Agnieszka Król
Applied Cognitive Linguistics
in Teaching English Articles to Polish Learners
Series A: General & Theoretical Papers
ISSN 1435-6473
Essen: LAUD 2005
Paper No. 632
Universität Duisburg-Essen
Agnieszka Król
The Jagiellonian University Kraków (Poland)
Applied Cognitive Linguistics in Teaching English Articles
to Polish Learners
Copyright by the author
2005
Series A
General and Theoretical
Paper No. 632
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Agnieszka Król
Applied Cognitive Linguistics
in Teaching English Articles to Polish Learners
Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................................................2
Theoretical discussion........................................................................................................................3
1. Cognitive science: implications for language pedagogy.............................................................3
1.1 Meaning takes priority over form...................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Grammatical structures are meaningful ............................................................................................ 3
1.3 Apprehending meaning is related to the creation of appropriate concepts ....................................... 4
1.4. Creating conceptualisations is rooted in perception and experience................................................ 4
1.5. Metaphor is a powerful tool used in teaching .................................................................................. 4
1.6. Context (linguistic, situational, social, cultural) is extremely important in the language use.......... 5
2. The cognitive explanation of articles ..........................................................................................5
The Study ............................................................................................................................................6
Subjects and design .........................................................................................................................6
The treatment...................................................................................................................................7
Results ...............................................................................................................................................11
Discussion..........................................................................................................................................12
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................14
Bibliography .....................................................................................................................................15
Appendix I Tests...............................................................................................................................16
Appendix II The treatment: some exemplifying tasks..................................................................20
This article gives an account of an attempt to implement Langacker’s cognitive grammar
(1987) into teaching articles to Polish learners. First, Langacker’s theoretical framework had
been ‘translated’ into the language of the learner, with the view to being used in the explicit
grammar instruction and pedagogical materials. Then, the ‘cognitive’ explanations, together
with tasks and activities methodologically based on the principles of the Cognitive
Approach (Skehan 1998) were used in two five-lesson teaching sessions focusing on
articles. The obtained results indicate that the treatment exerted a positive influence on the
learner’s accuracy in using articles.
1
Introduction
Cognitive linguistics, with its analyses anchored in the psychological truth about our
cognition, with its meaningfully- and pragmatically-based explanations, and with its
comprehensive account of all language phenomena, appears to be ideally suited to
pedagogical purposes. Ronald Langacker himself stated that he sees ‘the effectiveness of
pedagogical application as an important empirical test for linguistic theories’ According to
Langacker, ‘cognitive grammar will not fare badly in this regard’ (Langacker 2001). An
increasing amount of studies on the applicability of cognitive linguistics into teaching (for
an overview see Pütz 2004) focuses around such aspects of language as phrasal verbs
(Rudzka-Ostyn 2003; Kurtyka 2001; Dirven 2001), idioms (Lennon 1998) and metaphors
(Deignan; Gabryś; Solska 1997).
The present study focuses on the grammatical structure which is one of the most
difficult for Polish (and not only) learners, e.g. on the English article system. Articles,
though being formally simple (a/an, the, Ø) are functionally quite complex, which, in
Krashen’s terms (1981) makes them difficult to learn explicitly (i.e. via instruction). In
Ellis’ terminology (1990), articles appear to require complex processing operations, as the
form-function relationships are rather opaque. In other words, the first obstacle in the easy
acquisition of articles stems from the fact that although articles are very frequent, they are
not salient, i.e. there is no immediately visible relationship between their form and function.
The second reason for the substantial difficulty learners have in understanding how
articles are used is connected with the fact that the incorrect choice of an article does not
distort meaning essentially and usually does not hinder communication. Since production
and comprehension do not suffer because of inappropriate articles, learners are frequently
unaware of their errors.
The third factor influencing the leaning of articles is related the Polish–English
contrast with regard to the concepts expressing definiteness/indefiniteness and
countability/uncountability. Since there is no linguistic form in Polish which would
correspond to English ‘the’ and ‘a’, the use of articles is a perennial problem for Polish
learners.
Thus, it is crucial that learners be offered clear and understandable explanation of the
role, function and meaning of articles (Dirven 1986:59). The cognitive linguistic analysis
seems to provide an ideal theoretical framework on which a pedagogical explanation could
be based. At this point, it must be emphasised that this paper deals only with the linguistic
part of teaching articles due to the fact that the acquisitional/methodological aspects, though
extremely important, have been regarded as being beyond its scope and thus they will be
mentioned only in passing 1 .
1
A detailed analysis of the pedagogical approach, method and techniques suitable for teaching articles is
included in Król 2004.
2
Theoretical discussion
1. Cognitive science: implications for language pedagogy
The immense potential of cognitive grammar as a foundation of reference grammar and
pedagogical materials stems from the high compatibility of its analyses with the
assumptions of the Cognitive Approach to language acquisition (Skehan 1998), which is
nowadays one of the most intensely analysed theoretical frameworks related to second
language acquisition. Being rooted in cognitive psychology and information processing
theories, both cognitive linguistics and the Cognitive Approach emphasise the
interdependence of our cognition and language use. On the basis of this underlying
assumption and vast empirical data, cognitive psychologists and applied linguists
formulated a number of further tenets regarding the process of language learning.
1.1 Meaning takes priority over form
The central property of the human information processing system and, consequently, of
processing language, is the fact that the meaning being conveyed takes priority over the
linguistic form. On the basis of psycholinguistic evidence, Van Patten (1996) posited the
following principles for input processing:
1. Learners process input for meaning before they process it for form
- learners process content words in the input before analysing anything else
- learners prefer processing lexical items to grammatical items for semantic
information
- learners prefer processing more meaningful morphology (e.g. simple past
regular endings) rather than redundant forms (e.g. verbal agreement)
2. For learners to process form that is non-meaningful (i.e. less salient, e.g. third
person –s), they must be able to process informational or communicative content
at no or little cost to attentional resources
This predilection for processing meaning rather than form has clear implications for a very
special treatment of syntactical phenomena in the process of teaching. Especially less salient
forms, i.e. those that do not appear to convey much meaning or the forms that seem
redundant (e.g. articles) ought to be paid particular attention.
1.2 Grammatical structures are meaningful
Since the meaningfulness of grammar is one of the fundamental assumptions of cognitive
linguistics, the centrality of meaning in speaking about syntax should be also evident in
cognitive pedagogical materials. It follows that pedagogical rules cannot be organised and
explained in terms of their syntactic behaviour, as it is done in most pedagogical grammars;
3
instead, clarifying the meaning and function of grammatical patterns ought to constitute the
main target 2 .
1.3 Apprehending meaning is related to the creation of appropriate concepts
The third implication arising from the cognitive approach to language and language learning
is related to the claim that language reflects the world of concepts in our mind (Langacker
1987:5) and communicating meanings can be equated with communicating mental images.
This assumption has important consequences for teaching a foreign language, as it implies
that explaining the meaning of a particular structure is tantamount to conveying the mental
concept which is embodied by this linguistic form.
In the case of L1/L2 contrasts this task is particularly difficult, since before learners
acquire the meaning and the form of a linguistic unit, they must create a new
conceptualisation in their mind (Dirven 1986). The English article system taught to Polish
learners is an example of such a situation: it seems that from the cognitive perspective
teaching various uses of ‘the’ and ‘a’ will be ineffective as long as learners will not grasp
the underlying conceptual meaning of articles. It follows that a pedagogical grammar should
first and foremost aim at elucidating the meaning, i.e. the conceptual image conveyed by a
particular structure.
1.4. Creating conceptualisations is rooted in perception and experience
Mental concepts are created from perception and experience. It means that in order to help
learners apprehend the meaning (i.e. create the appropriate concept) the teacher can rely on
visual, aural and kinaesthetic stimuli, which will be conducive to forming appropriate
cognitive representations. Describing the meaning verbally, using drawings, diagrams,
pictures as well as gestures can facilitate conceptualisation and, consequently, learning
(Stevick 1986; Bransford 1979). Also repeated acts of form production and comprehension
(experience) are indispensable to create mental concepts. In other words, input and output
are essential in the process of conceptualisation.
1.5. Metaphor is a powerful tool used in teaching
The importance attached to metaphor in cognitive science has bearing upon its role in the
cognitive pedagogical materials (Low 1988). There are two ways in which metaphor can be
useful in language teaching. Firstly, the concepts of metaphor and metonymy can be
introduced into the explicit presentation of meanings3 . The second way in which metaphor
2
3
This claim is advocated by most of the contemporary approaches to pedagogical grammar (Widdowson
1988; Little 1992; Tomlin 1994).
Of course, the effective use of such metalinguistic concepts depends on the stage of cognitive
development and the educational background of the learner, but it seems that introducing and applying
those notions does not seem to be problematic, at least with teenagers and adults in Poland: already at
the lower secondary school pupils are made familiar with those terms.
4
can be applied into language teaching consists in the employment of this device into
meaning elucidation (Radden 1994). Since metaphor and metonymy are two of the most
frequent mechanisms used on the way from perception to conceptualisation, it seems that
they can be used in a pedagogical grammar as a means to aid visualisation, which will
subsequently lead to a better and faster apprehension of meaning.
1.6. Context (linguistic, situational, social, cultural) is extremely important in the
language use
Recognising the role of context in effective language production and comprehension affects
also the content of pedagogical description of language. Therefore, apart from the
explanation of the conceptual imagery realised by various structures, pedagogical grammars
and other teaching materials should also emphasise the fact that the choice of a particular
linguistic unit is often dependent on the situational, social and cultural context. 4
2. The cognitive explanation of articles
Langacker’s (1987) account of the meaning of articles is anchored in the fundamental
difference between nouns and nominals (noun phrases) and the cognitive process of
grounding. In Langacker’s framework, the semantic content of a noun specifies the type, i.e.
it refers to the thing which is a representative member of a particular class but is not related
to any particular member of that category. By contrast, a nominal phrase designates one or
more instances of a particular type. An instance differs from the type in that it is thought of
as having a particular location in the domain of instantiation, i.e. in the domain in which it
has its primary manifestation (Langacker 1991:57). An instance does not have to be definite
or specific (e.g. no job, any book are indefinite and unspecific).
The general function of a nominal is to select a particular instance(s) and make it/them
a momentary focus of attention (Langacker 1991:53). To serve this function, the nominal
has to cue the hearer towards a particular instance. The noun, together with its modifiers,
specifies the type; the whole nominal expression gives some indication of the anchoring of
the designated entity in some place in the domain of instantiation (albeit, as has been
mentioned, the exact place may remain unspecified). This supplementary information
concerning the anchoring of an instance is most often conveyed by grounding expressions
(determiners), which indicate how the profiled entity relates to the speech event and its
participants, (i.e. to the ground). In other words, grounding refers to whether a particular
instance is or is not uniquely apparent to both the speaker and the hearer (Langacker
1991:53). The grounding function is most frequently fulfilled by the definite and the
4
This idea is not new: studies in sociolinguistics (1960s and 1970s) have already made educationalists
aware of the role of context.
5
indefinite article 5 , both of which indicate that the referent can be anchored in some domain
of instantiation. The indefinite and the definite article differ in that that the former
designates an instance which cannot be uniquely identified with a particular entity, whereas
the latter is used with reference to the thing(s) that can be immediately associated with (a)
unique and definite entity(-ies) in the so-called current discourse space.
This abstract theoretical account explains the fundamental function of articles and
provides a framework for further linguistic analyses of articles. From the point of view of
applied cognitive linguistics, the concepts of type, instance and grounding are essential in
making learners understand the underlying function and meaning of the article in English. It
seems that the problem lies in a clear and comprehensible translation of the theory into the
language of the learner.
The Study
Subjects and design
The subjects were 36 secondary-school learners, aged between 16 and 18 years old; the
sessions took place during the English classes at school; there were two groups at different
levels of proficiency (elementary and intermediate).
In a questionnaire about the subjects’ past experience with learning and using articles,
both groups reported that they had problems with articles, which means that they have
already noticed the form and the gap between the target form and their interlanguage as far
as articles are concerned. The students in the Elementary Group have never received any
instruction on articles. Some of the students said that they used other reference sources such
as grammar books or information from the lesson to solve their problems, but for the
majority of the learners the explanations were not clear and comprehensible.
The treatment consisted of five teaching sessions devoted to various aspects of the
article usage (see §4). The following uses of articles had been covered:
1) The use of ‘a’ before singular count nouns vs. Ø article before plural count nouns
and mass nouns.
2) The use of ‘a’ for the indefinite reference vs. ‘the’ for the definite reference.
3) The use of Ø article before singular count nouns (some contexts).
4) The use of ‘the’ for the ‘idea-like’ reference (e.g. generic).
In the beginning of the first lesson both groups were given pre-tests (Appendix I), in which
all the above mentioned uses of articles had been included. Immediately after the treatment
post-tests were administered. The post-tests differed from the pre-tests in order to eliminate
the practice effect on post-test scores. Instead, the post-tests had been made comparable to
5
Also possessive pronouns, demonstratives, any(body, -one), some(-body, -one) and some quantifiers
(some, most, all, each, every) perform this function.
6
the pre-tests by means of including similar contexts for various uses of articles (see
Appendix I). Five weeks after the end of the sessions, the subjects wrote the delayed posttest, which was identical with the immediate post test 6 .
The treatment
The treatment during sessions consisted predominantly in teacher-learners interactions
(inductive and deductive instruction) and pair work; there was one communicative task
performed in groups of four in the Intermediate Group. The methodology of teaching was
based on the assumptions of the Cognitive Approach. A careful analysis of all variables
influencing the efficiency of teaching articles to Polish learners has indicated that the best
method and techniques would comprise explicit instruction, accuracy-focused tasks and
implicit learning activities, listening to and reading enhanced input; the tasks used were
designed to trigger the processes of hypothesis testing, noticing, noticing the gap,
restructuring (analysis, synthesis, categorisation, etc.). The most frequent techniques
consisted in filling the blanks, metatalk, classification (for some exemplifying activities see
Appendix II). Because of the limited time-span of the treatment, there was little time for
immersing the instruction in meaning-focused lessons. Therefore, most tasks and texts were
based on materials from the coursebook which were already known to the students.
The pedagogical grammar I designed and used in the instruction, opens with a question
about the reason for which we use or need articles at all. Since the grammar is directed to
teenage and adult learners, I suggested a way of answering the question that refers to the
Platonic distinction between IDEAS and EXAMPLES. The former correspond nouns or
types, while the latter are supposed to relate to Langacker’s nominals/instances. The
explanation, aided by a schematic picture (Figure 1), tells learners that: we can imagine that
there is a world of IDEAS, where there is for example one idea of star, one of castle and
one of teacher; and the world of EXAMPLES, that is our reality, in which we can have
many different stars, castles or teachers. We can say that ideas are in fact sets of
characteristic features 7 : they are abstract and they are not related to any real example. All
the things in the material world are only examples – we can see them, hear them or
experience them in some other way. The ‘rule’ says that we can say that when we speak
about IDEAS we do not have to put any article before the noun. But when we want to
indicate that we speak about some actual EXAMPLE in the real world, then we use an
article before the noun.
6
7
The tests in the Elementary Group contained more basic/prototypical uses of articles; they were also
easier in terms of grammar and vocabulary (there were taken from coursebooks for the elementary level
/ John & Liz Soars: Headway, Elementary/). The tests designed for the Intermediate Group included
more difficult/less prototypical uses (e.g. more idiomatic expressions and abstract nouns) and were also
more grammatically and lexically complex (sources: John & Liz Soars: Headway, Pre-intermediate and
Intermediate, BBC English materials).
For the sake of easier apprehension of IDEAS, this explanation is slightly different from Langacker’s
account.
7
IDEAS: abstract,
sets of features
(no article)
EXAMPLES:
things in the real world
(‘a’ or ‘the’)
Fig. 1
The concept of IDEA is also helpful in the explanation of certain phrases with occur with
the so-called zero article, i.e. phrases in which we talk about IDEAS rather than the actual
examples, for instance
1) With nouns describing places when they stand for the main idea behind them
(their primary purpose): at home, in prison, in church, in bed, in hospital, at
school
2) With nouns describing meals when they stand for the idea of ‘eating’: have
breakfast/lunch/dinner
3) With nouns describing vehicles when we refer to the idea of a particular means of
transport: go by car/bus/train/boat
4) .Also, in many idiomatic expressions (the meaning is not literal, IDEAS behind
the expressions are important),e.g.: take ship, make/take place, be on deck/board,
take/lose heart, talk shop, go to sea, keep house, sent word, sit at table (=eat),
keep/lose face, be with child (pregnant), take account, lose sight, keep/lose
track, take care
The difference between the use of ‘the’ and ‘a/an’ is elucidated in terms of the shared
SPEAKER’S and HEARER’S knowledge. The students learn that typically, speakers use
‘the’ before a noun when they are sure that the hearer will be able to think about ONE
definite thing or person. With ‘a’ it is the other way round: the speaker wants to mention
something or someone, but it is not important that the hearer should think about one specific
thing/person. When one says, for instance, I want to buy a flower, he/she shows that:
1) He/she (the SPEAKER) do not have any particular flower in mind
AND:
2) The HEARER is not able to or does not have to think about any ONE specific
flower 8
8
Sentences such as ‘Mind the step!’ are also dealt with.
8
The next important issue dealt with in the grammar and presented during the teaching
sessions is the analysis of cases in which ‘the’ is used. In the first place, the learners are
informed that the appropriate use of the definite article in speaking or writing is to a great
extend determined by making correct assumptions about what the hearer/reader has in mind.
In particular, before one uses ‘the’ learners are advised to find an answer to the question
whether the hearer/reader knows exactly which thing/person the speaker is talking/writing
about
To predict what the hearer has in mind the learners are advised to search four ‘files’
which can tell whether the hearer is able to identify the definite example:
1. General knowledge – there is only one
example in the world or in our culture and
society
2. The context – there is only one such
thing/person in the context of
speaking/writing
THE – the hearer
can find one
definite
thing/person
3. We have mentioned this thing/person
before
4. The meaning of the noun phrase – we
give enough information about a given
thing/person so that the hearer is able to
identify it/him/her
Fig 2
The presentation of the four sources of definiteness is followed by a detailed analysis and
illustrative examples pertaining to each ‘file’.
In another section of the grammar and in the following lesson of the study learners are
acquainted with the generic statements, in which ‘a’ the’ or the zero article plus a noun in
plural are usually employed. The use of the definite article with the generic reference is
explained with reference to the context in which such structures occur most often, i.e. when
a whole group’s place in a given hierarchy is stressed or when one definite group is
contrasted with another one. A schematic drawing (Figure 2) together with an illustrative
description and examples are supposed to help the understanding the use of the generic
statements.
9
THE WORLD (W)
A
THE BIRD
M
P
THE ANIMAL (A)
THE MAMMAL
THE ELEPHANT
w
THE PLANT (P)
THE TREE
Fig. 3
THE PINE
The generic use of ‘the’ is termed idea-like, since the speaker does not usually refer to any
real example in the real world, but talks about one thing or group as contrasted with another
thing(s) or group(s) of things. Some more contexts, explanations and examples for the use
of the idea-like ‘the’ are further provided, e.g. ‘The telephone was invented by Bell’, ‘Move
to the left, not to the right’, etc.
In the final section of the pedagogical grammar and in the last lesson of the teaching
sessions the issue of countability and the use of the indefinite and the zero article is analysed
in detail. Again, schematic drawings and examples illustrate the cognitive concept of
bounding.
(a)
(b)
a moon (count – we see the whole)
darkness (mass – we do not see limits)
Fig. 4
Student’s attention is drawn to the fact that there is a similarity between mass nouns and
IDEAS: both are not related to any particular entity/amount of substance. This similarity is
reflected in language: just like IDEAS, mass nouns do not occur with articles.
By far the most important contributions of the cognitive grammar to the pedagogy of
count/mass nouns lies in the important fact that nouns are not count or mass in themselves,
but rather they are seen as such. Numerous examples of various usage contexts are provided
to show that nouns are rather typically count or typically mass, because people usually see
things in a particular way. Occasionally, the perspective may be changed, which is reflected
10
in the language: some mass nouns can occasionally take articles and prototypically count
nouns can sometimes occur with the zero article, e.g.:
I don’t like coffee.
A coffee, please. (one cup)
coffee (b)
a coffee (b)
Fig. 5
Results
Because the number of items in pre-tests was different from the number of blanks on the
post-tests, students’ scores have been changed into percentages. Table 1 presents mean
scores (in %) for both groups on the test before, immediately after and five weeks after the
treatment.
Group
Pre-test (%)
Immediate post-test (%)
Delayed post-test (%)
ELEMENTARY
53,2
77,5
68,3
INTERMEDIATE
50,7
69,3
60,4
Table 1
Mean test scores (%) for both groups.
Assuming that the pre-tests are comparable to the post-tests, it seems that the treatment in
both groups brought positive effects. More importantly, it appears that the benefits of
instruction were still durable (lasted for at least five weeks). 9
In addition to filling in the post tests measuring the degree to which the learners
improved their mastery of articles, the students were asked to assess the instruction. 10 In
9
One limitation on the reliability of the scores may stem from the fact that the post-test could have been
easier than the post-tests, since the number of various uses on both tests was not identical (see Appendix
III). Such a possibility would make the tests and, consequently, the test scores incomparable.
11
particular, the subjects were requested to estimate (in %) the degree to which the
information about the use of articles:
1)
2)
3)
4)
clarified the problems with articles
seemed logical
was easy to understand
was easy to remember
Table 2. summarises the mean percentage estimations concerning the four aspects presented
above:
ELEMENTARY
INTERMEDIATE
1)
59
87
2)
78
81
3)
67
82
4)
62
72
Table 2
Students’ reaction to the instruction (estimations in %)
Students’ responses clearly indicate a positive reaction to the content of the treatment,
which implies that the instruction based on the cognitive pedagogical grammar of articles
appeals to learners. The high ratings provided by the Intermediate Group are particularly
important: given the large number of various uses of articles, the students were not confused
by such a vast array of contexts for the article use. One can hypothesise that the students’
impression of logicality, comprehensibility and memorability of instruction can be ascribed
to the inherent merits of the cognitive grammar, i.e. the priority of meaning and function,
and the internal consistency of the general framework it provides.
Discussion
The implication of the teaching sessions is that applied cognitive linguistics can indeed be
an auspicious new development which may offer an entirely different perspective on
teaching grammar. The results obtained certainly prove the hypothesis is that the provided
treatment, i.e. explicit instruction based on cognitive grammar used in tandem with a variety
of tasks, was effective in teaching the accurate use of articles.
However, the study does not allow for making any definite claims about the role of the
‘cognitive’ metalinguistic knowledge in language acquisition. It is difficult to state
unequivocally whether the subjects’ improvement can be attributed to the alleged merits of
the cognitive pedagogical grammar on which the explanations were based or to the activities
used in the treatment. Since the method of treatment (designed on the basis of the studies in
10 The learners were asked not to assess the teacher and the method, but to focus only on what was said
about articles.
12
second language acquisition) took it a priori that in the case of teaching English articles to
Polish learner implicit techniques should be used alongside explicit instruction, the study
did not deal with the issue of how the metalinguistic knowledge affects accuracy. Therefore,
the results of the study cannot corroborate the tempting hypothesis that the progress can be
attributed to the ‘cognitive’ explanation only. Most probably, the improved accuracy in
using articles was due to both, the explicit instruction and practice.
In spite of the theoretically well-founded merits of cognitive linguistic implications
concerning language learning, one needs to remember that according to the principles of
cognitive psychology or information processing approaches (McLaughlin 1988) it seems
unlikely that mere metalinguistic/metacognitive knowledge, however, convincing and
understandable; would significantly affect the learner’ interlanguage. In cognitive
psychology, controlled processing of information, which entails numerous repetitions of the
activation of some neurological connection are absolutely essential in skill acquisition. This
means that practice, which ensures e.g. automatisation is indispensable. Thus, a cognitive
applied linguist should always bear in mind that both perception and experience are required
for the creation and the subsequent manipulation of concepts and that the
metalinguistic/metacognitive explanation may have only a subsidiary function in
comparison to the fundamental cognitive processes of automatisation, restructuring or
noticing.
13
Conclusions
The main purpose of the study presented in this article was to suggest a pedagogical
description of English articles which would be based on the interpretation provided by the
cognitive theory of language. I have suggested an explanation which can be used as a
reference source by learners and teachers. 11 I also attempted to implement the ‘cognitive’
pedagogical materials in teaching secondary school learners. The teaching sessions I
designed and conducted have brought beneficial effects for the students’ mastery of articles,
lending credence to the hypothesis that the cognitive account of articles can be used in
teaching as an understandable alternative to other pedagogical explanations.
However, the present study does not deal with the overriding question whether the
cognitive analysis constitutes a better linguistic foundation for language pedagogy than
other linguistic approaches. Further studies are required, in which the applied cognitive
linguistics treatment would be compared to treatments founded on other linguistic
approaches (e.g. transformational-generative).
Secondly, it needs to be established what kind of learner can benefit most from the
cognitive presentation. It might be suspected that the meaning-centered rule explanation
designed to form appropriate concepts, though being compatible with general human
information processing abilities, may not be equally understandable to all learners. I
hypothesize that such factors as the learning style, field dependence and field independence,
imagination, ability for abstract thinking, etc. may exert great influence on the degree to
which students can profit from the cognitive presentation. Further studies in this area should
be able to determine the relationship between the cognitive instruction and the factors
enumerated above.
Thirdly, since no method of teaching is better than others in all circumstances, neither
can ‘the cognitive method’ aspire to being the best way to teach/learn a foreign language.
The method can be efficacious provided that it is finely tuned to the learner’s needs,
abilities, learning conditions, etc. Therefore, I conclude that determining the optimum
conditions for the effectiveness of cognitive pedagogical grammar should be an integral part
of all studies on the applicability of cognitive grammar in teaching.
Finally, it must be stated that the study does not merit the label of proper research
design. Rather, it was an attempt at implementing the cognitive pedagogical grammar into
the teaching practice. For that reason, the results of the study might not be generalizable.
Definitely, more strict research projects should be undertaken to verify the tentative
hypotheses put forward in this article.
11 The full version of the pedagogical grammar of English articles is included in Król 2004.
14
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Fauconnier, G. (1985). Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning Construction in Natural.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Krashen, S. (1985). Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. London: Longman.
Król, A. (2004). ‘Teaching English articles to Polish learners – a cognitive perspective’.
Unpublished MA thesis. The Jagiellonian University, Kraków.
Kurtyka, A. (2001). Teaching English phrasal verbs: a cognitive approach. In: Martin Pütz,
Susanne Niemeier & René Dirven, (eds.). Applied Cognitive Linguistics. Berlin/New
York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Langacker, R. (1987). Foundations of Cognitive Grammar: Vol I: Theoretical Prerequisites.
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Langacker, R. (1991). Foundations of Cognitive Grammar: Vol II: Descriptive Application.
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Pütz, M. (2004). Applied Cognitive linguistics: an overview?’ Low, Graham D. (1988). On
teaching metaphor. Applied Linguistics 9/2: 125-147.
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Thirty years of linguistic evolution. Studies in honour of René Dirven on the
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Rudzka-Ostyn, Brygida (2003). Word power: Phrasal verbs and compounds. A cognitive
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Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford
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Stevick, Earl W. (1986) Images and Options in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Van Patten, B. (1996). Input Processing and Grammar Instruction. New York: Ablex.
15
Appendix I
Tests
Pre-test / elementary group
Fill in the blanks with ‘a’/’an’ or ‘the’ (if you think there should be no article put ‘ ⎯’ ).
There are five billion people in ___ (1a) world and they live in all different corners of it. They live
in ___ (2) snow of ___ (3) Poles (bieguny) and in ___ (4) tropical jungles on ___ (5) equator
(równik). They have climbed ___ (6) highest mountains and walked on ___ (7) sea bed (dno
morskie). Some of them have even left ___ (8) earth and visited ___ (9a) moon.
___ (10) human species is ___ (11) most numerous and ___ (12) most powerful of all ___
(13) animals on earth. How did this happen? In many ways, animals can do things better than we
can. ___ (14) cats can see in the dark. ___ (15) birds can fly thousands of miles away and return to
___ (16) same place every year. But we are different. No other animal plays football, has ___ (17)
prisons, writes ___ (18) symphonies, elects ___ (19) presidents, or goes to ___ (9b) moon.
We are ___ (20) only species that can change ___ (1b) world, and we are ___ (21) only
species that can choose whether to look after our world or to destroy it.
My uncle is ___ (22) shopkeeper. He has ___ (23) shop in ___ (24) very small village by the River
Thames near Oxford. ___ (25) shop sells almost everything from ___ (26) bread to ___ (27) cement
and ___ (28) furniture.___ (29) children always stop to spend a few pence on ___ (30) sweets or
___ (31) ice-cream in their way to and from ___ (32) school. My uncle doesn’t often leave ___ (33)
village. He doesn’t have ___ (34) car, so once ___ (35) month he goes by ___ (36) bus to Oxford
and has ___ (37) lunch at the Grand Hotel. He is one of ___ (38) happiest men I know.
Mr. Lost:
Excuse me! Is there ___ (39) chemist’s near here?
Mr. Fromhere: There is one in Church Street, just opposite ___ (40) Town Hall (ratusz).
Mr. Lost:
And where is Church Street?
Mr. Fromhere: Walk along this street, past ___ (41) railway station and ___ (42) post office. Turn
left at ___ (43) traffic lights and you’ll be in Church Street.
Mr. Lost:
Thank you very much.
Customer:
Seller:
Customer:
Seller:
Customer:
Seller:
Customer:
Hello, can I have ___ (44) chicken sandwich in ___ (45) brown roll, please?
___ (46) Salt and ___ (47) pepper?
Yes, please.
Anything else?
Yes, ___ (48) apple and ___ (49) mineral water.
Three pounds forty.
Thanks.
John: Let’s go to ___ (50) cinema tonight.
Anne: I would rather go to ___ (51) theatre. There is ___ (52) play by G. B. Shaw.
John: OK, but after ___ (53) play, we’ll go for ___ (54) dinner to ___ (55) restaurant.
Anne: Why not?
16
Pre-test / intermediate group
Fill in the blanks with ‘a’/’an’ or ‘the’ (if you think there should be no article put ‘ ⎯’ ).
What is it to love someone if you don’t share ___ (1) same mother-tongue? My companion’s
English is reasonably good, infinitely better than my Russian. But many of ___ (2) fine shades of
meaning that would normally be possible in ___ (3) conversation between two intimately connected
people are out of ___ (4) reach. Do our nerve endings converse more intelligently by ___ (5) way of
compensation; do we know by ___ (6) instinct most of ___ (7) things that must be unsaid or
imperfectly understood? In ___ (8) sentimental mood, I’d said yes. But at ___ (9) back of my mind
there is always ___ (10) notion that you can only understand someone when you understand how,
on ___ (11) deepest level, they make use of language.
It is ___ (12) same when he entertains ___ (13) friends or talks to them on ___ (14) phone – I
think: they make him laugh in the way I never can, and ___ (15) cold ugly jealousy comes down on
me like ___ (16) fog... I am ___ (17) foreigner. I am ___ (18) little island of ___ (19) Englishness in
this Russian kitchen (...).
____ (20) end of ___ (21) Second World War marked ___ (22) beginning of what became known as
____ (23a) Cold War. ___ (24) term is used to describe ___ (25) state in which two countries, or
powerful blocks, don’t actually fight but are openly hostile to one another. ____ (23b) Cold War
was ____ (26) war of ____ (27) ideologies. It involved ____ (28) Eastern Bloc, which was
dominated by the communist Soviet Union on one side, and on ____ (29) other the capitalist West,
dominated by the United States.
Geographically, Germany was at ____ (30) centre of ____ (23c) Cold War. After 1945 ____
(31) country was divided into East Germany and West Germany. ____ (32) city of Berlin, ____ (33)
old German capital, lay right at ___ (34) heart of ____ (23d) Cold War and was also split into East
and West. Because of its position, Berlin became ___ (45) gateway to ____ (36) West.
Anne:
Tom:
Anne:
Tom:
Anne:
Tom:
Anne:
Tom:
Anne:
Tom:
Anne:
It was lovely!
It was ___ (37) rubbish.
Didn’t you like ____ (38) film?
No. It was nonsense.
You are awful! I will never go to ___ (39) cinema with you any more.
It is not only that I prefer ___ (40) theatre. I don’t like ___ (41) sex and ____ (42) violence
on ____ (43) screen.
Neither do I. But it was ___ (44) art!
Art? Artists such as ___ (45) director of that film should be sent to ___ (46) prison! It shows
that the true art is in ___ (47) serious danger. As ___ (48) writer, I always lose ___ (49)
heart when I see ____ (50) work of art like that!
But ___ (51) art of ___ (52) today is different from that of ___ (53) Renaissance!
OK, then. I’m ___ (54) old-fashioned bore.
I didn’t say that...
17
Post-test / elementary group
Fill in the blanks with ‘a’/’an’ or ‘the’ (if you think there should be no article put ‘ ⎯’ ).
Once upon a time there was ___ (1) beautiful princess who had ___ (2) golden ball. She lived in
___ (3) palace with her father, ___(4) King, and her seven sisters. Every day she played with her
ball in ___ (5) garden of ___ (6) palace.
At ___ (7) end of ___ (8) garden there was ___ (9) deep, dark pond. When the weather was
hot ___ (10) princess liked playing near ____ (11) pond. One day ___ (12) ball fell (wpadła) into
___ (13) water. She was very sad and she sat on the ____ (14) grass and started to cry. Suddenly,
she heard ___ (15) voice: “Don’t cry, princess.” She opened her eyes and saw ___ (16) large, green
frog. ‘Oh, please, help me!’ she said, ‘I can’t get my ball’. ‘I’ll help you’, said ___ (17) frog, ‘If I
can come and live with you in ___ (18) palace!’. ‘Yes, yes, of course, I promise’ said ___ (19)
princess.
So ___ (20) frog jumped into ___ (21) water and came back with ___ (22) ball. ___ (23)
princess laughed and took ___ (24) ball. She ran quickly back to ___ (25) palace and forgot about
___ (26) frog.
___ (27) frog was very angry. He followed ___ (28) princess into ___ (29) palace and told his
story to ___ (30) King. ‘A promise is a promise (obietnica to obietnica) said ___ (31) frog. ‘Yes’
said ___ (32) King and told his daughter ‘Take this frog to your room and look after him’ (...).
David is ___ (33) bank manager and Rosa is ___ (34) doctor in ___ (35) large hospital. David gets
up at 7.30 and has ____ (36) shower (bierze prysznic) and goes to work by ___(37) train. He arrives
at ___ (38) bank at 9am. Rosa gets up at 9.30am and goes to ___ (39) hospital by ___ (40) bus.
David finishes work at 5.30pm. and goes shopping in ___ (41) supermarket near ____ (42)
bank. Then he goes ___ (43) home and eats ___ (44) dinner alone in ___ (45) kitchen. In the
evening he plays ____ (46) piano or listens Rosa arrives ____ (47) home at 10pm and has ___ (48)
dinner in ___ (49) living room. David goes to ___ (50) bed at 11pm, but Rosa usually goes to ___
(51) bed a bit earlier. On Saturday evenings they usually go to ____ (52) restaurant or to _____ (53)
cinema.
Tim:
Mum:
Tim:
Mum:
Tim:
Mum:
I’m hungry.
Would you like ___ (54) biscuit?
No. Thanks, I’d like ___ (55) sandwich.
With ___ (56) cheese?
With ___ (57) ham, please!
Didn’t you eat ___ (58) breakfast? I have left ___ (59) bread and ___ (60) butter, ___ (61)
sausages, ___ (62) eggs and ___ (63) bacon...
Tim: I didn’t have time. I only had some cereals with ___ (64) milk and ___ (65) sugar.
Mum: Oh, now I see why you are so hungry!
George Washington became President in 1789. He helped to win ____ (66) War of Independence
(Wojna o Niepodlaegłość) by winning ____ (67) battle at Yorktown in 1781. He chaired
(przewodniczył) _____ (68) convention at Philadelphia and drew up ____ (69) American
constitution. He is one of ____ (70) most famous presidents of the US.
18
Post-test / intermediate group
Fill in the blanks with ‘a’/’an’ or ‘the’ (if you think there should be no article put ‘ ⎯’ ).
Not only is ___ (1a) fear ___ (2) very normal emotion, but it is also ___ (3) essential emotion. To
be totally without ___ (1b) fear is to be in ___ (4) danger. ___ (1c) fear is ___ (5) essential defence
mechanism.
___ (1d) fear is made up of ___ (6) emotional feeling and ___ (7) number of bodily changes.
If we come ___ (8) face to ___(9) face with a man wildly waving ___ (10) hatchet (topór) we are
likely to experience ___ (11) emotion we describe as ___ (1e) fear, and at ___ (12) same time our
hearts will start to race, out breathing will accelerate, and we may turn pale or sweat. We may
experience ___ (13) unpleasant sinking sensation in ___ (14) stomach (żołądek), weakness in ___
(15) muscles, and trembling of ___ (16) limbs (drżenie kończyn). These physical changes have been
described as ___ (17) ‘fight or fight phenomenon’, and they are ___ (18) body’s preparation for
either of these actions.
___ (19) site (miejsce) of ___ (20) Tower of London was originally part of ___ (21) Roman city of
Londinum. But when, in 1066, ___ (22) foreigner from north-west France, became ___ (23) king
William of Britain, he ordered that ___ (24) wooden castle be built on ___ (25) banks of the river
Thames. ___ (26) purpose of this fortress was to help secure London, ___ (27) most important city
in his new realm (królestwo). Ten years later, William rebuilt ___ (28) fortress in ___ (29) stone,
and created ___ (30) great fortified palace.
Imagine ___ (31) building one third of ___ (32) height of Mount Everest, built by ___ (33)
robots, and containing ___ (34) whole city. Imagine you can walk out of your front door in ___ (35)
T-shirt and ___ (36) shorts in ___ (37) cold winter’s day and take ___(38) lift down 500 floors to
___ (39) school. Imagine you can never open ___ (40) window. Imagine...
Well, if Japanese architects find enough money for their project, at ___ (41) end of ___ (42)
st
21 century you’ll be able to live in ___ (43) building like that.
Ohbayashi Gumi has designed ___(44) two-kilometre high building, Aeropolis, which will
stand right in ___(45) middle of Tokyo Bay. Over 300,000 people will live in ___ (46) building. It
will be 500 floors high, and in special lifts it will take just 15 minutes to get from ___(47) top to
___(48) bottom. ___(49) restaurants, ___(50) offices, ___(51) flats, ___(52) cinemas, ___(53)
schools, ___(54) hospitals, and ___(55) post offices will all be just a few lift stops away. According
to ___ (56) architects, Aeropolis will be ___(57) first ‘city to touch ___ (58) sky’.
Anne: Thank you, John. It was very nice to have ___ (59) dinner with you.
John: My pleasure. And I would be very happy if went to ___ (60) cinema or to ___ (61)
restaurant next weekend as well.
Anne. I would love to. But I have to go now. I promised my son to be at ___ (62) home before 10
p.m. and ___ (63) last bus is in 5 minutes.
John: That’s no problem. We can go by ___ (64) car. What’s ___ (65) address?
19
Appendix II
The treatment: some exemplifying tasks
I.
Exercise (hypothesis testing)
− The learners try to invent sentences and situations in which the following nouns could be
uttered as:
a) count nouns
b) mass nouns
II.
flour
bread
milk
egg
tomato
stone
brick
paper
iron
glass
Exercise (hypothesis testing)
− The learners invent contexts in which the following sentences could have been uttered:
I need a sand
She gave him
book
We buys a paper
on her way from
work.
III.
A sugar,
please.
We will
need stone
With cheese
and ham.
Exercise (noticing, forcing syntactic processing, automatisation)
− the learners fill in the blanks in the following text
− the learners disuuss the use of ‘the’ in the test
____ (1) earth is ___ (2) third planet from ___ (3) sun in ___ (4) solar system, orbiting between
Venus and Mars at an average distance of 149,6 million km from ___ (5) sun and has one natural
satellite, ___ (6) moon.
Source: The New Oxford Dictionary of English.
IV.
Exercise (dictogloss)
− The teacher reads a short text. The learners are asked to reconstruct it verbatim (pair
work). The learners may be given some words or phrases as cues (additionally the number
of words missing can be provided).
20
Teacher’s text
The end of the Second World War marked the beginning of what became known as the Cold War.
The term is used to describe the state in which two countries, or powerful blocks, don’t actually
fight but are openly hostile to one another. The Cold War was a war of ideologies. It involved the
Eastern Bloc, which was dominated by the communist Soviet Union on one side, and on the other
the capitalist West, dominated by the United States.
Geographically, Germany was at the centre of the Cold War. After 1945 the country was
divided into East Germany and West Germany. The city of Berlin, the old German capital, lay right
at the heart of the Cold War. Because of its position, Berlin became a gateway to the West.
Source: BBC English, Nov.1997
Learner’s text
ond World War marked the beginning of what became known as the Cold War. The term is used to
describe a state in which two countries, or powerful blocks, don’t actually fight but are openly
hostile to one another. The Cold War was a war of ideologies. It involved the Eastern Bloc, which
was dominated by the communist Soviet Union on one side, and on the other the capitalist West,
dominated by the United States. Geographically, Germany was at the centre of the Cold War. After
1945 the country was divided into East Germany and West Germany. The city of Berlin, the old
German capital, lay right at the heart of the Cold War. Because of its position, Berlin became a
gateway to the West.
V.
Exercise (noticing, entrenchment, syntactic processing)
− the learners are given enhanced tapescripts of listening comprehension tasks they did some
time before
Antonio Vivaldi was a famous Italian composer and violinist. He was born in Venice on 4th March,
1678. His father taught young Antonio to play the violin. In 1703, at the age of 25, Vivaldi became
a priest. He also taught music at a school for girls in Venice. He traveled to many countries and
wrote brilliant pieces of music for the school. Vivaldi was a genius. He wrote about 40 operas, 39
concertos for the bassoon and for the flute. Although he was a rich man at the height of his career,
Vivaldi died very poor. He died on 28th July, 1741, at the age of 63. Vivaldi never married.
It was about three o’clock in the morning and Tony was in bed. He suddenly heard noises outside
his house. He got out of bed and he went sleepily to the window. There was black smoke
everywhere. His house was on fire. Tony ran quickly downstairs, but couldn’t get out because there
was fire all around. He immediately rushed upstairs again, closed the door tightly behind him and
opened the window. ‘Help!’ he shouted desperately. But the firefighters couldn’t hear him. Then,
21
Tony saw a ladder near the window so he climbed carefully onto it. ‘Don’t panic!’ a firefighter
called up to him. ‘I’ll help you’ He held the ladder and Tony climbed nervously down. When Tony
was finally safe on the ground, he felt shocked but happy. After all, he was lucky to be alive.
Source: Virginia Evans: Enterprise 1
− the learners discuss the use of “a” and “the” in pairs and try to categorise the noun phrases
into: (metatalk)
“a”
indefinite
singular
noun
Ø
–
indefinite
plural noun
or a mass
noun
“ the” definite singular or plural nouns
One in he One in Meaning of Mentioned before
world/culture the
the phrase
context
VI.
Exercise (noticing, unit entrenchment):
− The learners put in the right order sentences describing what they do before boarding an
airplane:
____ You go to the departure lounge
____ You get a trolley.
____ You arrive at the airport.
____ You go to your gate.
____ You go to the check-in desk.
____ You go to the duty-free shop.
____ You get a boarding card.
____ You board the plane.
____ You check in your luggage.
____ You look at the departure board to see if your flight is boarding yet.
____ The board tells you which gate to go to.
____ You go through passport control.
Source: John Liz Soars: Headway (pre-intermediate)
− After ordering the sentences and checking the task, the learners underline all definite noun
phrases. The teacher elicits the justification for their definiteness (uniqueness in the
context).
22
VII.
Exercise (hypothesis testing, conscious syntactic processing)
− the learners write down pairs of sentences in which the following nouns are used either as
ideas or as examples:
church
accident
school
answer
bed
hospital
place
face
VIII. Exercise – quiz
− The learners match items from columns A with an appropriate verb from column B, an
article form column C and an item form columns D. The learners score 1 point for every
correct matching (A-D) and one point for the correct article.
NAME
VERB
1. Tony Blair
2. Catherine Earnshaw is
3. A Streetcar Named
Desire
4. James Joyce
5. Mrs Dalloway
6. Kurt Vonnegut
7. Ian Duncan Smith
8. Arthur Miller
9. Dylan Thomas
11.Colin Powell
12.Gregory the Great
13.George Washington
14.Elisabeth II
became
was
elected
was
AR Noun/Title
T.
a. British PM
b. character in ‘Wuthering Heights’
A
c. author of ‘Ulysses’
d.
writer
who
wrote
An ‘Slaughterhouse 5’
e. book by Virginia Woolf
The f. drama by Tennessee Williams
g. leader of the Conservative Party
Ø
h. American dramatist
i. British poet
j. American Secretary of State
k. Queen in 1952
l. President of the US in 1732
m. Pope in 590
23