CHAPTER 12
The Production and
Distribution of Food
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Introduction to food production
• Half of the world’s people eat rice
• High in energy; low in vitamins and other nutrients
• Vitamin A deficiency: blindness, immune system
failure
• Affects 195 million children
• Iron deficiency: anemia and immune system failure
• Causes 100,000 maternal deaths/year
• Golden rice (GR2): genetically modified rice
• Added genes allow rice to synthesize beta carotene
(used to synthesize vitamin A) and iron
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Golden rice
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Frankenfoods
• The golden rice concept has not been welcomed
by all
• It is a genetically modified (GM) crop
• It contains genes from corn and beans
• Greenpeace has waged a campaign against
golden rice
• Frankenfoods: foods that contain foreign genes
• Created in the laboratory
• Genetic-engineering technology may be needed
to feed billions more, with better nutrition
• Decades of rapid population growth have left
millions dependent on imported food or food aid
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Successes
• Humans have done well at putting food on the table
• World food production doubled in the past 30 years
• Rising faster than the population
• The amount of food in developing countries has
increased
• World food trade is a major economic production in
many countries
• More people are overweight than are hungry
• But will it be possible to feed 10 billion?
• Reaching the MDG goal of halving the number of
hungry is in question
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Patterns of food production
• 12,000 years ago the Neolithic Revolution
introduced agriculture and animal husbandry
• Fostered development of civilization
• Major crops and animals were established in the first
1,000 years
• Food exchange and discovery (1450–1700)
• From the New World: potatoes, maize, beans,
squash, tomatoes, pineapples, cocoa
• From the Orient: rice
• From Europe: wheat, onions, sugarcane, animals
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Modern industrialized agriculture
• Until 150 years ago, most Americans lived and
worked on small farms
• Supplied a robust and growing nation
• Farmers used traditional approaches to pests and
erosion
• Crop rotation, multiple crops, animals wastes as
fertilizer
• People left the farm for jobs in cities and towns
• The Industrial Revolution in the mid-1800s
impacted farming
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Traditional versus modern farming
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Transformation of traditional agriculture
• The Industrial Revolution profoundly changed
agriculture
• Three million U.S. farmers feed the nation
• Plus produce enough for export
• This revolution increased farming efficiency
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Farm numbers went from 6.8 million to 2.1 million
Farms increased in size fourfold (to 449 acres)
Farm jobs account for 15% of the U.S. workforce
The U.S. has frequently produced surpluses
• Other industrialized nations have had this
revolution
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U.S. crop yields
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Components of the agricultural
revolution
• Infrastructure: transformed agriculture
• Rural electrification, roads, university programs,
markets, transportation, loans, extension
programs
• Price and income support subsidies
• Subsidies favor corporate farms, not poor farmers
• Machinery: handles every need for working soil
• Seeding, irrigating, weeding, harvesting
• Tractors, combiners, handlers, mowers, toppers,
etc.
• Farmers can cultivate far more land
• Creates a dependency on fossil fuels
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More components of the revolution
• Land under cultivation: U.S. pastureland and
crops comprise one-third (987 million acres) of
the total land area
• Since 1960, increased yields and surpluses
reduced the need for land conversion
• Conservation Reserve Program: reimburses
farmers for retiring erosion-prone land and
planting it with trees or grasses
• More land will be used to grow corn for ethanol
• Globally, valuable and fragile forests and
wetlands are converted to cropland
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Components of the agricultural
revolution
• Fertilizers: increase yields
• One ton of fertilizer increases grain yields 15–20
tons
• Current use is higher than ever
• High demand is tied to high food prices
• Most increase is in China, India, Brazil
• Pesticides: control insect and plant pests
• But pests have become resistant to many pesticides
• Despite increased use, losses to pests remain
constant
• Pesticide use is decreasing due to health and
environmental effects
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More components of the revolution
• Irrigation: occurs on 18% of all cropland
• It produces 40% of all food
• Irrigation is still expanding but at a slower pace
• Problems include groundwater depletion,
salinization, and waterlogging
• High-yielding varieties of plants: plant geneticists
have developed new varieties of wheat, corn,
and rice
• Yields double or triple that of traditional varieties
• Photosynthetic product is diverted to seeds, not
stems, leaves, or roots
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The Green Revolution
• The Green Revolution: technologies that resulted
in remarkable increases in crop production
• In 1943, Norman Borlaug and others bred dwarf
hybrid wheat with a large head and thick stalk
• Mexico tripled wheat production
• Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
1970
• Many other countries increased crop yields
• Grain production exceeded population growth
• The Green Revolution has done more than any
other single achievement to prevent hunger and
malnutrition
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Traditional versus high-yielding wheat
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Panacea?
• High-yielding varieties are now used around the
world
• Has decreased deforestation in developing nations
• The Green Revolution is not a panacea for all
difficulties
• Grains do best on irrigated fields
• But water shortages are increasing
• Grains require fertilizer, pesticides, and energyusing mechanized labor
• It has not eradicate hunger or poverty
• People can’t afford to buy food
• There is no safety net
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Impacts of the Green Revolution
• Research now focuses on disease, pests, and
climatic stresses
• The early revolution helped Asia and Latin America
• Later years mainly helped Africa and the Middle
East
• Without a Green Revolution, yields in developing
nations would have been lower
• Would have led to higher food prices, more
cultivated land, increased hunger, and higher infant
mortality
• Sub-Saharan Africa still lags behind in agriculture
• Due to the dominance of subsistence agriculture
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The yield gap for cereals
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Subsistence agriculture
• Subsistence farming: developing world farmers
use labor-intensive traditional agricultural
methods
• Practiced on marginal land
• Described as the “silent giant” that feeds most of
the world’s poor
• Subsistence farmers live on small plots of land
• They raise food for their household
• They may sell a small cash crop
• They do not consider themselves poor
• Subsistence farming is practiced in regions with
rapid population growth
• But is best suited for low population densities
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Subsistence farming
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Problems in Africa
• 67% of people in sub-Saharan Africa depend on
agriculture for their livelihood
• They experience low yields, rapid population growth,
poverty, hunger, and high child mortality
• The World Bank’s World Development Report 2008
states that agriculture carries the potential for lifting
rural Africa out of poverty
• But most rural farmers lack fertilizer and seeds to
improve yields
• Government subsidies in Malawi have doubled
yields
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Alliance for a Green Revolution
• Money from wealthy countries allows subsistence
farmers to:
• Improve irrigation, soil health, and markets
• Grow enough food for their families
• Produce enough to encourage economic
development
• Subsistence agriculture works well in some areas
• Slash-and-burn agriculture: involves shifting
cultivation within tropical forests
• Cleared land supports a few years of crops
• Gradually shifts into agroforestry (tree plantations
with ground crops)
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Slash-and-burn agriculture
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Animal farming and its consequences
• 25% of the world’s croplands feeds domestic
animals
• 70% of U.S. grain goes to animals
• The livestock economy: one of the most
important activities
• Four billion four-footed animals; 18 billion birds
• People enjoy eating meat and dairy products
• In the developed world, animals are raised in
confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs)
• In the developing world, animals are raised on
family farms or by subsistence farmers
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Cattle ranching in Australia
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CAFOs hurt the environment and
people
• Feeding crops to animals causes the same
problems as industrialized agriculture
• Manure in developing countries is used as fertilizer
• It is wasted in developed countries
• Manure overwhelms treatment systems and enters
water
• Fish kills, algal growth, and contamination with
pathogens
• Crowded animals allow diseases to spread
• Even to humans (e.g., avian flu)
• Salmonella causes $2.5 billion lost/year in the U.S.
• Heavy antibiotic use causes bacteria to become
resistant
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Rain forest crunched
• 58 million acres (23 million hectares) of rain forests
in Latin America have been converted to cattle
pasture
• Most land is held by few ranchers with huge
spreads
• Government policies encouraged colonization of
land to produce meat for domestic use
• Cattle production in the Amazon basin has
expanded
• It is now export driven
• Brazilian beef brings in $1.5 billion/year
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Climate change
• Deforestation and other land use changes in the
tropics release 1.6 billion tons/year of CO2
• Livestock belching and flatulence release 100
million tons of methane/year
• Methane is another greenhouse gas
• Anaerobic decomposition of manure releases 30
million tons of methane/year
• Methane released by livestock makes up 3% of all
gases causing global warming
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Good cow
• Although livestock contribute to the methane
problem, they enhance people’s diets and
quality of life
• Heifer Project International distributes livestock,
bee hives, fowl, and fish to families
• Local people oversee the projects
• Projects improve the environment
• Recipients must pass livestock offspring to others
• Animal farming is more sustainable in rural
farms in developing countries than CAFOs in
developed nations
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Heifer Project International
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Biofuels and food production
• Burning fossil fuels causes climate change
• Releases CO2 (a greenhouse gas)
• Biofuel: a renewable fuel made from ethanol and
oil derived from crops
• Can mitigate climate change
• No new CO2 is released
• With rising oil prices, biofuel prices are competitive
• Ethanol: made from corn (in the U.S.) and sugar
(Brazil)
• One-third of U.S. corn is devoted to ethanol
production
• Food prices have risen worldwide
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Consequences
• Critics say ethanol diverts corn from food production
• The U.S. produces 40% of the world’s corn and 55–
60% of the corn on the market
• Price increases take food away from children
• Does ethanol production decrease food?
• Wheat, rice, and soy prices have risen more than
corn
• Land previously planted in soybeans is planted in
corn
• Field corn is used to produce ethanol
• Only cornstarch is used for ethanol, leaving proteins,
vitamins, and fiber to produce food
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Factors contributing to high food costs
• Increased costs of oil for farm machinery and
fertilizer
• China and India are competing for oil
• Bad weather and poor harvests in Australia
• A major wheat exporter
• Rising demand for meat and animal products
from emerging economies
• 30% of increased prices from 2000 to 2007 is due
to biofuels
• Ethanol could be produced from grasses and
timber instead of corn
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Future prospects for reducing hunger
• Projections predict grain production to remain the
same
• Will slightly outpace population growth
• Also predict increased meat consumption in
developing countries
• Developing countries will not be able to meet
rising grain demands
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Most suitable land is already farmed
Increases in grain yields are slowing down
Many countries can’t afford to pay for grain imports
Sub-Saharan Africa will continue to have hunger
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Population and grain and meat
production
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Global picture
• There are only two ways to increase food
production:
• Increase crop yields
• Grow food crops on land now being used for
feedstock crops, biofuels, or cash crops
• Yields differ because of weather
• Soil, rainfall, and sunlight limit productivity
• It is impossible to predict how climate change
will affect rainfall patterns
• Developing countries could lose 334 million acres
of farmland due to tropical temperature increases
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Less meat and biofuels
• What is the possibility of switching from feed grain
and cash crops to food for people?
• Feed grain is a buffer against world hunger
• More people could eat lower on the food chain
• The trend is in the opposite direction
• Land could be converted from cash crops to food
• But land reform and a balance of trade are needed
• Biofuel production will increase
• By using marginal land and switching from other
crops
• Less corn will be available for animal feed and
exports
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A second Green Revolution
• A Doubly Green Revolution would
• Be more productive than the first Green Revolution
• Conserve natural resources and the environment
• It must repeat the first revolution’s successes
• Be equitable, sustainable, and environmentally
friendly
• This new revolution is possible through
biotechnology and genetic manipulation
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From Green Revolution to Gene
Revolution
• Genetic engineering incorporates desired traits into
plants and animals
• Producing transgenic (generically modified [GM])
organisms
• Genetic research of the Green Revolution used
genes that already existed or mutated in a species
• Genes can now be exchanged among plants,
animals, and bacteria
• This technology can help produce more food
• But there are concerns about its development and
use
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The promise
• The earliest and most common genetically altered
crops
• Pest-resistant cotton
• Herbicide-resistant corn and soybeans
• More recent crops include
• Sorghum resistant to a parasitic plant (witchweed)
• Insect-resistant corn, potatoes, cotton
• Rapidly growing trees and salmon
• Farmers have grown transgenic corn, soybeans,
and cotton
• 282 million acres were planted with bioengineered
crops in 2007
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Global area of genetically modified
crops
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Objectives of agricultural biotechnology
• Stacked products: a crop containing two or more
biotech genes
• Traits directed toward different pests
• For example, pest resistance plus herbicide
tolerance
• Agricultural technology aims to:
• Incorporate disease and pest resistance in tropical
plants
• Increase tolerance to drought, salt, etc.
• Improve the nutritional quality of crops (e.g., golden
rice)
• Produce pharmaceutical products (“pharma crops”)
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Papaya plants in Hawaii
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Environmental benefits of bioengineered
crops
• Reduced pesticide use
• Crops are already resistant to pests
• Less erosion
• No-till cropping
• Herbicide-resistant crops
• Less land brought into production
• Existing agricultural land produces more food
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Marker-assisted breeding
• New technologies improve crops without transgenic
traits
• Marker-assisted breeding: DNA sequencing locates
genes of desirable traits in crops or their wild
ancestors
• Plants with these traits are bred with modern crops
• High-calcium carrots; higher-yield pigeon peas
• DNA screening of seedlings for the desired genes
means plants don’t need to grow to maturity to see
if they were transformed
• This approach does not need special testing or
permits
• It is also cheaper, faster, and less controversial
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Problems of genetic engineering:
environmental concerns
• Pests may become resistant to the toxin in pestresistant transgenic crops
• The crop loses its advantage
• Resistance has been found in weeds that infest
fields
• Resistant weeds can spread rapidly
• Pollen from transgenic crops can spread to natural
areas
• Kills beneficial insects
• This occurred in monarch butterflies in the lab
• Genes can spread by pollen to ordinary plants
• Create “super” weeds
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Problems of genetic engineering:
safety issues
• Transgenic crops contain proteins from other
organisms
• This could trigger an allergic reaction in people
• Brazil nut genes incorporated in soybeans induced
an allergic reaction to people allergic to the nuts
• Antibiotic-resistant genes are put into organisms
• This could convey resistance to pathogens
• Antibiotics could become ineffective
• Plants could produce new substances in response
to foreign genes
• None of these concerns has become evident in the
field
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Pharma crops
• Pharmaceuticals are produced by engineering
genes for desirable products into crops
• The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has
given 200 permits for field tests
• Involving hormones, enzymes, drugs, etc.
• The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) asked
the USDA to stop outdoor production of these crops
• Pharma crops could contaminate other crops
• Corn that produces pig vaccine was almost used in
food
• So instead, produce pharmaceuticals with noncrop
plants
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Problems of genetic engineering:
access in the developing world
• Large agricultural-industrial firms developed early
genetically modified organisms
• Profit is their major motive
• Poor farmers can’t afford to buy the seeds
• Some noncommercial and donor-funded labs are
helping
• Research in other countries allows farmers access
to crops
• Genetically modified seeds are spreading through
“piracy”
• The UN FAO reports that benefits are still mostly
theoretical
• But millions have benefited from higher yields, etc.
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Maize streak virus
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Fear vs. acceptance
• Concerns and fear have generated controversy
over genetically modified food
• Protests are strongest in Europe
• Concerns are made worse by other scares (e.g.,
mad cow)
• Governments may use the controversy to prevent
importing cheaper food
• The U.S. is far less concerned
• 60% of food contains genetically modified
substances
• U.S. policy does not require mandatory labeling
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The policies
• In the U.S., the EPA, USDA, and FDA (Food and
Drug Administration) regulate genetically
modified food crops
• Conclusions of the National Research Council’s
report Genetically Modified Pest-Protected
Plants: Science and Regulation
• Transgenic crops have been adequately tested
• Agencies need to better coordinate and present
information to the public
• No evidence that these foods are unsafe
• Need more research on environmental and safety
issues
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Cartegena Protocol
• UN Convention on Biodiversity’s conference in
2000
• Dealt with trade in genetically modified organisms
• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
• Was welcomed by governments, the private sector,
and environmental groups
• Covered how technologies should be regulated
• Critics of biotechnology wanted proof that
genetically modified organisms are safe
• Advocates wanted proof of their dangers before
they are denied access to overseas markets
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Stipulations of the Cartagena Protocol
• Countries can prevent entry of genetically
modified organisms
• But must base decisions on sound science
• The precautionary principle: if there are threats
of serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific
certainty is not a reason for failing to take
measures to prevent damage
• Shipments of food made of genetically modified
organisms must be clearly labeled
• 147 countries (not the U.S.) have ratified the
protocol
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A regulatory framework for new
technology
• The public response to this regulatory framework in
the EU is negative; it is positive in the U.S.
• The EU lifted a ban on genetically modified foods
• But require clear labeling
• The trend is favorable toward adopting this
technology
• 23 countries currently grow biotech crops
• The future will include advances in biotech crops
• Will likely benefit developing countries
• “Responsible biotechnology is not the enemy;
starvation is”
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Food distribution and trade
• For centuries, the rule for food was self-sufficiency
• Climate, blight, and wars interrupted agriculture,
leading to famine and death
• The Industrial Revolution intensified trade
• Nations shipped foodstuffs around the world
• The need for self-sufficiency decreased
• Food became globalized
• World trade in agriculture: $1 trillion in 2008
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Patterns in food trade
• Some nations (U.S., Canada) produce more
than the people need
• Other nations (developing world) export special
crops
• Coffee, fruit, sugar, spices, palm oil, cocoa, nuts
• Trade helps the exporter
• Importers obtain out-of-season or specialty food
• Trade works only if the importing nation can pay
cash
• Japan imports $48 billion/year of food and feed
• But it exports $596 billion/year in manufactured
goods
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Grain on the move
• Grain: the most important foodstuff on the market
• Wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum, oilseeds
(soybeans)
• In 1935, only western Europe imported grain
• Asia, Africa, Latin America were self-sufficient
• By 1950, North America became a major food
exporter
• The world’s breadbasket and meat market
• The U.S., Argentina, and Brazil export oilseeds
• Europe and China import them for animal feeds
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Increasing dependence on food imports
• Asia and Africa have become more dependent on
imports
• They also have increased population growth
• Much food is internally supplied
• But persistent dependence is ominous
• If developing countries double grain imports,
exporters have to increase production or decrease
use
• The world’s grain supply has never run out
• But in 2008 use exceeded production
• Enough grain was available by using carryover
stocks
• 2007–2008 became known as the global food crisis
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Production and use of world grains,
1998–2008
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The global food crisis
• Between 2006 and 2007, food prices roses 100%
• Triggered riots and emergency measures in many
countries
• Food supply could not keep up with demand
• Higher petroleum and fertilizer costs increase
production costs
• Diversion of corn and other crops to biofuels
• Demand for higher-quality diets (meat, dairy) in Asia
• Weather-related shortfalls in exporting nations
• Declining carryover stocks
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Future food prices
• Some factors of decreased food production are
temporary
• Better weather and technologies can increase yields
• The downturn in the economy reduced fuel prices
• Biofuels and the demand for better diets will not go
away
• The outlook for future food prices?
• Food prices will decline to new, higher levels
• Developed nations get higher prices
• But developing nations can’t afford to import food
• Increased undernourishment and malnutrition
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Food security
• Food security: assured access for every person to
enough nutritious food for an active and healthy life
• Three levels of responsibility for food security
• The family, the nation, the global community
• In a market economy, food flows in the direction of
economic demand
• Need is not considered
• A cash economy provides the opportunity to buy
food
• But not the food itself
• The next level may or may not buy food for a poor
person
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Responsibility for food security
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Family level
• The most important level of responsibility
• The goal: meet the nutritional needs of everyone
• Provide freedom from hunger and malnutrition
• Four options for obtaining food security
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Buy the food
Raise the food
Gather it from natural ecosystems
Have the food provided by someone else
• The fourth option implies a safety net of policies
or programs to provide food security needs of all
in society
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National level
• Safety-net policies and programs
• Official policies: welfare measures (food stamps,
Supplemental Security Income program)
• Voluntary aid through hunger-relief programs
• Feeding America: food banks that feed 25 million
Americans
• Many working poor and elderly must choose
between paying bills and buying food
• Charity, Aid, Recovery, and Empowerment Act
(2003)
• Farmers, ranchers, etc. can deduct the cost of food
donated to agencies
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Policies in developing countries
• The goal at the national level: self-sufficiency in
food
• Enough food for everyone in the country
• To meet this goal, a nation can grow enough
food or buy it
• Policies must exist to eliminate chronic hunger
and malnutrition
• Just land distribution
• A functioning market economy
• Many nations must turn to the global community
for food aid and technical development
assistance
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Global level
• Food aid flows from rich, developed nations to poor
nations
• Developing nations import and pay for food
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) brings
together developed and developing nations for
negotiations and policy decisions
• Developed nations use tariffs (taxes on imports)
and subsidies to protect their agricultural sectors
• And call on developing nations to liberalize their
policies
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Subsidies hurt the developing nations
• In 2005 Haiti cut its rice tariff
• Imported U.S.-subsidized rice (“dumping”)
• By 2000, Haitian rice production was cut in half
• Thousands of rice farmers lost their livelihoods
• Haiti became the third largest importer of U.S. rice
• The U.S. pays $1 billion/year in rice subsidies
• The newest U.S. farm bill still subsidizes products
• The EU has high tariffs and subsidies ($41
billion/year)
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Other needs
• There are other initiatives to help poorer countries
become food self-sufficient
• Relieving the debt crisis
• Resolving the trade imbalance between developed
and developing nations
• Developing nations export raw materials (cash
crops, mineral ores, petroleum) cheaply
• They pay higher prices for imported products
• Using labor in developing countries is helping
• Even low wages help workers improve their lives
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Hunger, malnutrition, and famine
• The objective of the UN World Food Conference
in 1974 was to end hunger and malnutrition within
a decade
• The 2008 UN World Food Summit addressed the
food crisis that added 75 million to the 848 million
hungry
• The MDG’s more modest goal is to reduce hunger
by half in developing nations by 2015
• There is enough food to feed everyone
• Along with global markets
• So why is there still so much hunger and
malnutrition?
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Malnutrition vs. hunger
• Hunger: a lack of basic food for energy and
nutritional needs so the person cannot lead a
normal, healthy life
• Malnutrition: the lack of essential nutrients
• Amino acids, vitamins, minerals
• Undernourishment: the lack of food energy
(Calories)
• Overnourishment: even in developing countries
• One-third of Americans are clinically obese (> 30
lbs overweight)
• An Internet-based food pyramid tailors the food
groups and amounts to age and physical activity
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The new food guide pyramid
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Extent of hunger
• Accurate, reliable figures on hunger are
unavailable
• Governments do not document such figures
• Two-thirds of the undernourished (642 million) are
in Asia and the Pacific
• India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China
• Sub-Saharan Africa: the highest percent of
undernourished
• One-third of the population is afflicted
• The effects of hunger and malnutrition are greatest
in children and women
• Seriously limits growth and intellectual development
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Consequences of hunger
• Sickness and death are companions of hunger
• Poor nutrition lowers resistance
• Diseases (measles, malaria, diarrhea) become
common
• 5.5 million children die each year in developing
nations
• Children rarely starve to death
• They are weak, underweight, and vulnerable to
disease
• People in rural areas suffer seasonal hunger until
the next harvest
• They are thin and spare from hard work and little
food
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Malnourished children
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Root cause of hunger
• The root cause of hunger is poverty
• Hungry and malnourished people can’t buy or grow
food
• 1.4 billion people live in absolute poverty
(income < $1.25/day)
• They are rural, illiterate; spend ½ their income on food
• They suffer discrimination due to race, tribe, religion
• One measure of progress of reducing hunger is the
proportion of children under 5 who are underweight
• Only a few countries have reached the MDG goal
• Eastern Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, North
Africa
• There are still 140 million underweight children
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Underweight children
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Reducing poverty and hunger
• China, Indonesia, and Thailand reduced hunger
and poverty
• Oil exports, Green Revolution technology, rural
development, social infrastructure
• Voucher programs for seeds and fertilizer
• Societies must address the needs of the hungry
poor
• Public policies
• Countries and whole regions face food
emergencies
• International responsibility is most important
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Famine
• Famine: a severe shortage of food
• Accompanied by significant increase in deaths
• Signals that society is unwilling or unable to feed all
• Immediate causes: drought and conflict
• Drought caused famine in the Sahel (1968–1974;
1984–1985)
• Seasonal, unpredictable rainfall
• Crops withered, forage declined, livestock died
• Farmers and pastoralists moved to refugee camps in
cities
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Refugee camps
• Unsanitary conditions in refugee camps led to
diseases
• Dysentery, cholera
• A million died in Ethiopia in 1984–1985
• International aid prevented even more from dying
• Favorable weather can lead to locust infestations
• Drought and deforestation result in desertification
• Triggering massive dust storms
• Rainfall is currently normal in western Sahel
• Eastern Sahel (the Horn of Africa) is still in drought
• Cattle are dying and malnutrition is increasing
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Warning systems about food insecurity
• The FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning
System (GIEWS)
• Monitors food supply and demand
• Issues reports and alerts when supply difficulties are
happening or could happen
• The U.S. Agency for International Development’s
Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS NET)
• Involves satellite operations focusing on sub-Saharan
Africa
• Measures rainfall and agricultural conditions
• Issues bulletins and special reports on the Internet
• Gives accurate and timely assessments on food
security
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Conflict
• Famines caused by war in the 1990s occurred in
Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Rwanda, Sudan,
Mozambique, Congo
• Put millions of Africans at risk
• Wars disrupt planting and harvesting
• Millions are displaced
• Governments control food and relief supplies
• Relief workers operate, and die, under dangerous
conditions
• 15 sub-Saharan countries have food
emergencies because of internal conflicts
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Famines are preventable
• India, Brazil, Kenya, and southern Africa have
coped with droughts
• They mobilized relief: food, clothing, medicine
• The early 1990s drought in Mozambique helped the
peace process
• Helped change the political landscape of south
Africa
• Cooperation between southern African nations to
prevent famine lowered barriers
• Helped bring democracy to South Africa
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Hunger hot spots
• Much of Africa has long-term, severe droughts
and wars
• Climate change is causing erratic weather and
warming
• 20 countries are in crisis and require external help
• Ethiopia: 11 million need help to prevent famine
• Drought, government ownership of all land
• Increased malnutrition and livestock deaths
• Somalia: the worst humanitarian disaster in the
world
• Three million (45%) need emergency food
• Lawlessness
• Armed groups attack aid workers and hijack food
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More hunger hot spots
• Zimbabwe: once a major breadbasket
• Now a humanitarian disaster area
• President Mugabe’s “land reform” gave farmland to
supporters with little knowledge of agriculture
• Drought, internal unrest, prohibition of aid workers
• Five million (40%) are desperately hungry
• Sudan’s civil war and drought put 1 million in peril
• Food aid shipments were blocked to starve rebels
• 32 countries are in crisis and need external help
• North Korea, Haiti, Bangladesh
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Food aid
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Food aid
• Widespread, severe hunger and famine are being
prevented only because of external assistance
(food aid)
• The World Food Program (WFP) of the UN
coordinates global food aid
• The U.S., Japan, and the EU donate food
• Other countries conduct their own food aid
programs
• Food aid was cut in half between 1993 and 1996
• It is at its lowest levels in 30 years
• Food aid is given to countries all over the world
• Not just to areas with famine
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Global food aid
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When aid doesn’t help
• Efforts to end hunger have occurred for 50 years
• The U.S. and Canada are leaders in donating food
• Famines have been averted or moderated
• But using food aid to alleviate chronic hunger is
not good
• Free or very cheap foreign food hurts local farmers
• They stop producing food, hurting those who sell to
them
• The entire local economy deteriorates
• Donating food aggravates the conditions it tries to
alleviate
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When it does
• The WFP targets most food aid to emergency
situations
• Some aid goes to “development projects”
• The poor can concentrate on other activities
• The WFP makes 80% of its food purchases from
developing countries
• Local farmers get income
• Needy people are fed
• The U.S. Congress requires food aid from the U.S.
to be American-grown
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The future of food aid
• It will continue to be an international responsibility
• Buffers against famine
• Is part of local development aid
• Helps against malnutrition
• Food aid is not enough
• Economic arrangements between rich and poor
nations need to be restructured
• Development aid must foster food self-sufficiency
and sustainable interactions with the environment
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Closing thoughts on hunger
• In 1980, a Presidential Commission reported that the
U.S. has a moral obligation to respond to hunger
• Alleviating hunger is a matter of addressing poverty
• In a market economy, short-term profit crowds out longterm sustainable management of natural resources
• National self-interest in rich nations promotes subsidies
• Developing nations need enlightened, uncorrupt
leaders
• We do not need new science or technology to end
hunger
• Political and social action at all levels is needed
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CHAPTER 12
The Production and
Distribution of Food
Active Lecture Questions
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Review Question-1
Which of the following was an impact of the
Green Revolution in developing countries?
a. It led to an increased focus on developing
disease- and pest-resistant varieties of food.
b. It contributed to expanded food production.
c. It reduced deforestation.
d. all of the above
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Review Question-1 Answer
Which of the following was an impact of the
Green Revolution in developing countries?
a. It led to an increased focus on developing
disease- and pest-resistant varieties of food.
b. It contributed to expanded food production.
c. It reduced deforestation.
d. all of the above
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Review Question-2
______ farmers live on small parcels of land
that provide them with the food for their
households and a small cash crop.
a. Neolithic
b. Commercial
c. Subsistence
d. Development
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Review Question-2 Answer
______ farmers live on small parcels of land
that provide them with the food for their
households and a small cash crop.
a. Neolithic
b. Commercial
c. Subsistence
d. Development
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Review Question-3
When ethanol and oils are derived from
agricultural crops to replace fossil fuels, they
are called
a. biofuels.
b. solarfuels.
c. hydrofuels.
d. sustainafuels.
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Review Question-3 Answer
When ethanol and oils are derived from
agricultural crops to replace fossil fuels, they
are called
a. biofuels.
b. solarfuels.
c. hydrofuels.
d. sustainafuels.
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Review Question-4
Concerns about genetic engineering technology
include
a. the safety of genetically modified food.
b. possible environmental problems.
c. lack of access to the new techniques.
d. all of the above.
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Review Question-4 Answer
Concerns about genetic engineering technology
include
a. the safety of genetically modified food.
b. possible environmental problems.
c. lack of access to the new techniques.
d. all of the above.
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Review Question-5
______ is the general term referring to a lack of
basic food required to meet nutritional needs,
while ______ is a lack of essential nutrients.
a. Malnutrition; undernourishment
b. Hunger; malnutrition
c. Undernourishment; overnourishment
d. Overnourishment; hunger
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Review Question-5 Answer
______ is the general term referring to a lack of
basic food required to meet nutritional needs,
while ______ is a lack of essential nutrients.
a. Malnutrition; undernourishment
b. Hunger; malnutrition
c. Undernourishment; overnourishment
d. Overnourishment; hunger
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Interpreting Graphs and Data-1
According to Fig. 12-14, in 2002,
a. crop production was
greater than crop
utilization.
b. crop production was
lower than crop
utilization.
c. crop production was
2100 million tons.
d. crop production was
1500 million tons.
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Interpreting Graphs and Data-1 Answer
According to Fig. 12-14, in 2002,
a. crop production was
greater than crop
utilization.
b. crop production was
lower than crop
utilization.
c. crop production was
2100 million tons.
d. crop production was
1500 million tons.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interpreting Graphs and Data-2
According to Fig. 12-18, which region had the
least change in the proportion
of children under age 5
who were underweight
between 1990 and 2006?
a. Southern Asia
b. Sub-Saharan Africa
c. Western Asia
d. Northern Africa
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Interpreting Graphs and Data-2 Answer
According to Fig. 12-18, which region had the
least change in the proportion
of children under age 5
who were underweight
between 1990 and 2006?
a. Southern Asia
b. Sub-Saharan Africa
c. Western Asia
d. Northern Africa
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Thinking Environmentally-1
The USDA created an Internet-based interactive
food pyramid that accounts for ______ and
______ to give the recommended balance of
calories and food types for each person.
a. diet; nutrition
b. age; diet
c. physical activity; age
d. medical history; age
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thinking Environmentally-1 Answer
The USDA created an Internet-based interactive
food pyramid that accounts for ______ and
______ to give the recommended balance of
calories and food types for each person.
a. diet; nutrition
b. age; diet
c. physical activity; age
d. medical history; age
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thinking Environmentally-2
Food security must be met on three levels,
which are
a. internet, family, and the global community.
b. individual, family, and educational.
c. educational, national, and global.
d. family, national, and global.
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Thinking Environmentally-2 Answer
Food security must be met on three levels,
which are
a. internet, family, and the global community.
b. individual, family, and educational.
c. educational, national, and global.
d. family, national, and global.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.