The Socio-Cognitive Map of Coastal
Defense Research
Project Outline: Report 1
Femke Merkx
The Socio-Cognitive Map of
Coastal Defense Research
Project Outline
Report 1
Femke Merkx
Rathenau Instituut - Department Science System Assessment
January 2007
Rathenau Instituut – Science System Assessment
Table of Contents
1
Coastal Defense Research, Mapping a Field of Socially Relevant Research..... 5
2
A Focus on Cross-Disciplinary Challenge and Change ..................................... 7
2.1
Cross-disciplinary Challenge Type 1: A Change in Multi-disciplinary
Mix ....................................................................................................... 9
2.2
Cross-disciplinary Challenge Type 2:
Interdisciplinary Research................................................................... 10
2.3
Cross-disciplinary Challenge Type 3: Transdisciplinarity .................. 11
3
Outline of the Study ......................................................................................... 13
4
References ........................................................................................................ 15
3
Rathenau Instituut – Science System Assessment
1 Coastal Defense Research, Mapping a Field of
Socially Relevant Research
This study presents the results and methodology of a socio-cognitive mapping
exercise for coastal defense research in the Netherlands.1 A socio-cognitive
mapping exercise aims to describe a field of research in terms of both cognitive
development and of involved social actors. Three aspects in particular are taken
into account:
- the concrete (research) activities of research groups and institutes;
- the institutional context of the field, including domain policy, science policy,
funding arrangements and collaboration networks, both within research and
between research and policy;
- the international (inter)disciplinary academic context. (Rathenau Institute 2006)
A socio-cognitive mapping exercise results in a descriptive overview of the
research groups and institutes, the institutional arrangements and the international
cognitive developments, that constitute a research field. Actors involved in the
field – policy makers as well as researchers - may benefit from such an overview
as it may inspire them to explore new research directions or to engage in new
research collaborations.
A socio-cognitive mapping study may also form the input for an evaluative
assessment of a research field and can provide insight in leverage points for policy
intervention. An assessment on the level of the field has clear added value
compared to the current research evaluations of individual research groups and
institutes. It provides the opportunity to assess a research field using other criteria
then academic quality per se. It may ask for example whether there is enough focus
and critical masse on a national level, whether all important subjects are covered,
whether there is an appropriate mixture of basic and applied research and whether
new insights are taken up within teaching programmes, etc., etc. It depends on the
type of research field that is under study, and the objective of evaluation, which
evaluative questions are appropriate and which indicators should best be used.
Coastal defense research in the Netherlands is strongly developed. That is hardly
surprising since coastal defense is a national priority. As a matter of fact the
national interest in coastal defense is the prime reason for existence of coastal
defense research in the Netherlands. Large parts of the Netherlands lie below sea
1
In the Netherlands the labels ‘Coastal engineering’ and ‘Coastal research’ are used to
refer to the domains of research that are relevant for defending the country against flooding
by the sea. There is both overlap and difference in the subject area that is covered by the
two fields. This study concerns both fields of research. To emphasize the focus on safety
against flooding, this study will use the term coastal defense research.
5
The Socio-Cognitive Map of Coastal Defense Research - Project Outline
Report 1
level. These areas can only be safely inhabited because man-made hydraulic
engineering structures as well as natural coastal barriers such as dunes protect the
hinterland against flooding. Coastal erosion, sea level rise, extreme weather events
and an increase of wave impact due to climate change endanger the future integrity
of our coastal defense structures. A thorough understanding of the properties and
dynamic behavior of both artificial and natural coastal defense structures is of
national importance.
The social importance of coastal defense research is beyond question, but that does
not imply that the social relevance of coastal defense research comes naturally.
Rather there is an inherent tension between the internal dynamics of scientific
research practices, and the dynamics of social and political priority setting. The
mapping approach that was developed in this study takes social relevancy of
coastal defense research as a starting point for the assessment. The overall
objective behind this study is to improve the alignment between the social-political
agenda and the scientific agenda.
An important source of tension between the social-political agenda and the
scientific agenda is formed by the disciplinary organization of the science system.
On the one hand, for example, interdisciplinary research is thought to be an
important locus for socially relevant research. On the other hand the disciplinary
structure and institutions of the research system may hamper the development of
interdisciplinary research (RMNO 2005). Therefore the evaluative part of this
study aims at the identification of the needs, the opportunities, the drivers and the
barriers for multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary research.2 This analysis may
provide priorities and leverage points for policy intervention.
At present social relevancy of scientific research is high on the Dutch science
policy agenda (NWO 2006). This emphasis on social relevancy constitutes a
relative change compared to prior policy in which scientific quality per se was
dominant. It requires new methods of research assessment and evaluation. The
methodological approach that was developed in this study may prove relevant as a
means to render these policy ideals into concrete points for policy intervention.
The method is more generally appropriate for mapping research fields whose main
reason of existence derives from specific social and policy priorities.
2
On the difference between multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary research see section 2 of
this report.
6
2 A Focus on Cross-Disciplinary Challenge and
Change
There can be many reasons that scientific research does not fulfill its full potential
for developing socially relevant knowledge. Interaction and communication
between scientific researchers and the demand side of knowledge may be poorly
developed or social expectations on what scientific research can achieve may be
unrealistic. Within this study we focus on a particular barrier for socially relevant
research, viz. the disciplinary organization of the science system.3
While the last decades may have shown a gradual shift towards more
multidisciplinary and strategic research (Nowotny, Scott et al. 2003) the science
system is still predominantly organized along disciplinary lines. This starts already
with the educational system, where students are educated in a specific academic
discipline, rather then in a specific (multidisciplinary) problem field. After
graduation the disciplinary organization of the science system continues to
structure academic careers, mainly because the academic reward system is
organized along disciplinary lines. Funds for fundamental research are often
organized along disciplinary lines, which can make it difficult to obtain research
funds for interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary research. And academic credits are
gained by publishing in high impact journals, which often have a strong
disciplinary orientation.
As academic talent tends to follow disciplinary reputation structures rather then
changing social or policy priorities, the internal disciplinary organization of the
science system may impede a research orientation towards social relevancy. The
other way around, a strong focus on short term application of research results may
impede the development of a more fundamental understanding of phenomena. To
optimize the productive relation between social and policy priorities and research,
attention is needed for what we have called ‘cross-disciplinary challenges’,
changes in the disciplinary orientation of research, which are needed in order to
address the changing knowledge needs that follow from changes in social and
policy priorities.4
It is has become widely accepted that the disciplinary organization of the science
system can impede the development of socially and policy relevant research.
Implicitly this recognition underpins the call for interdisciplinary research, often
3
This focus on the disciplinary organization is only one way to address the challenge of
alignment between the socio-political agenda and the research agenda. Mulder (2003) and
Van Koningsveld (2003) for example took a different approach. They developed the ‘frame
of reference’ concept as a means to improve the productive relation between coastal
policy/management and coastal research.
4
We use the term cross-disciplinarity as an umbrella term that encompasses multidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity.
The Socio-Cognitive Map of Coastal Defense Research - Project Outline
Report 1
found in research programmes which aim for socially and policy relevancy.
However, there is not a one to one correlation between interdisciplinary research
and socially and policy relevant research. Rather, there is interdisciplinary research
that is not socially and policy relevant and the other way around, there is socially
and policy relevant research which is not interdisciplinary. Recently, the Dutch
advisory council for research on spatial planning, nature and the environment
published a position paper on this issue (RMNO 2005). It is argued that a
distinction should be made between multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinary research and that it depends on the type of problem what kind of
research is needed.
The distinction between multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
research has structured our analysis of the cross-disciplinary challenges in coastal
defense research. Regarding coastal defense research it is often argued that
integrated, interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary research is needed (e.g. NWO
2005). But, an argumentation for this need is mostly lacking and it is unclear what
exactly is meant with interdisciplinary, integrated and multidisciplinary research.
By structuring our analysis of cross-disciplinary challenges explicitly along the
distinctive lines of multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary research and by relating them
to different problem types, we hope to contribute to improving this discussion.
Improving the discussion is all the more important because the drivers and barriers
for cross-disciplinary change differ for multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary research.
Accordingly, appropriate policy interventions also differ, depending on the type of
cross-disciplinary challenge that is dealt with.
8
Rathenau Instituut – Science System Assessment
2.1
Cross-disciplinary Challenge Type 1: A Change in Multidisciplinary Mix
In order to contribute to the solution of a social or policy problem, there is often a
need for knowledge and expertise from a number of different scientific fields. In
the case of coastal defense research for example, climate research is needed for
predicting future weather conditions and sea level rise, whereas geomorphologic
and morphodynamic research is needed to model and predict the effect of sea level
rise on the coastal morphology. The field of coastal defense research is therefore a
multidisciplinary research field. We speak of multidisciplinary research if
respective disciplines contribute to a problem solution, while working alongside
each other.
Changing circumstances and changing policy priorities may call for a change in the
multi-disciplinary mix that constitutes a research field. Past changes in the
disciplinary mix of coastal defense research include for example the entrance of
climate research in response to the expected change in climate and the growing
importance of earth sciences, geomorphology and morphodynamic expertise in
response to the coastal policy of dynamic preservation.5
Changing the multi-disciplinary mix is the first type of cross-disciplinary challenge
that we distinguish. Changing the multi-disciplinary mix forms a challenge because
it involves the enrollment of researchers who have had no prior involvement with
the field of coastal defense research. A change in multi-disciplinary mix may also
imply that disciplinary expertise that was of high relevance in the past loses
significance in the context of shifted social and policy priorities. Such change is
likely to meet resistance from the involved research community, because
researchers have vested interests in the form of build up reputation and status in
pursuing their prior lines of research.
5
For an explanation of this policy see report 2 on the disciplinary challenges in coastal
defense research.
9
2.2
Cross-disciplinary Challenge Type 2: Interdisciplinary
Research
Within multidisciplinary research, synthesis of the different disciplinary
contributions takes place post hoc, when the individual outcomes of disciplinary
research are integrated within a problem solution. Interdisciplinary research on the
other hand requires a more integrated approach throughout the research process:
“Interdisciplinary research requires a joint research approach between researchers
from different disciplinary backgrounds. Different disciplinary conceptual
frameworks are used and problem definition, methodology and interpretation of
results are dealt with in joint consultation” (RMNO 2005, translation FM).
Interdisciplinary research constitutes a challenge because researchers with different
disciplinary backgrounds need to get familiar with each others’ disciplinary
approaches, methods and concepts and because they need to find integrative
concepts and methods. Besides these conceptual and methodological challenges, it
is often difficult to get interdisciplinary research accepted within the disciplinarily
organized research system. Publication of research results in high impact journals
can be difficult, when approaches are not in conformance with any of the
disciplinary standards for good research. It can also be difficult to obtain research
funds for interdisciplinary research. The disciplinary organization of the Dutch
research council NWO forms a barrier in that respect. Even the promotion of
interdisciplinary research through dedicated research programmes is difficult,
because evaluation criteria for interdisciplinarity are lacking (RMNO 2005, p.9).
Barriers for doing interdisciplinary research are highest in the initial stages of
development of interdisciplinary research fields, when specialized scientific
publication media have not yet been established or when these have not yet build
up a strong reputation. After a while interdisciplinary research can develop its own
strong standards of what constitutes good research, which methodologies to use,
what concepts to apply and which theories to build on. Many of the initial barriers
for doing interdisciplinary research have then disappeared. Analysis of journaljournal citation relations through time can distinguish between the younger and the
more mature interdisciplinary research fields. Mature interdisciplinary fields of
research demonstrate a disciplinary pattern in the journal-journal citation relations.
(Van den Besselaar and Heimeriks 2001; Heimeriks 2005; Van den Besselaar and
Heimeriks Submitted for publication)
Two important interdisciplinary challenges within coastal defense research are
formed by climate change research and the recent development of
biogeomorphological research. Climate change is a global phenomenon that
involves complex non-linear interactions between the biotic and abiotic
components of the earth system (atmosphere, biosphere, oceans, and hydrosphere).
Rathenau Instituut – Science System Assessment
Many different disciplines contribute to understanding, modeling and predicting
global climate change. Biogeomorphology is a relatively new interdisciplinary
specialty within the study of water systems. It studies the interaction between
geomorphologic features and organisms. The biogeomorphology specialty requires
intensive collaboration between geomorphologists and ecologists.
2.3
Cross-disciplinary Challenge Type 3: Transdisciplinarity
“There are several definitions of transdisciplinarity but it is generally described as
a specific form of interdisciplinarity in which boundaries between and beyond
disciplines are transcended and knowledge and perspectives from different
scientific disciplines as well as non-scientific sources are integrated (Flinterman,
Teclemariam-Mesbah et al. 2001; Thompson Klein, Grossenbacher-Mansuy et al.
2001)” (Pereira and Funtowicz 2005, vertaling FM). Transdisciplinary knowledge
develops in the context of complex practical problems and transdisciplinary
knowledge is not locatable on the prevailing disciplinary map. (Gibbons et al.
2004). Transdisciplinary knowledge is needed to solve complex or badly structured
social problems (Hoppe and Huijs 2003). Problems are defined as badly structured
if involved actors have very different problem perceptions, if relevant knowledge is
controversial and if uncertainties are big. For structured problems on the other
hand there is a clear problem definition and broad agreement about the values that
are at stake.
How best to further transdisciplinarity is an important research question. The
question has been addressed by scholars of various disciplinary backgrounds in a
special issue of Futures on transdisciplinarity. The authors share the following
aims, requirement and characteristics of transdisciplinarity.
11
The Socio-Cognitive Map of Coastal Defense Research - Project Outline
Report 1
Transdisciplinarity:
- aims to tackle complex problems, transcending any academic disciplinary
structure;
- needs to accept local contexts and uncertainty;
- implies intercommunicative action;
- is often action-oriented, ‘entails making linkages between theoretical
development and professional practice’ (…) ‘bridging the gap between
knowledge derived from research and decision-making processes in society’.
(Lawrence and Després 2004, p.399)
The need to accept local contexts and uncertainties and to be action oriented means
that other objectives apply, then those that normally structure academic research.
To emphasize the differences with academic research we prefer to speak more
generally of transdisciplinarity, transdisciplinary knowledge or transdisciplinary
practice rather then of transdisciplinary research. The emphasis on local context,
action orientedness and accepting uncertainties form the main differences between
interdisciplinary research and transdisciplinary practice. It is important to take
these differences into account when mapping the drivers and barriers for
disciplinary change. Whereas interdisciplinary research can develop within the
traditional research setting of an academic research group or a public knowledge
institute, transdisciplinarity requires involvement with the local context. For
deciding what constitutes good transdisciplinary practice, other then scientific
criteria alone are needed.
Today, more than in the past, coastal defense forms a complex and badly structured
problem. As expressed by the National Research Council in its Sea and Coastal
Research Programme: “The problems in the coastal zone (spatial pressure, sea
level rise) transgress sectors and regions and act on different sometimes long
timescales. Developments are related to spatial and socio-economic developments
in the hinterland. The different functions of water defense, water management,
economic development, transport, nature, recreation and public housing ask for a
connected, integrated approach” (NWO 2005, p.12). In policy terms, there is a
need for integrated coastal zone management. The need to integrate different
coastal functions, to take different interests into account and to cope with many
uncertainties, makes integrated coastal zone management into a badly structured
problem which requires the development of transdisciplinary knowledge.
12
3 Outline of the Study
Within this first report 1 ‘The Socio-Cognitive Map of Coastal Defense Research –
Project Outline’ the overall objective and focus of the study is introduced.
Report 2 ‘Cross-disciplinary challenges in coastal defense research’ presents an
inventory of current social problems and policy objectives in relation to coastal
defense and relates these social and policy objectives to specific cross-disciplinary
challenges in coastal defense research. The inventory is based on an analysis of
coastal policy documents, advisory reports and science policy documents.
Report 3 ‘A bird’s eye view of coastal defense research in the Netherlands’
presents some key features of the main academic research groups and the public
and semi-public research institutes that are involved in coastal defense research in
the Netherlands. This includes research orientation, academic quality, capacity and
formal collaborative networks. The analysis is based on research evaluation
reports, annual reports, research programmes, information obtained from
institutional websites, from the online research information database METIS6, and
from the online Dutch Research Database NOD (‘Nederlandse Onderzoeks
Databank’).7 The selection of relevant research groups and institutes was checked
by consulting some experts within the field of coastal defense research.
In report 4 ‘Coastal Defense Research – a Bibliometric Map’ the quantitative
analysis of bibliometric data is used to address three types of questions:
1.
What are the characteristics of the international field of coastal defense
research in terms of disciplinary constitution and how did the disciplinary
constitution of the field change over time?
2.
How do the Dutch researchers in this multidisciplinary field publish
compared to the international pattern? Are there relative strengths and
weaknesses compared to the international disciplinary pattern?
3.
Which strong inter-, multi- and transdisciplinary research collaborations
exist on the national level?
To answer the first question we used the analysis of journal-journal citation
relations (Van den Besselaar and Leydesdorff 1996) to determine the character
(disciplinary, applied, interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary) of a number of core
6
“METIS is a research information database system on the World Wide Web, which
enables universities, organizational units within universities, research institutes, research
groups or individual researchers to on line register information about their research and to
make this information worldwide available in a multitude of ways.”
(http://www.metis.uu.nl/metis/default.cfm?i=aboutmetis)
7
http://www.onderzoekinformatie.nl/nl/oi/nod/, hosted and managed by the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW).
The Socio-Cognitive Map of Coastal Defense Research - Project Outline
Report 1
journals in coastal defense research. The analysis of journal-journal citation
relations through time was used to map the international development of the field
in terms of changes in the disciplinary mix of coastal defense research and in terms
of the emergence and stabilization of new (inter)disciplinary specialties.
To answer the second question we used three different methods. We determined
the absolute and relative share of Dutch publications in the subfields of a journal
set that covers coastal defense research. Furthermore we determined the relative
share of Dutch research on certain topics, as represented by title key word clusters.
Finally, to check for regional differences in research orientation we compared the
citation environment of ‘regionally based’ journals.
Inter- and transdisciplinary research can develop from inter-institutional
collaboration between institutes with different disciplinary background and
orientation. A co-authorship analysis was made to map such inter-institutional
collaboration patterns in order to answer the third research question. The analysis
complements the analysis of formal collaboration networks presented in the bird’s
eye view in report 3.
Combining the three methodological approaches discussed above we arrived at a
provisional diagnosis of what seemed to be the current most salient crossdisciplinary challenge for the field of coastal defense research: transdisciplinarity
for integrated coastal zone management. This diagnosis was reached by
confronting the analysis of the need for disciplinary change as derived from current
social and policy priorities with the indicators of the actual disciplinary
constitution of the field derived from the bird’s eye view and bibliometric analysis.
The indicators that were used are rather rough and provide some, but not an
exhaustive, insight in what are the drivers and what are the barriers for disciplinary
change and what accordingly could be leverage points for policy intervention. We
wanted to check on our analysis and further improve it by listing barriers as well as
policy solutions for transdisciplinarity. For that purpose we organized a focus
group discussion with practitioners, researchers and intermediary actors from the
field of coastal management and coastal research. The design and outcome of this
meeting is reported on in report 5.
Finally in report 6 ‘Dutch Coastal Defense Research: Summary and Conclusion’
we will summarize and integrate the results of the different parts of this research
project. Furthermore we will discuss some lessons for policy makers that follow
from this study.
14
Rathenau Instituut – Science System Assessment
4 References
Flinterman, J. F., R. Teclemariam-Mesbah, et al. (2001). "Transdisciplinarity: The
New Challenge for Biomedical Research." Bulletin of Science, Technology &
Society 21(4): 253-266.
Grigg, L., R. Johnston, et al. (2003). Emerging issues for cross-disciplinary
research. Conceptual and empirical dimensions, Department of Education, Science
and Training, Commonwealth of Australia.
Heimeriks, G. (2005). Knowledge Production and Communication in the
Information Society. Faculteit der Maatschappij- en Gedragswetenschappen.
Amsterdam, Universiteit van Amsterdam.
Hoppe, R. and S. Huijs (2003). Werk op de grens tussen wetenschap en beleid :
paradoxen en dilemma's. The Hague, RMNO.
Lawrence, R. J. and C. Després
Transdisciplinarity." Futures 36: 397-405.
(2004).
"Introduction.
Futures
of
Mulder, J. P. M. (2003). A review of coastal policy development revealing a
systematic approach to science- management interaction, in: Delft Cluster –
Coasts: Final Report, WL | Delft Hydraulics.
Nowotny, H., P. Scott, et al. (2003). "Mode 2 Revisited: The New Production of
Knowledge." Minerva 41: 179-194.
NWO (2005). Nationaal Onderzoeksprogramma Zee- en Kustonderzoek, NWO.
NWO (2006). Wetenschap gewaardeerd! NWO-strategie 2007-2010, NWO.
Pereira, A. G. and S. Funtowicz (2005). "Quality Assurance by Extended Peer
Review: tools to Inform Debates, Dialogues & Deliberations."
Technikfolgenabschätzung Theorie und Praxis 14(2): 74-79.
Rathenau Institute (2006). Research program Science System Assessment. The
Hague, Rathenau Institute.
RMNO
(2005).
Interdisciplinariteit
en
Beleidsrelevantie
Onderzoeksprogramma's. Een stellingname. The Hague, RMNO.
in
15
The Socio-Cognitive Map of Coastal Defense Research - Project Outline
Report 1
Thompson Klein, J., W. Grossenbacher-Mansuy, et al., Eds. (2001).
Transdisciplinarity: Joint problem-Solving among science, technology and society.
An effective way of managing complexity. Basel, Birkhauser Verlag.
Van den Besselaar, P. and G. Heimeriks (2001). Disciplinary, Multidisciplinary,
Interdisciplinary: Concepts and Indicators. 8th International Conference on
Scientometrics and Infometrics - ISSI2001, Sydney, UNSW.
Van den Besselaar, P. and G. Heimeriks (Submitted for publication). "Disciplinary
and interdisciplinary identities.
Van den Besselaar, P. and L. Leydesdorff (1996). "Mapping change in scientific
specialities; a scientometric case study of the development of artificial
intelligence." Journal of the American Society of Information Science 47(5).
Van Koningsveld, M. (2003). Matching Specialist Knowledge with End User
Needs. Veenendaal, Universal Press.
16