TODAY’S GOALS
• Essay 2
• Structuring Guidelines
• How to Introduce the Essay
• Paraphrase vs. Quoting Evidence
• More details about Conceptual Steps
• Machiavelli Group Passage Work and Presentation
Your Concept Choices…
1)
2)
3)
4)
Virtue and/or Fortune chapters 6 and 7
Enemy chapters 7 / 23
Cruelty chapters 8 / 17
Virtue and Fortune: chapters 18 / 25
• Due Monday: Complete, Academic and Logically
Coherent Draft of first 2 conceptual steps and a
preliminary thesis that serves as basis for setting up
Step 3 (50 pts WP)
From the WH “Analyzing Philosophical Texts”
• “A philosophical text is an argumentative text, and it sets out to
prove a thesis. Its purpose is to prove the validity of a position
taken” (74).
• Our Essay Task (Conceptual Steps One and Two)
1. Articulate the definition of the general “concept” as you find
it in Machiavelli’s text
2. Consider the specific examples offered by the author and
verify whether those examples are congruent with the offered
principle
1. To Set up your evaluative argument based on conclusions you
draw: If yes/no, to what end and “so what”
“Conceptual” Steps in the process
• How is the key concept defined – characterized,
described, etc.
▫ Of what does it consist? (characteristics, qualities,
principles)
▫ In the case of “fortune,” what does fortune mean in
your assigned chapter, according to how Machiavelli
characterizes it?
▫ This requires that you distill and paraphrase rather
than quote
Quoting vs Paraphrase?
• Literary Analysis (English, Comparative Literature, etc):
▫ Relies on Quotes – Focus on the language in the text
(as example of metaphor or appeal to pathos, etc.)
▫ Challenge: Warrants require you explain HOW words
in quotes perform, symbolize, illustrate your claim.
• Conceptual Analysis (Philosophy)
▫ Relies on Paraphrase – Focus on explaining ideas and
progression of thinking taking place in the text
▫ Challenge: Distilling/Paraphrase is an interpretive but
not an evaluative process
Paraphrase and Distillation Practice
1. “It is not unknown to me that many persons have held, and
hold, the opinion that the things of the world are governed by
fortune and by God, that men, with their prudence, cannot
correct them, and that instead they have no remedy for them
whatsoever. For this reason they might judge that there be no
point in sweating much in the things of this world, but let
themselves be governed by chance. Nonetheless, so that our
free will may not be eliminated, I judge that it may be true
that fortune is the arbiter of half of our actions, but that she
indeed allows us to govern the other half of them, or almost
that much” (117).
“Conceptual” Steps in the process
• How is that definition articulated in the text?
▫ This requires an analysis of the structure of that argument:
▫ For Example: How is the general principle of “fortune” established
▫ Is it explicitly stated?
▫ Is it implicitly given?
▫ Is it offered through analogy? Etc.
Definition of ANALOGY
• “An analogy is a comparison between two objects, or
systems of objects, that highlights respects in which
they are thought to be similar. Analogical reasoning is
any type of thinking that relies upon an analogy.
• An analogical argument is an explicit representation
of a form of analogical reasoning that cites accepted
similarities between two systems to support the
conclusion that some further similarity exists. ”
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
DEDICATORY LETTER
•  to Whom?  for whom is Machiavelli writing and why?
• The analogy of political analysis as sketching from the mountains and
from the plains places strategy and the issue of perspective front and
center. But…
• How do analogies work? Not simple comparisons but specific logical
arguments made out of complex premises: (B is to A what C is to D)
• The etymology: from the Greek ἀναλογία (ana=similar; logos: speech)
and Latin analogia; it indicates a relationship of similarity
The Analogy of the River to characterize “Fortune”
1. “And I liken her [fortune] to one of these
ruinous rivers that, when they become angry,
flood the plains, ruin the trees and the
buildings, and lift earth from one side and
place it on the other” (117)
“An analogical argument has the following form:
1. S is similar to T in certain (known) respects.
2. S has some further feature Q.
3.Therefore, T also has the feature Q, or some feature Q* similar
to Q.
(1) and (2) are premises. (3) is the conclusion of the argument. The
argument form is inductive; the conclusion is not guaranteed to follow
from the premises.”
HOW DOES THE ANALOGY OF THE RUINOUS RIVER WORK? (CHAPTER 25 P.117)
1. S is similar to T in certain (known) respects  Fortune is similar to a
ruinous river for its destructive power
2. S has some further feature Q  Ruinous rivers can be controlled in
quiet times
3.Therefore, T also has the feature Q, or some feature Q* similar to Q
 Fortune is similar to a ruinous river in quiet times as well
Therefore Fortune’s action can be controlled/foreseen as a river’s action
can be controlled/foreseen.
What else can the analogy suggest?
“Conceptual” Steps in the process
• How is this definition applied to and tested against a particular example:
▫ What kind of examples are used in the assigned chapter?
▫ Is there a difference between theoretical scenarios used to illustrate the
principle and historical references, such as the experience of Agathocles?
▫ Do historical examples agree with the general principle established in the
text? Do historical examples line up with contemporary examples? Etc.
• Leading to Step 3:
▫ Is the definition consistent with Machiavelli’s use of the concept in the
text as a whole?
▫ Finally, can you think of any objections?
▫ Can you derive any conclusion from your evaluation of the argument?
 For Example: Overarching irony and satire to support M’ criticism of Monarchy
• How does M define/characterize/apply the below concepts
(implicitly and/or explicitly, analogically, through example)?
▫ What role do human agency or the nature of power or authority
play in M’s characterization/application of the below concepts?
▫ Is there a practical lesson about coming to power or staying in
power?
▫ Group 1:
▫ Group 2:
▫ Group 3:
▫ Group 4:
▫ Group 5:
Prudence (47-48)
Enemy (45 last par.-47 …“no longer a remedy”)
Virtue (54 bottom – 57 bottom)
Cruelty (61-top 62)
Contemptibility (bottom 84-top 86)