge of a family that
they needed to sustain. They may have expected to
further their education but could not afford to stay
in school for too long, therefore choosing a shorter
route to advance their skills in order to improve their
value on the labor market, compared with traditional
high school graduates. Alternatively, psychological
attributes, such as comfort level with postsecondary
studies, self-efficacy, locus of control, or self-confidence, could also contribute to educational expectations. Becoming academically confident may require
setting a series of educational goals—do GED credential recipients tend to set final educational expectations from the beginning?
taking on college debt, given their age and employment status?
essential to prevent students at large from leaving
the postsecondary system, and consequently warrant more attention from postsecondary institutional
administrators.
Comparable proportions of GED credential recipients
and traditional high school graduates received remedial or developmental instruction during the first year
that they enrolled in postsecondary education. This
finding calls for more investigation, as the general
public traditionally sees GED Tests passers as demonstrating lower levels of knowledge and skills than
traditional high school graduates. How were GED
Tests passers oriented toward these classes—in terms
of assessment and, subsequently, placement? The
outcome of developmental instruction also deserves
further investigation. Are first-year retention rates and
graduation rates comparable when both educational
background groups received remedial education—
given the multi-layered structure of developmental
education and additional costs associated with taking
non-credit-bearing courses?
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
50
c h ap t e r V
Results on persistence and postsecondary credential
attainment showed that while more than a third of
GED Tests passers expected—or wanted—to receive
a bachelor’s degree when they first enrolled, those
who graduated five academic years later tended to
end up with a postsecondary certificate—a shorter
route to improving their skills. The traditional high
school graduates, on the other hand, seemed to follow their self-predicted bachelor’s degree path, yet
many of those who expected a master’s degree or
higher settled instead (or maybe temporarily) for an
undergraduate degree. Another worrisome finding
was that about half of GED Tests passers who had
enrolled in 2003–04 neither had a postsecondary credential nor were enrolled in postsecondary education
as of June 2009, whereas this was the case for only
about 35 percent of students from the traditional
high school graduates group. Would increasing the
time to degree help identify more postsecondary
graduates, keeping in mind that longer enrollment
could be a double-edged sword—the positive side
being more time to finish successfully, and the negative side being the increased risks to motivation that
accompany lengthier enrollments? More attention
and further studies should focus on this population
of GED Tests passers who exit postsecondary education with no credential. Do these students eventually
come back? Were there personal or academic signals
that should have functioned as red flags early on and
could have been acted on?
Conclusion
T
he purpose of this report is to describe
which adults with GED credentials pursued
postsecondary education, when and where
they enrolled, and how they persisted, in
the context of results for individuals, within
institutional settings, and by educational background.
For Crossing the Bridge, Year Two—as for the Year
One report—we describe and report basic information. Multiple follow-up studies providing a more indepth look into these topics for the 2004 cohort are
planned throughout 2011.
Consistent with findings in Chapter IV, the institutions GED credential recipients in the BPS study
selected were most often two-year institutions, with
lower tuition and fees than those institutions traditional high school graduates chose. Postsecondary
tuition and fees seemed to be a core concern for
GED Tests passers. Thus, it is concerning that GED
Tests passers received about 20 percent less in
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
Findings presented in Chapter V are expanded upon
in two separate 2011 GED Testing Service papers
(Guison-Dowdy & Patterson, in press). These papers
explore in greater detail the postsecondary experiences and outcomes of GED credential recipients
and of traditional high school graduates, and also
provide results disaggregated by key demographic
subgroups.
More qualitative studies are needed to uncover the
dynamics of GED credential recipients and their
postsecondary experiences. Studies should examine
details of GED Tests passers’ postsecondary education experiences, including their financial status,
credits taken each year, academic performance, and
relationship with peers and instructors. Further studies should also focus qualitatively on the population of GED Tests passers who exit postsecondary
education with no credential. Were there personal
or academic signals that could have been acted on?
Or have these students simply stopped out during
the study period—and may eventually come back? A
GED Testing Service companion study, Perceptions
and Pathways, is investigating qualitatively how
adults with GED credentials proceed along the path
from secondary to postsecondary education; a preliminary report is planned for late 2011.
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
51
co n c l u s i o n
Given that the postsecondary graduation rate for the
GED Tests passers was low and that convenience
might play a role in the GED Tests passers’ enrollment decisions, it is critical to study what kind of
institutional characteristics or services are important
to help the GED Tests passers graduate. We plan to
conduct a follow-up study examining the relationship
between institutional characteristics and the GED
Tests passers’ graduation status. As another follow
up, further study of graduates’ majors is planned.
financial aid for their first-year studies than traditional
high school graduates did. This difference should be
further investigated in future studies.
References
Almeida C., Johnson, C., & Steinberg, A. (2006). Making good on a promise: What policymakers can do to support the educational persistence of dropouts. Boston, MA: Jobs for the Future.
American Council on Education (ACE). (2010). 2009 GED testing program statistical report. Washington, DC: Author.
Behal, E. (1983). After the GED Tests: Postsecondary education enrollment patterns and perceptions of GED
examinees. GED Testing Service Research Studies Number 5. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
Berkner, L., & Choy, S. (2008). Descriptive summary of 2003–04 beginning postsecondary students: Three years
later (NCES 2008-174). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Berktold, J., Geis, S., & Kaufman., P. (1998). Subsequent educational attainment of high school dropouts.
Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics.
Bloom, D. (2010). Programs and policies to assist high school dropouts in the transition to adulthood. The
Future of Children, 20(1), 89–108.
Boudett, K., Murnane, R., & Willett, J. (2000). ‘Second-chance’ strategies for women who drop out of school.
Monthly Labor Review, 123(12), 19–32.
r e f e r e n ce s
Bound, J., Lovenheim, M., & Turner, S. (2010). Increasing time to baccalaureate degree in the United States.
NBER Working Paper 15892. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Chimka, J., Reed-Rhoads, T., & Barker, K. (2007). Proportional hazards models of graduation. Journal of
College Student Retention, 9(2), 221–232.
Cominole, M., Wheeless, S., Dudley, K., Franklin, J., and Wine, J. (2007). 2004/06 Beginning Postsecondary
Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:04/06) Methodology Report (NCES 2008-184). National Center for Education
Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC.
Council for Advancement of Adult Literacy (CAAL). (2008). Reach higher, America: Overcoming crisis in the
U.S. workforce. New York, NY: Author.
Duke, A., & Ganzglass, E. (2007). Strengthening state adult education policies for low-skilled workers. Retrieved
August 21, 2008, from www.workingpoorfamilies.org.
Horn, L. (2006). Placing college graduation rates in context: How 4-year college graduation rates vary with
selectivity and the size of low-income enrollment (NCES 2007-161). U.S. Department of Education. Washington,
DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Horn, L. (2010).Tracking students to 200 percent of normal time: Effect on institutional graduation rates. (NCES
2011-221). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Kane, T. J., & Rouse, C. (1995). Labor market returns to two-year and four-year college. American Economic
Review, 85(3), 600–14.
Lakin, M.B., Mullane, L., & Robinson, S. (2008). Mapping new directions: Higher education for older adults.
Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
Maralani, V. (2006). From GED to college: The role of age and timing in educational stratification. Los Angeles,
CA: California Center for Population Research. Retrieved August 22, 2008, from www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_005_03.pd
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
52
Murnane, R., Willett, J., & Boudett, K. (1999). Do male dropouts benefit from obtaining a GED, postsecondary
education, and training? Evaluation Review, 23(5), 475–503.
Murtaugh, P., Burns, L., & Schuster, J. (1999). Predicting the retention of university students. Research in
Higher Education, 40(3), 355–371.
National Center for Higher Education Management Systems (NCHEMS). (2009). Progress and completion:
Graduation rates. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from
www.higheredinfo.org/dbrowser/?level=nation&mode=graph&state=0&submeasure=27.
National Postsecondary Education Cooperative (NPEC). (2010). Suggestions for improving the IPEDS
Graduation Rate Survey data collection and reporting . (NPEC 2010–832). Washington, DC: Author.
Ou, S. (2008). Do GED recipients differ from graduates and school dropouts? Findings from an inner-city
cohort. Urban Education, 43(1), 83–117.
Patterson, M., Song, W., & Zhang, J. (2009). GED candidates and postsecondary educational outcomes: A pilot
study. Research Studies 2009-5. Washington, DC: GED Testing Service. Retrieved January 4, 2010, from www.
gedtest.org.
Patterson, M.B., Zhang, J., Song, W., & Guison-Dowdy, A. (2010). Crossing the bridge: GED credentials and
postsecondary outcomes, Year one report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
Reder, S. (2007). Adult education and postsecondary success. New York, NY: Council for Advancement of
Adult Literacy. Retrieved June 5, 2009, from www.nationalcommissiononadultliteracy.org/content/rederpolicybriefrev10807.pdf.
Reder, S. (2010). Adult literacy development and economic growth. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
Ryu, M. (2010). Minorities in higher education: Twenty-fourth status report. Washington, DC: American Council
on Education.
Southern Regional Education Board. (2010). A smart move in tough times: How SREB states can strengthen
adult learning and the work force. See www.sreb.org.
Tinto, V., Russo, P., & Kadel, S. (1994). Constructing educational communities: Increasing retention in challenging circumstances. Community College Journal, 64, 26–30.
Tyler, J. (2003). Economic benefits of the GED: Lessons from recent research. Review of Educational Research,
73(3), 369–403.
Tyler, J., & Lofstrum, M. (2008). Is the GED an effective route to postsecondary education for school dropouts?
National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved December 22, 2009, from www.nber.org/papers/w13816.
Tyler, J., & Lofstrum, M. (2010). Is the GED an effective route to postsecondary education for school dropouts?
Economics of Education Review, 29 (2010), 813–825.
Wirt, J., Choy, S., Rooney, P., Provasnik, S., Sen, A., & Tobin, R. (2004). The condition of education 2004
(NCES 2004-077). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
53
r e f e r e n ce s
Quigley, B.A. (1997). Rethinking literacy education: The critical need for practice-based change. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Appendix
Enrollment and Graduation Rates for GED Tests Passers, by State: 2004 Cohort
2004 Cohort of GED ® Tests Passers Who Enrolled Into Postsecondary Education and Who Graduated, by State
State
U.S. Total
2004 GED Passers
Who Were PSE Enrollees
2004 GED Passers
Who Were PSE Graduates
(N)
(N)
(%)
(N)
(%)
7,347
1,673
9,745
6,153
27,476
9,099
2,896
464
561
27,568
18,385
1,338
3,074
14,003
10,794
3,940
4,120
9,892
7,879
2,266
5,418
7,157
10,178
6,349
6,573
8,512
2,083
2,230
3,793
1,469
6,420
4,404
25,328
12,647
990
15,065
7,079
7,385
13,321
1,244
5,640
1,438
10,690
34,589
4,934
619
11,523
11,326
3,608
7,431
1,328
3,102
685
2,848
2,375
12,879
4,034
1,005
131
198
11,584
9,641
579
1,308
8,372
4,654
1,969
1,724
4,186
2,201
707
2,074
3,171
4,353
2,935
3,033
3,702
795
1,157
1,730
562
2,802
2,366
10,747
6,331
321
6,180
2,481
3,960
4,548
598
2,647
418
3,501
12,389
2,044
222
4,802
6,008
1,170
3,641
512
42.2
40.9
29.2
38.6
46.9
44.3
34.7
28.2
35.3
42.0
52.4
43.3
42.6
59.8
43.1
50.0
41.8
42.3
27.9
31.2
38.3
44.3
42.8
46.2
46.1
43.5
38.2
51.9
45.6
38.3
43.6
53.7
42.4
50.1
32.4
41.0
35.0
53.6
34.1
48.1
46.9
29.1
32.8
35.8
41.4
35.9
41.7
53.0
32.4
49.0
38.6
310
42
338
249
1,206
481
111
21
15
1,566
2,083
87
144
1,031
434
245
173
532
167
66
193
398
339
457
352
409
97
136
92
86
348
290
1,425
1,010
53
472
164
479
638
74
280
66
346
1,136
158
28
598
785
87
545
51
10.0
6.1
11.9
10.5
9.4
11.9
11.0
16.0
7.6
13.5
21.6
15.0
11.0
12.3
9.3
12.4
10.0
12.7
7.6
9.3
9.3
12.6
7.8
15.6
11.6
11.0
12.2
11.8
5.3
15.3
12.4
12.3
13.3
16.0
16.5
7.6
6.6
12.1
14.0
12.4
10.6
15.8
9.9
9.2
7.7
12.6
12.5
13.1
7.4
15.0
10.0
368,675
156,983
42.8
18,641
11.9
c r o s s i n g t h e b r i dge , y ea r t w o r epo r t
G E D ® c r ede n t i a l s a n d po s t s eco n da r y o u t co m e s
r e f e r e n ce s
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
2004 GED
Passers
54
www.GEDtest.org