History and Introduction to
Cognitive Psychology
Chapter 1
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What is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognition co- + gnoscere to come to know. Knowing
requires mental activity which involves acquiring,
storage, transformation and use of knowledge
(Matlin, 2002).
Cognitive Psychology deals with how people
perceive, learn, remember and think about
information (Sternberg, 2003) and how do they use
this information (Matlin, 2002).
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Why study Cognitive Psychology?
1. Cognitive psychology holds a major domain in
human psychology.
2. It studies the mind and how it works.
3. And it has a widespread influence on other
areas of psychology.
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History of Cognitive Psychology
Generally speaking two approaches have been used
to study the mind.
1. Historically, philosophical approaches have
rendered an understanding to the workings of
the mind using introspection.
2. And biology, has used observational (and
empirical) methods to study the mind.
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Mind & Reality
Plato (ca. 447-327 BC)
Reality does not reside
in concrete objects but
in abstract forms
represented in our
mind.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Reality lies only in the
concrete world of
objects accessed
through the senses.
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Comparison
Rationalism
Empiricism
Understanding of mind (or
knowledge) through logical
analysis and introspection
(rationalism).
Observations of the
external world are the only
means to arrive at truth
(empiricism).
Innateness of mind or
mental faculties.
Acquired experiences
through interaction with
the environment.
Theory building in
psychology today.
Experimentation in
psychology today.
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2
Seventeenth Century
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
John Locke (1632-1704)
Descartes agreed with
Plato and emphasized
reflective methods
(rationalism) over
observation to study
mind.
Locke favored Aristotle
and emphasized
observation as a
method (empiricism) to
study mental processes.
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Immanuel Kant
In eighteenth century
German philosopher
Kant addressed the issue
of rationalism and
empiricism and said that
both approaches must be
used to decipher truth
and about reality of
mind.
(1724-1804)
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Structuralism
1. First psychology lab in
Leipzig, Germany (1879).
2. To analyze the structure
of the mind. Through the
method of introspection.
3. Elements of mind:
sensation, feelings, and
images.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
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3
Functionalism
1. Mind or consciousness
cannot be divided into
elements.
2. Introspection cannot
yield measures about the
mind.
3. Mind or consciousness
have adaptive value.
William James (1842-1910)
Self-portrait
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Behaviorism
1. No room for mind or
consciousness.
2. Overt behavior needs to
be the scientific domain
of psychology.
3. Behaviorism is an
extreme form of
associationism between
environment (S) and
observable behavior (R).
John Watson (1878-1958)
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Gestalt Psychology
1. Opposed behaviorism
and structuralism.
2. S-R components or
mental elements could
not explain behavior or
mind of an individual.
3. Holistic approach to
understanding behavior
or mind.
Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)
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4
Associationism
1.
2.
3.
Studied “higher
mental processes”, like
memory and
forgetting.
Used systematic
experimental
introspection.
Followed Aristotelian
law of association.
Repetition improves
memory.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
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Memory Studies
Ebbinghaus
Bartlett
In the late 19th and early 20th century we see differences in
approaches to the problem of memory. Ebbinghaus
promoted quantitative study of memory using nonsense
material, Bartlett on the other hand used qualitative
methods to study memory.
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Is the debate over?
Certainly not! Understanding mind and its reality
has its adherents belong both to nurture (acquired
mind) or nature (innate mind) or both domains.
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Early Beginnings of Cognitive
Psychology
1. Lashley’s research
showed that large
amounts of the brain
could be destroyed
without affecting
learning.
2. Hebb, Lashley’s student
proposed stimulation
(learning) led to forming
strong connections
among neurons called
cell assemblies.
Stimulus
Response
Brain
Cell Assembly
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Birth date of Cognitive Psychology
1. Cognitive psychology was
born on Sep. 11, 1956,
when Neisser, Miller, and
Simon read seminal
papers at a symposium at
MIT.
Ulric Neisser
George Miller
2. Neisser wrote the first
book of Cognitive
Psychology (1967).
3. Defined how people learn,
structure, store and use
knowledge.
Herbert Simon
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Computer Sciences
1. In 40s and 50s, electronic
engineering and computer
sciences started
developing machines and
programs that mimicked
human learning and
thinking.
2. Turing developed a test
(Turing test) for a
computer to think like a
human.
Alan Turing (1912-54 )
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6
1960s
A number of sciences and disciplines like
psychobiology, linguistics, anthropology, computer
sciences and artificial intelligence started gathering
data that developed the strong foundations of
cognitive psychology.
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Current Trends in Cognitive
Psychology
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Cognitive Science
Cognitive science is a broad category of loosely
associated disciplines that include psychology,
philosophy, computer science, linguistics,
anthropology, neuroscience and of course cognitive
psychology is also a part of its domain.
Most researchers are likely to work in an
interdisciplinary fashion.
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Cognitive Neuroscience
Can we explain cognitive processes by studying the
anatomy (structure) and physiology (function) of the
brain?
The field of cognitive neuroscience expanded
around the 1980s when neuroscientists started
using imaging techniques on people performing
different cognitive functions.
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Neuroscientific Methodology
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History of Brain Lesions
Human brain damage (gladiators) and its
consequences were noted by Hippocrates who
wrote that people’s behavior changed after such
damage.
Similar observations had been made in wars victims
in the 19th century. It was not until world war II that
physicians started to document disorders that were
caused by damage to certain regions of the brain.
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Brain Lesions
Our understanding of brain function comes largely
from brain lesion studies in animals. Lesion studies
provide clues to the organization of the brain. Which
brain region engages in what kind of cognitive
function.
Cognitive functions can remain elusive because of
recovery of function (Lashley, 1932).
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Brain Angiography
imaginis.com
Is an X-ray method to
look at arteries of the
brain. Provides
information about
abnormalities in the
brain like strokes or
tumors.
Carotid artery in the brain
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CT Scan
imaginis.com
Is also another X-ray
method that images the
brain and makes use of
multiple X-ray photos
taken with a moving X-ray
device. Finally
reconstructing a 3D
picture of the brain.
Resolution poor. Cannot
determine structure
function relationships.
CT scan of the brain
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
www.mgh.org
A strong magnetic pulse
and moves molecules in
the brain. Motion of these
molecules are picked up
as radio frequencies and
reconstructed in 3-D
images. MRI has better
resolution than CT scans.
No structure function
relationship.
MRI scan of the brain
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
www.chm.bris.ac.uk
Increased radio-labeled
glucose activity is
scanned in the brain
while subjects engage in
different cognitive
processes. Spatial
Resolution good.
Temporal resolution not
good. Invasive procedure.
PET scan of the brain
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Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI)
www.sciencemuseum.org.uk
Detects changes in blood
flow to particular areas of
the brain when these areas
are active. It provides both
an anatomical and a
functional view of the
brain. Not invasive like PET
scans and provides a
better spatial and
temporal resolution.
fMRI scan of the brain
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Event-related Potential
Event-related potential
measures the brain's
electrical activity
(potentials) as it
corresponds to impinging
stimuli (events). Excellent
temporal resolution
(faster response)
compared to PET or fMRI.
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Event-related Potential
Single-Cell recordings in non-human subjects provide
a wealth of information on the functioning of a single
or multiple neurons. For example, Hubel & Wiesel
(1960) showed responses of a single neuron in the
primary visual cortex detecting an edge (feature).
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Computer Sciences
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Computers and Mind
www.research.att.com
Parallels between human
mind and machines have
been made since ancient
times. Computer analogy is
recent. There are number
of attributes that are
similar between computers
and humans.
The first electrical
digital computer
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Artificial Intelligence (AI)
aimovie.warnerbros.com/
1. Machines or programs
using intelligence to
solve complex problems,
the way humans solve
problems.
2. Application will include
computers doing medical
diagnoses, flying jet
planes, being the senses
of the disabled.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI)
www.starwars.com
3. AI involves making programs
or devices that are efficient,
flexible, and learn through
experience. They may or may
not mimic human
consciousness.
4. Computer simulation involves
designing a system that
simulates human
performance on a selected
cognitive task.
R2-D2 (Artoo-Detoo)
& C-3PO (See-ThreePio)
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Cognitive Sciences
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Processing
Serial Processing involves
processing of information or
data in a stage by stage
format. Time consuming.
Parallel Processing on the
other hand involves
processing information or
data simultaneously. Much
faster.
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Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
McClelland and Rumelhart (1986) proposed that
cognitive processes must be understood in terms of
networks that process information in parallel.
Characteristics of PDP Model
1. Many cognitive processes are based on
parallel operations.
2. Neural activity for a cognitive process is
spread out in the brain and is termed as a
node.
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Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
Characteristics of PDP Model
3. A node reaches a critical activation level to
affect another node
4. When two nodes are activated the bond
between them strengthens.
5. Multiple nodes and parallel processing aids
and reconstructs information that is partial or
inadequate to begin with.
Node
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Issues in Cognitive
Psychology
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1. Nature or Nurture?
If we believe in nature affects our cognitive
functions then we should design our experiments
looking at environmental factors as the cause
cognitive phenomena. On the other hand if we
believe in nurture then our experiments need to
look at innate/inborn processes.
Today cognitive psychologists believe that both the
nature and nurture interact to affect cognitive
phenomena.
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2. Rationalism or Empiricism?
What kind of methodology should we use to study
cognitive phenomena? Should we use logical
reasoning to explore cognitive phenomena or
should we engage in observation and
experimentation to do the above?
3. Structures or Processes?
Should we study the structure (contents, attributes,
and products) of the mind or should we study the
processes of our mind (thinking)?
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4. General or Specific Domains?
Do cognitive processes limited to singular domains
or do they apply to multiple domains in our minds?
Do processes/functions in a single domain similar
to other domains?
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5. Causal or Ecological Validity?
Should we study cognitive processes using
controlled [but artificial] experiments to make valid
causal inferences – or develop experiments
[resembling life] that provide us with ecologically
valid findings but at the cost of losing some
experimental control?
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6. Applied or Basic Research?
Should we study cognitive processes for the sake of
simply understanding them or should we study
them to help people make use of them for practical
considerations?
7. Biological or Behavioral
Research?
Should we study cognitive processes by analyzing
the brain and its functions – or should we study
these processes by behavioral measures, reaction
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times, errors etc?
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