Multimedia,
Information Complexity
and
Cognitive Processing
課程名稱：資訊資源管理
授課教師：王育民老師
報告日期： 2005/11/16
報告組員：90213010 李尚澤
91213014 彭瑞鈞
91213024 李宗祐
91213035 蔡亞芸
92213010 張育慈
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
2
Introduction(1/2)
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Nowadays, organizations are faced with
increasing costs needed to train employees and
educators are also striving to develop new
training and teaching methods that will yield
optimal learning transfer and complex skill
acquisition.
In instructional settings, animation and other
types of graphics have been used to reduce
information complexity, augment cognitive
processing, and facilitate comprehension.
(Moreno etc., 2002;Rieber,1991)
Introduction(2/2)
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Multimedia can reduce the perceived equivocality
of a low-analyzable decision-making task (Lim
etc., 2000)and promote computer self-efficacy
that leads to increased performance in computerbased training situations. (Christoph etc., 1998)
The goal of this study is to investigate the impact
of multimedia information representation on
cognitive processing activities typical to problem
solving, training, and decision-making contexts.
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
5
Background
and Theoretical Framework(1/5)
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Information presentation media
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Levin etc.(1987) noted that pictures have 4 effects.
Multimedia utilizes computer and audio-visual
technology to present information verbally, as
static pictures or diagrams, and as animated
graphics or video (Kozma, 1991).
Background
and Theoretical Framework(2/5)
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Information complexity
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Inferential complexity associated with
information is a function of the number of
causal links in a chain of actions, physical
states, or mental states.
As the number of causal links increases,
working memory becomes overloaded
because it’s limited in the number of related
ideas that can be simultaneously stored and
processed
Background
and Theoretical Framework(3/5)
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Cognitive processing
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The dual-coding theory of working memory suggests
that information encoding and processing can take
place in a verbal working memory and/or in a visual
working memory workspace (Paivio, 1986).
According to PASS cognitive processing theory,
effective cognitive processing is controlled by an
executive function responsible for selective attention,
sustained attention, attentional switching, and mental
effort, while encoding incoming verbal and/or spatial
information and constructing the situation model
(Naglieri etc., 1997).
Background
and Theoretical Framework(4/5)
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Comprehension
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Gordon etc.(2002) observed lowered
comprehension when subjects attempted to
remember a short set of words while reading
syntactically complex sentences.
Some studies have also shown that
comprehension is also enhanced when
information presentation takes place in multimodal form (i.e., verbal, images, animation).
Background
and Theoretical Framework(5/5)
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Learning satisfaction
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Learning satisfaction has been described as a
sense of accomplishment that learners feel at the
conclusion of a learning event when the learning
environment facilitated information processing
that led to successful comprehension outcomes
(Keller, 1987; Song etc., 2001).
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
11
Research Hypotheses
Development(1/13)
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Figure 1 below graphically depicts the
theoretical framework used in the
formulation of the research hypotheses.
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Sustained attention / mental effort
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Information processing quality
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H1、H2、H3
H4、H5、H6
Comprehension and learning satisfaction
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H7、H8、H9、H10
Research Hypotheses
Development(2/13)
Research Hypotheses
Development(3/13)
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Sustained attention/Mental effort
Burns and Anderson(1993) noted that increased
sustained attention was associated with presentation
media with the greatest sensory stimulation and appeal.
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H1：Text-based and multimedia information
presentations, when compared to graphics with
text information presentations, will lead to
greater applied sustained attention and mental
effort.
Research Hypotheses
Development(4/13)
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Sustained attention/Mental effort
Information complexity has also been associated with
sustained attention and applied mental effort. (Burns &
Anderson, 1993)
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H2：As information content increases in complexity,
subjects will expend less sustained attention and
mental effort.
Research Hypotheses
Development(5/13)
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Sustained attention/Mental effort
Information presentation media and information
complexity can interact to influence applied
mental effort and sustained attention.
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H3：As information complexity increases
(decreases), text-only and multimedia
information presentations will lead to
greater (lesser) sustained attention and
mental effort when compared to graphicswith-text information presentations.
Research Hypotheses
Development(6/13)

Figure 1 below graphically depicts the
theoretical framework used in the
formulation of the research hypotheses.

Sustained attention / mental effort
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Information processing quality
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H1、H2、H3
H4、H5、H6
Comprehension and learning satisfaction
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H7、H8、H9、H10
Research Hypotheses
Development(7/13)
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Information processing quality
Mayer and Moreno(1998) noted that when using
multimedia, subjects were able to integrate words and
pictorial animation of lightening formation more easily
when the words supplementing the animation written text.
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H4：As information presentation format
increases in modality (i.e. from text-only to
graphics-with-text to multimedia), subjects
will experience greater information
processing quality.
Research Hypotheses
Development(8/13)
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Information processing quality
Rieber’s (1991) study observed better knowledge
extraction with animated graphics and, when given a
choice to return to either presentation format, subjects
overwhelmingly preferred the animated graphics
presentation.
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H5：An increase in sustained attention and
mental effort will lead to greater
information processing quality.
Research Hypotheses
Development(9/13)
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Information processing quality
Friedman and Miyake(2000) noted that casual connectives
with long causal chains or high connective span temporarily
suspended purging of the working memory in attempts to
construct a complete and coherent situation model.
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H6：An information complexity increases,
subjects will experience lower information
processing quality.
Research Hypotheses
Development(10/13)
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Figure 1 below graphically depicts the
theoretical framework used in the
formulation of the research hypotheses.

Sustained attention / mental effort
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
Information processing quality
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H1、H2、H3
H4、H5、H6
Comprehension and learning satisfaction
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H7、H8、H9、H10
Research Hypotheses
Development(11/13)
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Comprehension and learning satisfaction
Information processing quality mediates comprehension
because multimedia can lead to a reduction of complexity
and increased cognitive processing capacity by targeting
both verbal and visual working memory channels.
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H7：As information processing quality
increases, subjects will experience greater
comprehension.
Research Hypotheses
Development(12/13)
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Comprehension and learning satisfaction
In the comparison of text, narration and graphics with text,
Mousavi, Low, and Sweller (1995) found that a combined
text and graphics presentation reduced the cognitive load
in solving geometry problems resulting in superior
learning.
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H8：As information presentation format
increases in modality (i.e. from text-only to
graphics-with-text to multimedia), subjects
will experience greater comprehension.
Research Hypotheses
Development(13/13)
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Comprehension and learning satisfaction
Towler and Dipboye (2001) observed superior training
outcomes when the training presentation was
characterized as higher in coherent organization and
trainer expressiveness.
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H9：As information processing quality
increases, subjects will experience greater
learning satisfaction.
H10：As information presentation format
increases in modality (i.e. from text-only to
graphics-with-text to multimedia), subjects
will experience greater learning satisfaction.
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
25
Research Methodology(1/11)
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Participants
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78 male and female undergraduate students
voluntarily participated.
Average age = 25 (SD = 5.39)
Material
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Two text passages, Photocopier Operation (high
information complexity) and GreenHouse effect
(low information complexity), with relatively equal
readability scores were utilized.
Research Methodology(2/11)
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Material (cont.)
Connective span
Causal links
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10
9
29
Research Methodology(3/11)
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Flesch Reading Ease
=206.835 - ( Average sentences length * 1.015 + X * 0.846 )
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X是代表100個words裡面有幾個音節
Flesch-Kincaid Reading Grade level
=(average sentence length + percentage of long words) * 0.4
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long words：word超過兩個音節以上
The connective span and direct causal links values
indicated that the Photocopier Operation passage
was higher in information complexity than the
GreenHouse Effect passage.
Research Methodology(4/11)
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The overhead-slides V.S Multimedia
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both equivalent in overall content and episodic
structure to the text passages
Illustrated components involved in Photocopier
operation or elements involved in GreenHouse
gas generation.
 overhead-slides utilized static diagrams
 Multimedia animated the elements contained in
static diagrams used in the overhead presentation
Research Methodology(5/11)
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Procedure
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Path analysis was the chosen as the data
analysis procedure because analysis of variance
is not particularly well suited for testing direct,
mediating and intervening relationships among a
set of variables.
The overhead slides V.S Multimedia
Report time：12minutes
Likert-type questionnaire
Timed comprehension test
Research Methodology(6/11)
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Measures
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Information Presentation Media
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two contrast code variables (Pedhazur, 1997)
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media：group mean outcomes of each of the three
presentation modes. (text-only, text-with-graphics,
and multimedia)
focus-media：group means of text-only and multimedia
combined against the mean of the text-withgraphics group
Research Methodology(7/11)
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Measures (cont.)
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Information Complexity
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operationalized as a function of connective span and
causal chain length.
Photocopier Operation is more complicated than
GreenHouse Effect
contrast coded
Grade Reading Level scores for both passages were
similar in value.
Research Methodology(8/11)
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Measures (cont.)
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Sustained Attention/Mental Effort
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scale (Likert-type) was developed using Burns and
Anderson’s(1993) theory of attentional inertia.
Scale reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) for the sustained
attention/mental effort scale was 0.78.
Research Methodology(9/11)
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Measures (cont.)
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Information Processing Quality
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assessed using questionnaire items adapted from
Buchheit(1996).
Assessment of the perceived interestingness,
understandability, and informativeness of the
presentation.
Scale reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) for the information
processing quality scale was 0.90.
Research Methodology(10/11)
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Measures (cont.)
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Comprehension
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Short essay question were constructed and scored
according to the analytic approach of essay
assessment (Jacobs etc., 1992; Linn etc., 2000).
Sample comprehension question is：
”How does livestock production lead to an increase in
global warming?”
Research Methodology(11/11)
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Measures (cont.)
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Learning Satisfaction
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Scale was developed using Keller’s(1987) ARCS
Model of Motivational Design of effective learning
environments.
Scale reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) for the learning
satisfaction scale was 0.84.
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
37
Results(1/5)
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The overall results from the series of regression
analyses used to test the fit to the causal model to
the data are summarized in the diagram.
Results(2/5)
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Here used the path coefficients to compute the
reproduced correlation of variables that are
interconnected through direct and indirect causal
paths.
Results(3/5)
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Sustained attention and mental effort
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H1：The text-only and multimedia groups did exhibit a
positive increase in sustained attention and
mental effort.
H2：Increases in information complexity did lower the
motivation to maintain sustained and effortful
processing of the information presented.
H3：Text-only and multimedia presentations positively
moderate the tendency for increases in information
complexity to lead to withdrawal of sustained
attention and mental effort as compared to textwith-graphics presentations.
Results(4/5)
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Information processing quality
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H4：H4 is supported and the results suggest
that presentations that target both verbal and
visual working memory channels are perceived to
be more understandable, and interesting.
H5：The results indicated that sustained attention and
applied mental effort is positively correlated with
information processing quality.
H6： The results indicated that information complexity
was negatively related to information processing
quality.
Results(5/5)
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Comprehension and learning satisfaction
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H7：Information processing quality was
positively related to comprehension.
H8：Increased comprehension was associated
with increased presentation modality.
H9：The results indicated that increased
information processing quality was
positively related to learning satisfaction.
H10：Increases in media modality are positively
related to greater sense of mastery of use of
the information acquired.
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
43
Discussion(1/4)
Discussion(2/4)
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Sustained attention and mental effort was highest
for text-only group , followed by multimedia ,
followed by text-with-graphic
There is less potential to be distracted from external
stimuli under such periods of high concentration
Discussion(3/4)
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The negative association of information complexity
with information processing quality is evidence that
there were errors in identifying idea unit and
establishing causal connection
“Cognitive Resource Allocation” perspective
proposed by Millis
Information complexity and focus-media are fairly
equal but opposite in direction
Discussion(4/4)
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Focus-media has a tendency to command greater
required and voluntary sustained attention and
mental effort
The semantic structure of information should drive
information format decisions
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
48
Implications and
conclusions(1/3)
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Multimedia provides a unique opportunity to
examine the nature of human information
processing and how information processing
interacts with information format and information
complexity
Increasing presentation modality can minimize the
occurrence of excessive cognitive load
Multimedia-based visual support by text and/or
narration can convey a maximum amount of
information
Implications and
conclusions(2/3)
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Information content should be organized so as to
minimize local and global causal dependencies
among concept
In decision-making context
In engineering context
Implications and
conclusions(3/3)
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There can be negative outcomes during multimedia
use. Split-attention effect has been observed in
other studies but not in this study.
A limitation of the current study is use of selfreported measures for sustained attention and
mental effort and information processing quality
In the future , studies should extend the length and
complexity of the tasks
Laboratory study offer greater internal validity , but
be viewed as a limitation
Outline
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Introduction
Background and Theoretical Framework
Research Hypotheses Development
Research Methodology
Results
Discussion
Implications and Conclusions
52
Thanks for Your Attention