Briefing Paper
1 / 2010
Factors associated with the cognive achievement
of students in Lan America and the Caribbean
Briefing Paper
1/2010
OREALC/2010/PI/H/11
Factors associated with the cognitive achievement
of students in Latin America and the Caribbean
Acknowledgments
Author: Ernesto Treviño, Assistant Director, Center for Comparative Educational policies, Universidad Diego Portales in collaboration
with the Section for Planning, Management, Monitoring and Evaluation; the Latin American Laboratory for the Assessment of the
Quality of Education (LLECE); and the Knowledge Management Section of OREALC/UNESCO Santiago
Document based on the publication:
UNESCO-OREALC. (2010). Factores asociados al logro cognitivo de los estudiantes en América Latina y el Caribe. [Factors associated
with student achievement in Latin American and the Caribbean]. Santiago, UNESCO Regional Bureau of Education for Latin America
and the Caribbean, Latin American Laboratory for the Assessment of Quality of Education. [In Spanish.]
The author(s) [or institution(s)] is(are) responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this publication
and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.
As long as the source is duly attributed, this text may be reproduced and translated either wholly or partially for non-commercial
purposes.
Translation: Maxine Lowey
Editing: Stefanie Block
Printed by: Gráfica Funny
Santiago, Chile, November 2010
This publication can be downloaded at www.unesco.org/santiago
Briefing Paper
1/2010
Factors associated with the cognitive achievement
of students in Latin America and the Caribbean
Introduction
The World Education Forum established a series of commitments for implementation of the Education
for All Global (EFA) Monitoring Report recommendations that seek to increase coverage and quality of
education worldwide (UNESCO, 2000). This Briefing Paper focuses on the key factors that should be taken
into account to improve education quality based on the findings of a study on factors associated with
the cognitive achievement of students in Latin America and the Caribbean1, part of the Second Regional
Comparative and Explanatory Study, known by its Spanish acronym SERCE. SERCE is conducted by the Latin
American Laboratory for the Evaluation of the Quality of Education (LLECE) at UNESCO´s Regional Bureau
of Education for Latin America and the Caribbean (OREALC/UNESCO Santiago).
In 2006, SERCE assessed nearly 100,000 students in Latin America and the Caribbean, evaluating the
learning achievements of third and sixth graders in reading and mathematics, as well as sciences for sixth
graders. Sixteen countries and one sub-national entity participated in the study: Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Dominican Republic, Uruguay, and the Mexican state of Nuevo León. It is important to note that only nine
countries and the state of Nuevo León participated in the optional science evaluation.
The study sample represents the population of students attending third and sixth grades in public urban,
private urban and rural schools in each of the participating countries. In total, the study assessed 100,752
third graders and 95,288 sixth graders. Such students attended 3,065 schools, which included 4,627 thirdgrade classrooms and 4,277 sixth-grade classrooms. The SERCE sample represents a population of 10.9
million third graders and 9.9 million sixth graders that participated in the school system in 2006 (OREALCUNESCO 2008a).
SERCE measured student learning on curriculum contents and life skills through a series of standardized
tests specifically designed for this purpose. The tests included the common content from the national
curriculums of the countries that participated in the study. Besides these tests, SERCE also administered
surveys to school principals, teachers, students and parents. These instruments collected data on the
context, inputs and processes related to student learning. Both the tests and surveys followed rigorous
quality control mechanisms, which are exhaustively explained in the SERCE technical report (UNESCOOREALC, 2008b).
This document presents the major findings of the study on factors associated with the cognitive achievements
of students in Latin America. The details of this study can be found in the published full report (UNESCOOREALC, 2010). It also proposes several educational policy recommendations derived from the results
of the study, summarizing the key factors for the improvement of learning opportunities among primary
education students in the region.
1 UNESCO-OREALC. (2010). Factores asociados al logro cognitivo de los estudiantes en América Latina y el Caribe. [Factors
associated with student achievement in Latin American and the Caribbean]. Santiago, UNESCO Regional Bureau of Education
for Latin America and the Caribbean, Latin American Laboratory for the Assessment of Quality of Education. [In Spanish.]
4 / BRIEFING PAPER
Findings
An initial finding of the study on factors associated with performance is the existence of vast learning
inequalities within schools. In other words, in a single school, there are students whose academic
performance is very high, while other students have low achievement.
SERCE analyses the factors associated with student academic performance in each participating country,
in each of the study areas and grades assessed, for a total of 74 national analyses. Table 1 shows the
percentage of times each factor was associated with learning and whether its influence was positive or
negative.
Table 1. Percentage of times factors significantly predict student academic performance in all models, adjusted
for countries in the different curricular areas and grades assessed.
School Variables
Positive
Negative
Context
Rural school
5.4%
10.8%
Private urban school
56.8%
2.7%
Rate of home educational level context (school average)
83.8%
0.0%
Equipment
Computers available for students
25.7%
0.0%
School infrastructure index
16.2%
0.0%
School services index
29.7%
0.0%
Teachers have second job
0.0%
2.7%
Years of teacher experience
5.4%
1.4%
Process
School climate
70.3%
0.0%
Principal`s school management index
21.6%
0.0%
Index of teacher performance
8.1%
0.0%
Teacher satisfaction index
2.7%
0.0%
Positive
Context
Female
Negative
21.6%
47.3%
Indigenous children
0.0%
41.9%
Student works
0.0%
45.9%
98.6%
0.0%
0.0%
98.6%
Student Variables
Educational context al home index
Equipment
Student has repeated a grade
Years in preschool
41.9%
0.0%
Process
Climate perceived by students
94.6%
0.0%
According to the study results, the factors associated with learning may be classified in two groups. The
first consists of variables related to school equipment and processes while the second encompasses
characteristics of the students that affect learning, in which education policy could intervene. It is important
to note that the relationships between student achievement and the associated factors are different within
each country, and they also vary in the different areas and grades assessed. This document presents a
global summary of the main findings of the associated factors study; detailed information is provided in the
full report of associated factors by SERCE.
Factors associated with the cognitive achievement of students in Latin America and the Caribbean / 5
In regards to school variables, the study results show that the most compelling factors that impact a
child’s learning are school climate, access to basic services, computer availability, school management
and infrastructure. Each of these variables is explained below, ranked from greater to lesser influence on
student achievement:
• The school climate is the educational variable that bears the most weight on student academic
performance. A friendly climate among classmates and teacher respect for students are associated
with higher achievement.
•
Access to services at the school is the second most influential factor in learning. It refers to the
existence of basic services such as electricity, drinking water, bathrooms, sewage, and telephones.
This indicates that it is fundamental that schools have basic operating conditions in order to focus
on the processes that support learning.
• The availability of computers for students in the school is also associated with learning. While
it is true that computers alone do not produce learning, the presence of this equipment can be
interpreted as an indicator of the availability of educational materials that teachers may use as
resources for teaching.
• Learning also depends on school management by principals that fosters parent participation,
teacher teamwork, harmonious relations among school actors, and a sense of belonging and
accomplishment among teaching staff.
•
School infrastructure has a positive impact on academic performance. Students tend to obtain
higher achievement when the school they attend has a library, playing field, art room, and offices,
among others.
It is important to note that SERCE conclusions coincide with the results of the First Regional Comparative
and Explanatory Study conducted in Latin America and the Caribbean in 1997, which revealed that school
climate is the single overriding factor that influences academic performance.
Students’ characteristics are closely linked to learning. The study found that grade repetition, socioeconomic
and cultural status, gender, child labour, preschool attendance, and being a member of an indigenous
group are elements that shape student academic performance. Each of these variables is listed below, in
order of their influence upon learning, followed by a brief explanation.
•
Grade repetition has a negative relation to learning. Children who repeat a year consistently have
lower performance than those who have not repeated a grade. This suggests that repeating a
grade does not ameliorate or improve learning.
• The social, economic and cultural status of students is the variable that most influences learning
performance. Students from families with less access to material and cultural goods, and whose
parents have less schooling, tend to attain lower levels of academic achievement.
• Marked differences in performance exist in regards to gender. Girls tend to achieve higher
performance in reading, whereas boys achieve greater performance in mathematics and science.
Evidence from outside the region shows that there are contexts in which gender does not affect
learning levels, suggesting the existence of regional cultural characteristics that lead to these
inequalities.
• The need to work has a negative influence on learning. The participation of children in the labour
market may signal their family’s precarious economic situation and requires time and energy that
could be devoted to learning.
6 / BRIEFING PAPER
•
Preschool attendance is a positive influence on students´ primary education learning. This finding
coincides with other studies that indicate that participation in early education and preschool
programmes helps children make the most of learning opportunities in primary school.
• Being a member of an indigenous group is a disadvantage for learning at schools in the region.
Indigenous populations commonly live in conditions of extreme poverty, their culture may differ
from what’s taught through school socialisation, and their mother tongue may not be Spanish.
In addition, a widespread prejudice toward indigenous peoples may lead to discrimination or to
lower expectations regarding their scholastic performance. Such traits combine to create a series
of formidable obstacles to learning.
Although the factors associated with learning appear to be consistent in the areas evaluated by SERCE
(reading, mathematics and sciences), it is important to underscore the fact that a child’s social-cultural
context has a greater influence on reading than it does on mathematics and science. This indicates that
socio-cultural inequalities mainly transform into achievement gaps in reading comprehension.
Lessons from education policy
The results of SERCE reinforce evidence gathered by education policy decision-makers and offer the
following lessons on key interventions.
1. Attention for lower-performing students. Considering that most educational inequalities occur
among students at the same school, it is important to create mechanisms that focus attention
on those who fall behind. Simple steps such as support from the most advantaged students,
personalised tasks designed for a child’s specific needs, constant evaluation, and feedback as a
source of learning are only a few examples of measures that can be implemented in schools and
classrooms to help students with lower levels of learning.
2. Alternatives to grade repetition. Repetition of grades is expensive and fails to remedy student
learning. This practice should be replaced with classroom programmes that support students with
lower academic performance.
3. Development of principal leadership skills for a school climate that fosters learning. In light of
the importance of school climate and its relation to the principal’s role in academic performance,
it is fundamental that school principals gear their work toward creating a climate favourable to
learning. To accomplish this, principals must change the orientation of their professional role from
a facilitator between education officials and the school, to a leader whose focus is to improve
learning processes. This also requires the restructuring of training and postgraduate programmes
so that principals may gain the leadership skills required to accomplish these tasks.
4. Adequate infrastructure and services in schools. Educational centres must have adequate operating
conditions so that they may focus on learning. Principals, teachers and the school community in
schools with insufficient infrastructure, or in poor condition and lacking adequate services, tend to
focus their energy on resolving these precarious and urgent situations. Infrastructure and services
that are maintained in adequate working order enable principals and teachers to concentrate their
attention on fostering learning.
5. Availability of educational materials. Materials alone do not guarantee that learning will occur. To
reach that objective, teachers must adequately use didactic materials. In the SERCE study of factors
associated with cognitive achievement, student access to computers is the input most consistently
related to learning achievement. However, this relationship also reflects that schools with adequate
educational materials have other opportunities for widening educational opportunities for their
students.
Factors associated with the cognitive achievement of students in Latin America and the Caribbean / 7
6. Expanded access to preschool education. Preschool education attendance is associated with
higher levels of primary school achievement. For this reason, increased access and enrolment
in preschool, particularly among children in situations of greater vulnerability, can help diminish
learning inequalities. The most successful early childhood intervention programmes focus on
cognitive and language development in addition to social-emotional development and health.
7. Explicit teaching practices to achieve learning parity between boys and girls. In light of the
consistent learning inequalities between boys and girls, it is important to develop teaching practices
that bridge this gap. The spectrum of possibilities include creating textbooks that highlight the equal
participation of both sexes, and teacher interaction that focuses on providing special attention to
girls during math and science lessons and to boys during language lessons. These two examples
suggest that it is necessary to recognise this disparity as a challenge and address it directly in
practice, using the curriculum.
8. Measures to offset the effects of social vulnerability in learning.
a. Equipping classroom libraries. Since children in low-income homes generally have less
access to reading materials for their children and the family lexicon is limited, classroom
libraries can provide important support for language development. However, libraries must
allow the intensive use of books, lending them for home use and having a replacement
system for books that are lost or damaged. The latter is fundamental so that books can
be used for reading development without punishing teachers or schools for intensive use
that, undoubtedly, will lead to a decline in the school’s book inventory.
b. Training teachers as specialists in contexts of social vulnerability. The challenges of
teaching in contexts of vulnerability require a high level of specialisation for teachers
and coherence of action within the school. Consequently, teacher training programmes
must be developed (pre-service and in-service) to offer concrete tools to support teaching
in marginal situations. These tools must take into account the social and emotional
dimensions of creating a positive climate, how to use classroom organization to foster an
environment conducive to learning, and the development of specific teaching practices.
c. Conditional cash transfers and student meals. One way to minimise the effect of poverty
on learning is by implementing measures of direct support for students and their families.
One such measure is conditional cash transfers, which provide a monthly cash stipend to
families in extreme poverty (generally to mothers) on the condition that their children
attend school regularly. Monetary support can compensate for the costs incurred when
children attend school instead of work, thereby also lowering the rate of child labour.
Student meal programmes are another way to compensate. These programmes provide
low-income students with sufficient daily nutrition to allow them to develop adequately.
9. More support for indigenous children. Belonging to an indigenous group implies growing up in
a culture and speaking a different language than the dominant one in the school system. It is
also associated with high levels of social marginalisation and discrimination. In order to support
learning among indigenous children, teachers must know indigenous languages and be skilled
to in teaching a second language. In such cases, the additive bilingual model is recommended
because it does not teach the second language at the expense of or with contempt for the mother
tongue. The development of written material for bilingual education is a challenge due to the lack
of consensus concerning writing in certain languages and the scarcity of written texts for teaching
indigenous languages. Finally, bilingual education strategies yield results when school directors
and teachers share a vision about their vocation and the tools they need to carry out additive
bilingual strategies. In other words, the entire school needs to be involved in the process.
8 / BRIEFING PAPER
10. Differential funding for students in situations of poverty. To compensate for the disadvantages
that children in situations of poverty must overcome, it is important to recognise that these children
need greater support to achieve high levels of learning. The creation of funding programmes that
allocate more resources for them is recommended. This may consist of a special funding subsidy
plan for each school, earmarked to develop special measures for teaching the least advantaged
children, and a shared commitment to learning results in the medium term.
Conclusions
The SERCE study of factors associated with cognitive achievement offers evidence to assist policy makers in
improving student learning. Its findings are shared with other studies worldwide.
This document has suggested specific education policy measures to improve school performance regionally
and, subsequently, student learning. Given the overwhelming impact that social, economic and cultural
context have on academic performance, we have also suggested education policy measures for mitigating
the effect of social variables and breaking the vicious circle in which poverty leads to low-learning
achievement.
SERCE findings, as well as those of other studies, offer two lessons. On the one hand, they identify key
areas for intervention for decision makers, founded on solid empirical evidence. On the other, the results
of such studies encourage actors to take urgent action to lessen inequalities in education and support the
development of today’s children, the key to the future of our societies.
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