THE CALIFORNIA A-G REQUIREMENTS AND FIRST-GENERATION LATINO
STUDENTS
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Education
(Higher Education Leadership)
by
Maricela Lauren Melendrez
SPRING
2014
© 2014
Maricela Lauren Melendrez
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
THE CALIFORNIA A-G REQUIREMENTS AND FIRST-GENERATION LATINO
STUDENTS
A Thesis
by
Maricela Lauren Melendrez
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Francisco Reveles, Ed.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Edmund W. Lee, Ed.D.
Date
iii
Student: Maricela Lauren Melendrez
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
, Department Chair
Susan Heredia, Ph.D.
Date
Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
iv
Abstract
of
THE CALIFORNIA A-G REQUIREMENTS AND FIRST-GENERATION LATINO
STUDENTS
by
Maricela Lauren Melendrez
Brief Literature Review
Critical Race theory, Latino Identity Development, and Dewey’s Pedagogic Creed were
reviewed in the context of Latino education. Latinos are the largest minority in the United
States. According to the 2008 U.S. Census, Latinos make up 36.6% of California’s
population, and in 2025, Latinos will compose 25% of all students enrolled in U.S. public
schools (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). However, there is still a widening gap in education
between Latino students and their White counterparts (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which the California A-G
requirements are understood and acted upon by first-generation Latino students who
aspire to attend a four-year institution.
Methodology
A mixed-methods approach was utilized for this study. Two questionnaires using
a five point Likert-type scale were developed for the study. One questionnaire was used
for the student participants and one questionnaire was designed for the counselors and
v
administrators. There were 25 student respondents represented by 17 females and eight
males, all between the ages of 17 and 18. Six of the student respondents agreed to be
interviewed. There were also two counselor respondents with one agreeing to be
interviewed.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The study found most of the 25 students were not very knowledgeable about the
California A-G requirements at first, but throughout their years of high school, they
became more and more familiar with the California A-G requirements. A total of 52% of
the participants indicated their counselors failed to mention the California A-G
requirements to them. As for the counselors in the study, both counselors strongly agreed
they make every effort to mention the A-G requirements to all students, especially Latino
students. Both counselors also stated they encouraged their students to maintain at least a
2.0 GPA, mentioned four-year universities, and let the students know when they were
missing some A-G requirements. More research is needed on the implementation of the
California A-G requirements, and how educators, administrators, and teachers can help
increase awareness about the admissions requirements for California public educational
institutions.
, Committee Chair
Francisco Reveles, Ed.D.
Date
vi
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my family. I am a first-generation college student, and
will be the first in my family to receive her master’s degree. Both of my parents worked
really hard and sacrificed a lot for my sister and me to have a better life. I thank them for
allowing me to pursue higher education, and hope to make them proud with this master’s
degree.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my parents and my sister for pushing me to finish this thesis.
I would like to thank my fellow cohort members in encouraging me to keep pushing even
when I felt like giving up at times. I would also like to thank Dr. Reveles, Dr. Cowan,
and Dr. Lee for helping me get this thesis finalized and approved. I have been fortunate
to have met some wonderful people throughout this process, and I am extremely thankful
for all the words of encouragement throughout my graduate experience.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication ........................................................................................................................ vii
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
Overview ................................................................................................................. 1
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 2
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 3
Definition of Terms................................................................................................. 3
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 4
Organization of the Remainder of the Study .......................................................... 6
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................................... 7
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 7
Critical Race Theory ............................................................................................... 9
Latino Identity Development ................................................................................ 10
Pedagogic Creed—John Dewey ........................................................................... 12
History of the California A-G Requirements ........................................................ 13
Knowledge of the California A-G Requirements ................................................. 22
Course-taking Patterns among Latinos ................................................................. 24
ix
The Latino Achievement Gap ............................................................................... 36
Rationale for the Study ......................................................................................... 47
Summary ............................................................................................................... 47
3. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 49
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 49
Research Design.................................................................................................... 49
Limitations of the Study........................................................................................ 53
4. RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 55
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 55
Presentation of Data .............................................................................................. 55
Findings................................................................................................................. 56
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............................. 72
Summary ............................................................................................................... 72
Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 73
Recommendations for Further Study .................................................................... 74
Appendix A. Questionnaires ............................................................................................. 77
Appendix B. Consent to Participate in Research .............................................................. 84
References ......................................................................................................................... 88
x
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page
1.
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ...................................................... 51
2.
Respondent Knowledge of A-G Requirements..................................................... 57
3.
Respondent Interest in University......................................................................... 59
4.
GPA Motivation .................................................................................................... 61
5.
Academic Involvement ......................................................................................... 62
6.
Results of Counselors’ Questionnaires ................................................................. 67
xi
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Latinos are the biggest minority in the United States. According to the 2008 U.S
Census, Latinos made up 36.6% of California’s population, and in 2025, Latinos will
comprise 25% of all students enrolled in U.S public schools (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).
However, there is still a widening gap in education between Latino students and their
White counterparts (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Gandara (2010) stated Latino students are
already behind when they start kindergarten and stay behind through finishing their last
day of school because they perform below most of their counterparts. One of the issues
accounting for Latino students falling behind from the beginning of their educational
career is Latinos having less access to a pre-school education. Another issue is facing
poverty, “Young Latino children are more than twice as likely to be poor as white
children and are even more likely to be among the poorest of the poor” (Gandara, 2010,
p. 26). Latinos are also more likely to come from homes where parents do not speak
English and parental education is low (Gandara, 2010).
Cooper (2011) found Hispanic students are nearly three times as likely to drop out
of high school as their White or Black counterparts. However, most Latino students
believe attaining a college degree is very important. Research has also stated nearly 75%
of respondents view money as an impediment to going to college (Cooper, 2011). Nearly
2
half the respondents also stated poor English skills are a barrier toward college, as well as
others stating a dislike for college and believing higher education is not needed for the
careers they have in mind (Cooper, 2011).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which the California A-G
requirements are understood and acted upon by first-generation Latino students who
aspire to attend a four-year institution. Balfanz (2009) indicated African-American and
Latino students are three to four times as likely to attend a high school with a lower
graduation rate. Research provided by Roderick et al. (2008) found Latinos did not have
knowledge about the college application process. Thus, when Latino students enter their
senior year, they are unaware of the California A-G requirements, much less how to
conduct a college search. Roderick and colleagues suggested students interested in
applying to college start the process their junior year in order to get assistance sooner
than later. The rationale for conducting this study was that the researcher believed there
was not enough attention paid to Latino students wanting to attend a four-year university
without having already completed at least two years at a community college. This study
wanted to address the importance of completing the California A-G requirements in order
to become eligible for a California four-year public university.
3
Statement of the Problem
One problem in today’s society is that while Latinos are the largest ethnic group
in the United States, they are hugely underrepresented in higher education. “President
Barack Obama has called education ‘the economic issue of our time,’” meaning
unemployment is rising among people who do not possess a college education, and 8 out
of 10 jobs created need people who possess college degrees (Obama, 2010, para. 17).
According to the 2007 U.S. Census Bureau, only 12.7% of Latinos have a Bachelor’s
degree compared to 30% of Whites. Although there has been an increase in college
enrollment for Latinos from 16% to 22% between 1980 and 2000, their White
counterparts’ college enrollment has increased even more from 27% to 39%. Fry (2002)
found 42% of Latinos are more likely to go on to a community college compared to only
24 percent of White students (Ornelas, 2002). Many students choose to enroll in a
community college because it is cheaper. However, it may take longer to graduate from a
four-year college or Latinos may not transfer at all (Ornelas, 2002), thus causing a huge
achievement gap among Latino students trying to pursue higher education.
Definition of Terms
The following terms and definitions apply to this study.
California A-G requirements
A 15- college-preparatory course pattern
4
Community College
A non-residential college offering two-year courses of study
First-generation Latino(a)
People who were foreign born in a Latin country
Latino(a)
A person of Latin-American or Spanish-speaking descent
Retention
The capacity of an institution to sustain students from enrollment through
graduation
University
An institution of higher education having authority to award bachelor’s and
higher degrees, usually having research facilities
Significance of the Study
According to Ginorio and Huston (2001), Moreno (1999), and Valencia (2002),
Latinos are more likely to have an inferior school experience when preparing for college
because of segregation and unequal distribution of resource allocation. Oakes (2002)
found schools with a high number of Latino and African American students are more
likely to have ill-prepared teachers, fewer supplies, and inadequate facilities, causing
students to be less prepared when applying for college. Also, in school districts where
Latinos make up the majority of the student population, such as Los Angeles School
5
District, Latinos are less likely to enroll in Advanced Placement courses because large
schools having a majority of students of color are less likely to offer many Advanced
Placement courses compared to schools with a large White student population (Burciaga,
Perez Huber, & Solorzano, 2010).
Since California has three tiers of higher education – 112 community colleges, 23
California State University campuses, and 10 University of California campuses – one
would think Latinos would be represented, but this is not the case. California State
University and the University of California have selective eligibility requirements that
narrows Latino participation. Yet community colleges have an open-door policy, which
causes Latino participation to increase. “Despite 71 percent of Latino community college
students expressing interest in transferring from community college to obtain bachelor’s
degrees, only 20 percent of Latinos transfer to four-year colleges and universities”
(Solorzano, Rivas, & Velez, 2005, p. 1). Solorzano and colleagues (2005) also found
Latinos who remain at the community colleges do not necessarily obtain an associate’s
degree. This study is important because it addresses the achievement gap Latinos
currently face. Many studies only choose to look at the two-year route for Latinos
instead of choosing to look at four-year routes. This study looks at students who have a
desire and willingness to attend public universities in California.
6
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Five chapters compose this study. Chapter 2 focuses on the review of the relevant
literature and discuses the California A-G requirements and Latino students, history of
the California A-G requirements, exemplary programs, the Latino achievement gap, and
stakeholders involved with supporting Latino students pursuing higher education.
Chapter 3 focuses on the methodology and how the data were collected and analyzed.
Chapter 4 presents the data and data analysis. Chapter 5 presents the Summary,
Conclusions, and Recommendations.
7
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
This review of the literature focuses on the California A-G requirements and
Latino students. The first subtopic is the history of the California A-G requirements.
The purpose of this section is to explain the evolution of the California A-G
requirements. This subtopic shares how the California A-G requirements were formally
introduced as well as how they were implemented in California school districts.
Explaining the process of the California A-G requirements helps explain why firstgeneration Latino students are not meeting them.
The second subtopic is knowledge of the California A-G requirements among
Latino students. The purpose of this section is to determine whether Latino students are
knowledgeable about the California A-G requirements. The researcher wanted to
examine how Latino students become aware of these requirements in order to be eligible
for a four-year university in California. She also wanted to identify and answer how
counselors, teachers, and administrators are promoting and implementing the California
A-G requirements to their students. The researcher wanted to analyze the perceptions of
Latino students regarding the California A-G requirements.
The third subtopic is exemplary programs. The purpose of this section is to
discuss some of the exemplary programs in which Latino students are enrolled, such as
8
AVID and magnet programs. This next section describes some of the exemplary
programs in which students enroll. Examining how California schools implement AVID
and the percentages of Latino students who enroll into the program are addressed in this
section. This section is also to determine the percentage of Latino students who enroll in
AVID and move onto a four-year institution. Out of those students who participate in the
program, how many are more likely to move onto higher education than their nonexemplary program counterparts? The last subtopic of this review of the literature is the
Latino achievement gap. This section addresses why there is a big achievement gap
among Latino students and specifically examines retention rates and the perceived ability
of Latino students.
There are many theories for education; however, the three presented throughout
this thesis are Critical Race theory (Aleman, 2009; Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn
2010; Vela-Gude et al., 2004), Latino Identity Development (Ferdman & Gallegos,
2001), and Pedagogic Creed (Dewey, 1897). These theories and ideas together will
provide the theoretical framework for this thesis. Race, ethnic background, and
educational background play out differently throughout people’s lives. Latinos continue
to face many hardships through their experiences dealing with race and achievement gaps
as they try hard to pursue higher education.
9
Critical Race Theory
The goal of Critical Race theory (CRT) is to reevaluate the structure of race and
racism. CRT involves scholars from different academic backgrounds who are committed
to addressing the interplay of race, racism, and power. Those supporting critical race
theory believe people’s understanding of race benefits White people and marginalizes
people of color. “To address inequities experienced by people of color, critical race
theorists believe that the unique stories of people of color must be recounted, and
researchers must use their findings to create a more just society” (Evans et al., 2010, pp.
18-19). There are three claims by which CRT abides. The first statement is racism is a
part of everyday life and it often goes unnoticed. Second, voices of colored people are
central to challenging racism. Last, CRT states people of the dominant culture will help
the advancement of colored people only when these advances will benefit them as well;
this concept is known as interest convergence.
Villalpando (2004) focused his attention on critical race theory (CRT) and Latino
critical race theory (LatCrit) to provide an overview for the implications Latinos face in
higher education. LatCrit proposes race and racism “intersect with other dimensions of
Latinos’ identity, such as language, generation status, gender, sexuality, and class”
(Villalpando, 2004, p. 43). These two frameworks challenge the ideology of color
blindness, race neutrality, and equal opportunities at institutions of higher education for
Latino students. By questioning these alleged ideologies, this will help benefit Latinos
and other minorities (Villalpando, 2004).
10
Aleman (2009) argued the K-12 and higher education can be detrimental,
divisive, and disadvantaging for students of color. It is crucial
Educational leaders—especially leaders of color—understand who decides (and
benefits from) the curriculum and pedagogy, who determines (and benefits from)
the funding structure, or what accountability measures are used in determining the
success (or “failure”) of students. (p. 291)
Aleman (2009) used the CRT framework as a basis for a two-year study of Latino and
Chicano educational advocates who work to close the multiple achievement gaps for
students of color. This article revealed how White influence affected educational leaders’
political discourse in the k-12 system in Utah where there is a heavy political climate of
those of Mormon or Protestant faiths. The findings indicated there was a lack of
cohesiveness of state-political strategies among the eight participants. Researchers argue
Latinos must advocate for their own communities (Aleman, 2009).
Latino Identity Development
Ferdman and Gallegos developed the model of Latino Identity Development in
2001. They developed this model because they felt racial identity theory is not easily
applicable to Latinos. They came up with three considerations for how Latinos
experience race and racism. The first consideration is although being Latino involves
racial, ethnic, and cultural distinctions, race is secondary to Latinos. However, racism
does occur within the Latino community because skin color is important, and often times
11
Latinos devalue those who have darker skin. Second, Latinos are hard to place in one
category because they come from different heritages and represent a wide array of skin
color. Last,
Latinos respond in various ways to the racial categories in which they are placed
in the United States. A number of factors, including familial reference group,
educational experiences, peer interaction, and physical appearance contribute to
how people develop their identities. (Ferdman & Gallegos, 2001, p. 45)
Ferdman and Gallegos (2001) came up with five factors associated with how
Latinos identify themselves, how they are seen as a group, how Latinos view White
people, and how race fits into these factors. The first factor is Latino-Integrated, which
means people who identify themselves as this orientation see themselves with a holistic
self-concept and integrate their Latino identity with other identities. Second, LatinoIdentified means individuals carry on a pan-Latino identity in which race is fluid and they
choose to reject the U.S. racial constructs. Third, Subgroup-Identified means Latinos
only identify with their subgroup and may view other sub groups as inferior. Fourth,
Latino as other means people in this category choose to identify themselves with generic
terms because they do not know their specific background or heritage. Yet, they are
likely to connect with people of color based on physical attributes and because race is
socially constructed. Fifth, Undifferentiated/Denial implies people with this orientation
claim race does not matter and develop a color-blind ideology. , White-Identified makes
the last orientation, and people with this orientation develop a White racial identity.
12
Pedagogic Creed—John Dewey
John Dewey defined education as the process in which the individual participates
in the social consciousness of the race. “This process begins unconsciously almost at
birth, and is continually shaping the individual’s powers, saturating his consciousness,
forming his habits, training his ideas, and arousing his feelings and emotions” (Dewey,
1897, p. 77). Dewey believed true education is a process of living and not a process for
future living. The student must act from his power and instincts. Dewey also believed
psychological and social conditions make up education, and there is not compromise
between the two. The psychological state of education is said to develop an individual’s
mental powers, but there is no idea of how to use these newly developed mental powers.
The social state of education states an individual must adapt with civilization and social
education is a forced external process by which the individual comes to a preconceived
social and political status.
Dewey believed the idea of school is a social institution and it is a form of
community where an individual can share thoughts on race and use his powers for social
change. Dewey also believed teachers should not impose their opinions and influences
on the student, but the teacher should help the student learn how to respond to the
opinions brought up in the school setting.
13
History of the California A-G Requirements
Educational Reform Act of 1983
To address and examine how the California A-G requirements came into being,
the literature review had to address the history of the California A-G requirements by
looking at California legislation addressing education reform. Pipho (1983) discussed the
educational reform acts passed in California and Florida in 1983. Senate Bill 813, known
as the School Finance Reform Bill, was passed in California by Governor George
Deukmejian. SB 813 included over 80 modifications to improve the k-12 system and
caused the need for more money in order to implement these modifications. Governor
Deukmejian approved the budget for the 1983-84 school year but vetoed the $500 million
for the second and third years. Critics were concerned the local school districts would
not plan accordingly if they did not have the funds (Pipho, 1983).
Beginning with the 1986-87 school year, all high school students were required to
take a series of core courses, including three years of English, two years of mathematics,
two years of science (including physical and biological science), three years of social
science, and one year of fine arts or foreign language (Pipho, 1983). SB 813 also had a
number of changes affecting teachers. One change the bill asked for was that new
teachers would be assigned mentors. Another change was that teachers’ salaries were to
increase by 30% (Pipho, 1983).
In Florida, the Raise Bill (SB 6B) was approved by Governor Robert Graham.
For the 1986-87 school year, the bill asked for high school students to complete four
14
credits of English, three credits of science, three credits in social studies, half a credit of
vocational education, and half a credit in the fine arts (Pipho, 1983). To add a seventh
period to the school day, the bill asked for $27 million to be allocated. As for teachers,
Florida appropriated $500,000 for three programs to attract teachers for the 1983-84
academic year (Pipho, 1983).
California and Florida both passed bills affecting education in similar ways. One
similarity was both bills required high school students to complete a series of course
subject areas. The second similarity was to fund money to attract teachers and provide
them with reward incentives (Pipho, 1983).
The Educational Reform Act, Senate Bill 813, became California’s most
expensive school reform bill. SB 813 cost $800 million and contained over 80 initiatives
that would be implemented in more than 1,000 school districts across California. A piece
of legislation calling for school improvement has now caused turmoil in the state (Cuban,
1984). “What began as an effort to correct inequities in funding and to create
opportunities for poor and minority children has ballooned into a virtual state-funded and
state-operated school system” (Cuban, 1984, p. 214). This new piece of legislation
created a four-volume book believed to help Sacramento improve schooling throughout
the state.
The SB 813 legislation aimed to change the dynamics between a student and
teacher. The bill specified what and how much time teachers would spend on certain
subjects such as English and math. The government in return mandated using statewide
15
tests that measured students’ scores and mandated how teachers would be selected,
trained, and evaluated. Thus, policymakers believed state mandates could improve
schools. However, “mandating changes confuses token compliance with fundamental
changes” (Cuban, 1984, p. 214). Policymakers also assumed using quantitative data to
inform the public would change teachers’ and students’ behaviors in school. The focus
on trying to meet test standards drove teachers away from teaching students how to
critically think and how to reason.
Due to the passage of SB 813, the California State Legislature adopted incentive
programs encouraging school districts across California to allocate more money toward
instructional spending. Direct incentive programs are defined as rewarding actual
performance from school districts, while Incentive programs encourage actions districts
should take to improve educational performance. The district using incentive funds can
choose how it spends its money so long as the money complied with the policy
requirements (Picus, 1991).
Currently, the California A-G requirements require students who want to become
eligible for a California Public Institution to take: two years of a history/social science,
four years of English, three years of math, two years of laboratory science, two years of a
language other than English, one year of a visual and performing arts course, and one
year of a college-preparatory elective. Students must pass this 15-unit course pattern
with a grade of a C or better, and 11 of these courses must be met before entering their
senior year of high school. Both the California State University (CSU) and University of
16
California (UC) systems also require students have a minimum grade point average
(GPA) of 3.0. In addition, students must also complete either ACT or SAT text
examination to become eligible to apply (University of California Admissions
Requirements; California State University Admissions Requirements). Students may also
take Career Technical Education courses to satisfy some of the A-G requirements, as long
as they are approved by the state, as discussed in the following section.
Career Technical Education (CTE)
The evolution of how Career Technical Education courses meet the UC admission
requirements began with the passage of Senate Bill 813 in 1983. The passage of Senate
Bill 813 caused a dramatic reform for education. Since CTE courses were not part of the
graduation requirements, the legislature introduced a provision within the California
Education Code that arranged for local agencies to create different approaches for
students to meet these required graduation requirements. “In 1990, with the
reauthorization of the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, academic
integration of CTE courses would become a cornerstone of this federal initiative”
(California Department of Education [CDE], 2010, p. 4). The first Career Technical
Education course to meet the A-G requirements came from two agricultural programs in
the San Joaquin Valley. The first course to meet the laboratory science requirement was
a plant and animal physiology course introduced by Exeter High School. The second
central valley program was located in Chowchilla Union High School, which introduced
three courses meeting the elective requirement. These three courses were Agriculture
17
and Physical Science, Plant Botany, and Animal Physiology. Agricultural courses have
been evaluated to meet the all the California A-G requirements, except for those of
English, math, and foreign language (CDE, 2010).
In 1999, the Governor’s School-to-Career Advisory adopted the UC A-G
Interactive Guide Project, which prepared students for careers and higher education. “In
2001, UC had approved just 258 CTE courses. Today, over 7,600 CTE courses are
approved to meet UC A-G admission requirements or about 32.4 percent of the 23,600
CTE courses offered in California schools” (CDE, 2010, p. 5). In 2003, State
Superintendent of Public Instruction Jack O’Connell stressed the importance of having
CTE educators develop courses also meeting the UC admission requirements. Currently,
this project of developing CTE courses is funded by the SB70 until The Interactive Guide
Project works to keep updated and current information on the A-G Guide Website and
provide workshops to educators who need assistance (CDE, 2010).
The A-G Cadre of Experts Program has a partnership with the A-G Interactive
Guide Project. The A-G Interactive Guide Project encourages educators not only to
develop and implement courses fulfilling the A-G subject area requirements, but also
Career Technical Educations courses. The Stakeholders who make the A-G Cadre of
Experts are members of the California Department of Education, who specialize in a
specific area of the A-G requirements. The Cadre of Experts works directly with the UC
and Office of the President to guide the A-G Interactive Guide Project (CDE, 2011b).
The A-G Cadre of Experts provides technical assistance to schools developing and
18
implementing a comprehensive course curriculum. The results of the A-G Cadre of
Experts indicate high school students will become more eligible for UC/CSUS
admissions (CDE, 2011a). Also, this partnership provides a collaboration among the UC,
CSU, high schools, community colleges, and other educational tracks (CDE, 2011a).
The purpose of the A-G Interactive Guide Project was designed to help secondary
schools in California implement strategies for designing courses that help students meet
the A-G requirements to be eligible for a UC or CSU. The three goals for the project
were to (a) provide more information to high school educators regarding courses and
subject area requirements, (b) provide tools, resources, and training to help schools
implement the A-G requirements, (c) keep up to date with UC procedures and policies
regarding courses meeting the A-G requirements (CDE, 2011b). The suggested outcome
of the A-G Interactive Guide Project is that all students in California should have access
to courses that meet the UC A-G requirements. Yet, this could be a challenge as
California grows with diverse student populations who have multiple needs and demands
(CDE, 2011b).
To meet the needs and demands of students, many schools are finding creative
ways of implementing courses that not only meet the A-G requirements, but provide
career and technical skills as well. The Interactive Guide Project’s contract is funded
through Senate Bill 70. The students who benefit from this project are students interested
in attending a California public university (CDE, 2011b).
19
Not only are requirements implemented to help students know what they need to
take, but partnerships are also implemented between schools, teachers, administrators,
and parents/guardians. These partnerships help promote academic success and
awareness. One such partnership established between UC Berkeley and some elementary
schools was SUPER, the School-University Partnership for Educational Renewal.
SUPER and other partnerships are discussed in the next section.
Partnerships
SUPER, the School-University Partnership for Educational Renewal is a
collaborative partnership between UC Berkeley and three clusters of elementary schools,
which also include a continuation school and a high school. “Each cluster represents at
least a kindergarten to grade 12 feeder, though not necessarily the complete feeder system
for the high school represented” (Editor, 1987, p. 364). The mission of SUPER is to
improve the educational research and provide better training to teachers and school
administrators to increase school effectiveness. The schools involved in SUPER are
within two school districts. One school district is located in an upper-middle class
neighborhood and is small. All schools in this school district participate in SUPER. The
second school district is in a predominately lower-income neighborhood with high rates
of unemployment and is large. Only 20% of schools participate in SUPER and help
represent their school district (Editor, 1987).
Just as there are partnerships to promote academic success and awareness, there
are also incentive programs trying to improve grades, test scores, and learning in the
20
classroom with the use of funding. This is called indirect incentive programs, and they
help school performance in different schools throughout California, which will be
discussed in the following section.
Incentive programs for Teachers
Picus (1991) specifically focused on the effectiveness of indirect incentive
programs. The passage of SB 813 resulted in an additional $1 billion for each of the four
years for the k-12 system. The SB 813 linked revenue to school performance rather than
equalization. The bill also called for a core curriculum and tougher graduation
requirements, and its creators wanted to emphasize the importance of teachers. In order
for districts to implement mandated changes, California has to legally reimburse districts
for making those changes. To reduce spending disparity among districts, California
created a revenue limit for each school district. This action was also taken in part
because of the Serrano court case in 1970 (Picus, 1991).
Picus (1991) indicated the incentive programs brought by SB 813 were effective.
“By offering funding incentives to increase the length of the school day and school year
and to increase the salaries of beginning teachers, the legislature got local districts to
increase the share of total expenditures devoted to instructional programs” (Picus, 1991,
p. 305). Districts who adopted these incentive programs believed teachers would
increase instructional time and students would benefit from the extra time in school.
Picus also found districts were more likely to participate in incentive programs when they
faced fiscal constraint.
21
This study examined the teacher-student relationship (TSR) and the implications
of educational polices promoting rewards for teachers. Barile et al. (2012) hypothesized
the evaluation policies on teacher-student relationship are related to how students
perceive their teachers. The second hypothesis was students’ math scores and risk for
dropouts is associated with TSR. The third hypothesis was an association between
teacher policies and student outcomes that are the result of the TSR climate. The
participants of the study included 7,779 public high school students, 50% were female,
and 53% were White and made up the majority (Barile et al., 2012). The results
indicated Latino and African American students had significantly lower math gains than
their White counterparts. The results also indicated students who had friends possessing
high educational goals were more likely to stay in school and perform better.
Furthermore, the results also indicated students who had a positive relationship with their
teachers were more likely to stay in school, even if they were struggling academically in
math (Barile et al., 2012).
Currently, the California A-G requirements are still being implemented in high
school curriculum. However, many Latino students are still not successfully completing
them. The California A-G requirements were put in place to help students qualify for
admissions into the University of California system and into the California State
University system. If students fail to complete these admission requirements, then they
will not be able to enroll into a California university.
22
Knowledge of the California A-G Requirements
Stakeholders (Counselors, Teachers, and Administrators)
This subtopic takes a look at those involved with spreading awareness about the
California A-G requirements and how students become knowledgeable about these
requirements to become eligible for a California Public Institution. This section also
looks at college readiness overall and significance among the stakeholders at play.
Yamamura, Martinez, and Saenz (2010) examined the significance of college
readiness among teachers, counselors, parents, students, and superintendents in the South
Texas border. Texas is the first to adopt statewide college readiness standards to ensure
an adequate education to those who have been vastly underrepresented in higher
education. The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board implemented college
readiness standards in 2008. This study focuses on college readiness by using the
integrated Chicana feminist theory and community cultural wealth. The data collected
from the study were part of a larger mixed-method study collected from the South Texas
border region. The focus group data revealed all stakeholders felt a sense of
responsibility for college readiness. The findings revealed consejos were a primary tool
for helping give expectations for college. Testimonios were also used to provide current
and past generations’ responsibility for college readiness. The authors also found parents
used testimonios even though they did not attend college. The research suggested
college-going rates could increase (Yamamura et al., 2010).
23
Vela-Gude et al. (2009) investigated the perceptions of eight Latino students
about their high school counselors. The eight Latino students were selected from a single
Hispanic-serving institution in the South Texas area. The common themes were
inappropriate or inadequate advising, lack of availability, lack of individual counseling or
attention, differential treatment, and low expectations. The results indicated seven out of
the eight participants had negative perceptions about their counselors (Vela-Gude et al.,
2009).
Farmer-Hinton and McCullough (2008) wanted to examine the opportunities and
challenges counselors faced in charter high schools. The study used counselor interview
data taken from a larger mixed-methods case study that analyzed one charter school’s
college-preparatory mission and its effect on four graduating classes. A total of eight
counselors were interviewed, and out of those eight interviewed, six were African
American and four were female. The interview “topics included the school’s mission,
student-counselor relationships, school history, and organization, student academics,
student social support, and college preparatory activities” (Farmer-Hinton &
McCullough, 2008, p. 7). The findings indicated a school undergoing growth and change
is not acceptable to the development of new methods and practices. Methods cannot be
developed and refined when the counselors have to spend time sustaining the school
(Farmer-Hinton & McCullough, 2008).
Smith-Adcock, Daniels, and Lee (2006) wanted to address the concerns school
administrators had about Latino children and the need to have bilingual school
24
counselors. A convenience sample of 55 school administrators from Florida was asked to
fill out a 13-item questionnaire. The questionnaire addressed the cultural barriers Latino
students faced; academic, career, and personal needs; and the adequacy of current
program offerings. Open-ended questions were also used to ask about the services
currently provided by the school district and the services needed. The results indicated
52% of respondents believed Latino children are provided the necessary guidance in
schools (Smith-Adcock et al., 2006). They also agreed Latino children perceive
academic, career, and personal success problems differently than other children. School
administrators mostly stated communication barriers as one of the cultural barriers Latino
children face in schools. Of the adequacy of services being offered, most participants
responded Latino children are at risk for not getting the services they need. Lastly,
respondents indicated there is a high need for bilingual school counselors to help address
student and parent problems. Further research should examine service programs going
beyond the language barriers (Smith-Adcock et al., 2006).
Course-taking Patterns among Latinos
Stearns, Potochnick, Moller, and Southworth (2010) wanted to examine the
effects of race on course-taking patterns with Latinos, Asian Americans, African
Americans, and Whites. They conducted their study using the 1988-1994 National
Education Longitudinal study data to examine institutional prestige, race, and high school
course-taking patterns, which gave them a sample size of 2260. The dependent variable
25
of the study was to measure institutional selectivity, determined by SAT scores from
College Board. The independent variables were students’ race and course-taking pattern
behaviors. The data were analyzed by using ANOVA models. The results of the study
indicated Asian Americans attend more prestigious schools than their White counterparts.
The researchers also found those who take more rigorous course work are more likely to
attend prestigious institutions (Stearns et al., 2010).
Finkelstein and Fong (2008) wanted to examine high school student course-taking
patterns and whether the courses students take meet California’s university entrance
requirements. The study focused on a subgroup analysis by ethnicity, since minority
groups are still underrepresented in California colleges and universities. Findings
indicated students who complete college-preparatory courses in ninth grade are more
likely to complete university entrance requirements throughout their remaining years in
high school. Correspondingly, students who do not successfully complete collegepreparatory courses early in high school are less likely to qualify for California’s
university entrance requirements. Finkelstein and Fong (2008) also indicated completing
one year of English and math is a huge challenge for many students. Students in better
performing schools are more likely to be qualified for a CSU and UC than students in
poorer performing schools (Finkelstein & Fong, 2008).
Dougherty and Zavadsky (2007) wanted to share the story of how Garden Grove
School District progressed toward its long-term goal of preparing all their students for
college and giving them career skill sets. Garden Grove District deems students “college-
26
ready” if they successfully complete the California A-G requirements (Dougherty &
Zavadsky, 2007). To keep track of student learning, the district has invested in an
interim-assessment system that collects information on student progress during four
periods throughout the system. The district also compares the data from the interimassessment system with letter grades from teachers. Garden Grove strongly believes
“prevention is the best intervention” (Dougherty & Zavadsky, 2007, p. 198), so the
educators strive to prepare students at an early age. One of the district’s goals is for
every student enrolled in the district for four years to become proficient on the state test
in subjects including math and English. Garden Grove has been the recipient of the
Broad Prize for Urban Education in 2004 and continues to strive to obtain their mission
of making students college-ready (Dougherty & Zavadsky, 2007).
Maxwell (2006) examined how the San Jose School District did away with a twotrack high school system and implemented a policy mandating all students to take
college-preparatory courses. The San Jose school district began this dramatic change
with the incoming freshman class of 1998 and required them to enroll in courses that
would complete the A-G requirements (Maxwell, 2006). The A-G sequence is three
years of math, four years of English, three years of science, three-and-a-half years of
social studies, two years of foreign language, and one year of visual or performing arts
(Maxwell, 2006). Adopting the California A-G requirements in San Jose has produced
some positive results, with 45% of Latino graduates satisfying A-G requirements with a
C or better in 2003 (Maxwell, 2006). To help support the A-G system, up to two
27
additional periods are offered in the day, with special Saturday sessions to help students
with math and other areas. Summer school was also transformed to be more challenging.
San Jose Unified does not have school-based counselors, so teachers are trained to help
advise students during homeroom (Maxwell, 2006).
Disparities Accessing College Information
Stern’s (2009) research was based on a longitudinal study the Consortium on
Chicago School Research (CCSR) conducted in 12 high school English classes in
Chicago. Stern (2009) indicated only 60% of Latino students graduate from a four-year
college, compared to 77% of African Americans, and 76% of Whites. Roderick et al.
(2008) indicated Latinos did not have knowledge about the college application process.
Most Latinos live in neighborhoods with fewer college-educated residents. Roderick and
colleagues suggested teachers can help students with the college application process by
helping students choose colleges, visiting campuses, and writing an essay on their
findings.
Many Latinos often do not know how to apply for colleges, let alone how to
conduct a college search. Roderick et al. (2008) suggested increasing GPAs and test
scores would help Latinos go on to higher education. It is also highly important those
who are interested in higher education start getting assistance their junior year. Findings
also indicated that many students stop applying to colleges because they do not know
how to fill out the FAFSA form or do not follow-up with a corrected FAFSA form.
28
Schools should emphasize awareness, reading, access, and success to help improve
college access for Latinos (Stern, 2009).
Balfanz (2009) wanted to determine whether American high schools are
succeeding at achieving their mission of preparing students for higher education and job
placement, given only about a third to a half of students graduate and move onto to
college. Although the American high School has seen 25 years of transformation,
Balfanz concluded it still has a long way to go. The primary purpose of American high
schools is to prepare students for college. Latino and African American students are
estimated to be three to four times more likely to attend schools with a lower graduation
rate than their White counterparts (Balfanz, 2009).
There are three challenges American high schools face when trying to reform the
educational system. The first challenge is made up of many microsystems. The second
challenge is the existence of conflicting research regarding educational reform. Some
research shows reform is not helping American high schools close achievement gaps, and
other research shows reform has helped the graduation rates. Specifically, this challenge
deals with responses from teachers to the mandates of No Child Left Behind.
Improvements should be focused on teacher instruction and cooperation. The third
challenge is resources and how they are allocated within the same state and in different
school districts. As previously stated, the educational system has a long way to go
(Balfanz, 2009).
29
Kimura-Walsh, Yamamura, Griffin, and Allen (2009) explored the disparities in
accessing college information from Latina students at one urban high school in Southern
California. The researchers gathered their data using a larger study that had used focus
groups, but the researchers only focused on the 16 Latina participants. Qualitative data
were collected by researchers from focus group interviews and data were given a code to
find patterns and related to the Opportunity-to-Learn Frame Work (OTL). The findings
indicated students mostly relied on accessing college information from their school.
However, research also showed those who attain more college information were those
considered high-achieving students (Kimura-Walsh et al., 2009).
To be qualified for admissions into a California public institution, students must
successfully complete the California A-G requirements with a grade of C or better, along
with completing the Examination requirement as well. As the research indicated, Latino
students often do not know how to prepare for the college application process. Latino
students turn to teachers, administrators, and counselors to mentor them on college
because they often cannot turn to parents to help them with the application process since
their parents did not go to college. There are programs incorporating college-preparatory
courses into their curriculum such as the AVID program, which some Latinos have the
opportunity to enroll in and are discussed in further detail in the next section.
30
Exemplary Programs
AVID – Advancement via Individual Determination. Advanced Via
Determination (AVID) is a program that helps students prepare for college. Counselors
and teachers identify students interested in higher education but who lack the knowledge
of the college process. Students enrolled into AVID take rigorous courses that help meet
eligibility requirements for a California Public Institution.
Lozano, Watt, and Huerta (2009) compared four groups—AVID, GEAR UP,
AVID/GEARUP, and a control group—to assess the educational aspirations and
anticipations of 12th-grade Hispanic students. This study was a follow-up to a previous
study involving 139 participants from two local high schools in Texas. Data were
gathered using a survey questionnaire and from transcripts and were analyzed using a
mixed-method approach that used qualitative and quantitative measures to test the null
hypothesis, which stated the finding of significant differences in all groups regarding
educational aspirations and anticipations. The study indicated “no differences in
educational aspirations between the four groups but significant differences in educational
anticipations between the four participant groups in the 12th grade, and a change in
anticipations occurred between 10th and 12th grade” (Lozano et al., 2009, p. 92).
Findings also revealed those students in AVID and GEAR UP did maintain their
educational aspirations and anticipations in 12th grade through the rigorous course work.
(Lozano et al., 2009)
31
Watt, Johnson, Huerta, Mendiola, and Alkan (2008) examined the retention
behaviors of AVID students in California and Texas. The design of this study involved a
mixed qualitative approach. Two AVID sites having a high retention rate of 78% and
100% were chosen from California (Watt et al., 2008). Two sites with high retention
rates of 71% and 65% were also chosen from Texas (Watt et al., 2008). Out of the 200
surveys distributed to high school seniors, 108 surveys were returned. Out of the 160
surveys distributed to teachers, 138 were returned. Focus groups were also used in this
study, with a total of 67 participated in the focus group interviews. The data revealed
several recurring themes, which included AVID family, senioritis, scheduling, family
support, financial pressures, teacher preparedness, and AVID support and strategies
(Watt et al., 2008). The findings revealed students who felt nurtured by the program
were more likely to stay in AVID. Findings also revealed some problems with class
scheduling given some required classes were offered at the same time as AVID. The data
also showed students, teachers, and administrators agreed students needed to be
committed to the program (Watt et al., 2008).
Nelson (2007) discussed how AVID helped increase the number of students
eligible for a four-year institution at Ramona High School in Riverside, California.
AVID was first introduced in 1980 by Mary Catherine Swanson, who started the program
at Clairmont High School in San Diego, California. She wanted to ensure her students
would be prepared for college. AVID now has over 200,000 students enrolled in more
than 2,700 middle and high schools in 39 states. AVID teachers and counselors select
32
students who have the desire to pursue higher education, but who lack the skills and
knowledge about how to get into college. Once students are selected into the program,
they agree to sign up for rigorous courses and make college their goal to achieve (Nelson,
2007).
By being involved with AVID, students learn in-class and outside-class
techniques that will help them prepare for college. One of the skills students acquire is
the ability to take proper notes. Students learn the method of taking Cornell notes, where
they divide the paper into two columns, write questions on the left side of the paper, and
write a summary on the bottom portion of their notes. The second technique is having
“AVID students take an elective class in which they learn such skills as organization,
inquiry, expository writing, and collaboration” (Nelson, 2007, p. 74). AVID students
also enjoy the privilege of having guest speakers come into the classroom and discuss
their professions. AVID developers also believed college preparation should begin early,
and so AVID has a middle school program allowing students to start thinking about
college (Nelson, 2007).
As for Ramona High School, only one AVID class was offered in 1989.
Currently Ramona High School now offers 17 AVID classes, which serve 542 students,
26% of their student population. Ramona’s student population consists of 30% White,
60% Hispanic, and 8% Black, and 61% of the student population receives free or reduced
lunch. All AVID students from the class of 2005 were accepted into a four-year
university, and 98.7% of them agreed to go to a four-year university. Ramona also offers
33
16 AP classes, in which 379 students are enrolled and which is a dramatic change from
only having 25 students enrolled into one AP class (Nelson, 2007).
Magnet versus Non-Magnet
Griffin, Allen, Kimura-Walsh, and Yamaura (2007) examined the educational
opportunities of high-achieving Black and Latino students in Los Angeles magnet and
non-magnet schools. This article specifically examined the college access climate in Los
Angeles since the 1992 riots. The implicit assumptions with these new magnet programs
were to (a) increase access to quality college preparatory programs for local Black and
Latina/o students by offering a viable alternative to being bused across town for the same
educational opportunities in upper-class neighborhoods and (b) integrate racially
homogenous schools by attracting White families to schools in minority neighborhoods
and vice versa (Griffin et al., 2007, p. 231).
An Opportunity-to-Learn framework (OTL) was used in the Griffin et al. (2007)
study to guide research. This framework is used to empirically connect teaching
pedagogy and tracking with learning outcomes used to measure educational inequality in
schools. This study used two public school sites: one school was a medical magnet
school (Carleton), and the other was a non-magnet school (Montgomery). Thirty-four
participants were selected from purposeful sampling, which included having a GPA of
3.0 or above and being enrolled in a college-preparatory curriculum. The findings
indicated that students had the desire to attend some of the best four-year universities in
34
California, such as UCLA. These students were also determined to pursue graduate
degrees as well (Griffin et al., 2008).
Findings also indicated Montgomery students had limited knowledge of what
should be available to them, so they were more receptive to their school’s limited
courses, information, and support. Carleton students were knowledgeable of what should
be available to them and thus had peers and family networks that gave them additional
information and encouragement. This study suggests instead of examining equity of
resources, research should focus on the opportunity to learn (Griffin et al., 2008).
Diaz-Booz (2011) examined Kearny High School’s International Business
program and how this program has flourished over the course of seven years despite
facing budget constraints and lack of support at the district level. All students then
enrolled were required to take at least one college course at Mesa College, which is a
smaller school within San Diego Unified and had 460 students; 79% of these students
qualified for free or reduced lunch, 45% were Latino, and 38% were English learners
(Diaz-Booz, 2011). Another great result of Kearny’s International Business School is
that 98% of Latino students pass the math exam of the California Exit Exam on the first
attempt, and 70% of Latino students pass the English portion of the exit exam on the first
attempt (Diaz-Booz, 2011). Kearny High School holds their students to high standards of
behaviors, and promotes open lines of communication in both Spanish and English
between home and school. This school also aims high at hiring teachers and staff who
35
are passionate about the success of students who are mostly underrepresented (DiazBooz, 2011).
Advanced Placement Courses
Solorzano and Ornelas (2004) wanted to examine the percentages of Latino and
African American students enrolled in the Los Angeles Unified School District and take
advanced placement courses. The researchers wanted to use Critical Race theory as their
foundation for their study. Solorzano and Ornelas used 2000-01 data from the
Department of Education to examine California high schools. The study included 780
high schools having a minimum of 500 students enrolled (Solorzano & Ornelas, 2004).
Since the number and availability of AP courses vary across schools, the authors
developed an AP Student Access Indicator (APSAI). This index helps control for the
size and number of AP courses offered at each school.
The results indicated data from the 2000-01 revealed 38% of Latino students are
enrolled in high schools, but 16% of them are enrolled in AP courses (Solorzano &
Ornelas, 2004). Out of the 8% of African Americans who made up the high school
student population, only 5% were enrolled in AP courses (Solorzano & Ornelas, 2004).
Since Latino and African American students do not have equal access to AP courses, they
are less likely to obtain college admission benefits like extra points toward their GPA.
Solorzano and Ornelas (2004) recommended, “K-12 institutions must develop a College
Going Culture” (p. 24). The authors also suggested the extra points given to AP courses
should be eliminated in admission requirements (Solorzana &Ornelas, 2004).
36
AVID, Magnet programs, and AP courses are designed to provide academic rigor
for students to prepare for college. However, some schools do not have these academic
programs and services in place for their students, and so some students do not have
access to them. This fact adds to the Latino achievement gap. The Latino achievement
gap is discussed next.
The Latino Achievement Gap
This section addresses the Latino achievement gap in education. Latinos are more
likely to drop out of high school, less likely to take advanced placement courses, and less
likely to pursue higher education. These barriers and others are discussed in this section.
Zararte and Burciaga (2010) focused on the trends of Latino students and college
access. One of the barriers Latinos face when attaining a college education is the high
school dropout rate. The percentage of Latinos who drop out of high school is 54%
(Zararte & Burciaga, 2010). This research also found Latino students are less likely to
enroll in college-preparatory courses and seek information about financial aid
opportunities. According to the U.S. Census of 2008, Latinos make up 36.6% of
California’s population (as cited in Zararte & Burciaga, 2010). However, in California’s
three-tier education system, Latinos are hugely underrepresented. Another current trend
is Latinas are more likely to pursue higher education than Latinos. Some suggestions
have been made about having urban high schools decrease counselor workloads to
appropriately help students. Another suggestion has been made to have community
37
colleges improve transfer rates so more Latinos are able to move on toward a four-year
university. These two frameworks also focus on social justice and practice. Social
justice can help a director of campus activities develop programs and services striving to
eliminate racist or heterosexist stereotypes. LatCrit will help improve the educational
experience of Latino college students (Zararte & Burcuaga, 2010).
Cooper’s (2011) study was based on a Pew Hispanic study that surveyed Hispanic
students who were 16 years or older and were either enrolled at high school at the time,
or were dropout students. This research has stated Hispanic students are nearly three
times more likely to drop out of high school than their White or Black counterparts. Yet
those students who were surveyed mostly agreed pursuing college is very important to
get ahead (Cooper, 2011).
However, fewer than half of Latino students between the ages of 18-25 plan to
attain a college degree. Research has also stated nearly 75% of respondents view money
as an impediment toward going to college (Cooper, 2011). Nearly half the respondents
also stated poor English skills are a barrier toward college. Others stated a dislike for
college and believed higher education was not needed for the careers they had in mind.
However, everyone can agree parent involvement is crucial for students to succeed.
(Cooper, 2011).
According to Gandara (2010), Latinos perform lower than their peers in school.
The U.S. Census Bureau estimates by 2021 one in four U.S students will be Latino (as
cited in Gandara, 2010). For over three decades, the growth in college degrees for
38
Latinos remained flat, suggesting what researchers are trying to implement is not
working. Although limited access to a preschool education contributes to the educational
gap early on, the real culprit is poverty. Research has found Latinos are more likely to
come from homes where parents do not speak English and where parents’ education is
low. Latinos are also more likely to attend under-resourced schools with less qualified
teachers. Studies have also shown students who attend magnet schools tend to
outperform students in public and private schools. Research has also found the primary
reason why Latino students do not pursue a college degree is they do not know how to
prepare for college and do not realize the importance of attending.
Hill and Torres (2010) wanted to understand the paradox between the aspirations
of Latino families and their academic outcomes. There is an achievement gap in
education for Latinos. Latinos students are more likely to drop out of high school than
other ethnic minorities, and second- and third-generation Latino students are less likely to
perform well than those who have recently immigrated to the United States. There is
belief in acquiring the American dream of upward mobility, so many Latino immigrants
believe they will acquire upward mobility by pursuing education in the United States
because they believe they are better off living in the U.S. than in their homelands. Hence,
they strive to succeed in education and economically in order to compensate for those
who are suffering in their homeland and who do not have the opportunity to come to the
U.S. (Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995).
39
“Latino students are currently the most segregated racial or ethnic group in the
United States in terms of school enrollment” (DeBlassie & DeBlassie, 1996, p. 207).
Latino students tend to attend poorly equipped schools that lack the necessary recourses
to provide academic instruction with which these students can succeed (Conchas, 2001).
“Latino students are underrepresented in Advanced Placement classes, and are more
likely to be placed on a vocational track than on a college preparatory track, regardless of
their academic background” (Barker & Velez, 1996, p. 85). Teachers are also more
likely to have lower expectations for their Latino students and are less likely to praise
them for correct answers and likely to penalize them for their lack of English proficiency
(Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007).
Latino parents are surprised to find the lack of rigor and academic standards at the
schools their children attend because Latino parents expect high-quality education in the
U.S. (deCarvalho, 2001). Latino parents want higher academic standards, stricter dress
codes, and stricter conduct enforcement (Levine & Trickett, 2000). Latino parents’ initial
satisfaction with U.S. education often turns into frustration due to the lack of
achievement in subsequent generations (Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995). Many
Latino parents feel unwelcomed or misunderstood when trying to communicate with
school personnel. Because it is often hard for Latino parents to communicate with
teachers, the teachers may treat them as if they were incompetent. Whereas Latino
parents respect teacher roles in school, they also expect teachers to respect their role in
the home. “Latino parents hold teachers in high regard and believe it is disrespectful to
40
challenge teachers, so parents are often reluctant to express their opinions to teachers,
especially if they disagree” (Hill & Torres, 2010, p. 100).
Even Latino students enrolled in advanced placement courses feel marginalized
because although they are doing well academically, they are alienated from their Latino
friends who are not enrolled in advanced classes at school and have less time to form
friendships with other Latino students due to schedule conflicts (Concha, 2001). Latino
cultures promote strong community and family ties, while U.S. education is used to help
students develop individual and personal goals. Hill (2009) stated in order for families
and schools to establish relationships, schools need to be aware of their own cultural
biases and realize some expectations may not be apparent to Latino parents. Also,
schools should provide information to willing parents who want to support their students
academically, but do not know where to turn. “Therefore, an additional effort is required
to build the bridge between school expectations and culturally embedded beliefs” (Hill &
Torres, 2010, p. 107).
Mills (2010) examined the progress of selective enrollment of Black and Latino
students at selective colleges since the Grutter case. In the 2003 Grutter v Bollinger
Supreme Court case, the court decided to support using ethnicity and race in selective
admission, but determined this consideration would not be necessary in 25 years.
However, some people questioned whether 25 years would be enough time for selective
colleges to enroll minority students without considering ethnicity. A 2003 statistic from
Barron’s Guide to Colleges revealed Hispanic and Black student enrollments have barely
41
budged since Grutter v Bollinger (Barron’s Educational Series, 2008). Hispanic students
only made up 7.2% of the undergraduate population at selective colleges, and by 2007,
Hispanic enrollment increased to 8.3% (Baron, 2008). However, selective schools are
not entirely to blame for the slow progress of minority students attending these schools.
Plausible factors for the poor enrollment progress are higher tuition costs, decreasing
financial aid, and standstill wages. Another plausible factor is the k-12 pipeline issue and
racial test-score gap (Mills, 2010).
Zarate and Gallimore (2005) predicted several factors determining college
enrollment for Latino students by conducting a 15-year longitudinal study. This
longitudinal study started when students began kindergarten and ended when students
reached high school status, which led to a total of 83 participants who remained active
throughout the whole study. The factors predicting Latino college enrollment were
academic achievement based on standardized tests, parental factors, and language
proficiency (Zarate & Gallimore, 2005).
For Latinas, teacher-rated classroom performance and the student’s tendency to
seek college counseling determined their college enrollment. The results of the study
indicated there were six different statuses among participants: not in school, still in high
school, in an alternative high school diploma program, in vocational school, at a two-year
college, and in a four-year college (Zarate & Gallimore, 2005). The results indicated
Latina students were more likely to enroll in two-year and four-year colleges than their
male counterparts. As for parental expectations, the results concluded parental
42
expectations were correlated with college-enrollment outcomes for Latinos only. Zarate
and Gallimore also found both genders who enrolled into college had received higher
GPAs than their non-college peers. Also, standardized math scores were strong
predictors of college enrollment among Latino students only. Lastly, 74% of Latinas
were more likely to visit college counselors than their male counterparts (Zarate &
Gallimore, 2005).
Perez (2010) wanted to determine how undocumented Latino students choose to
attend post-secondary school. According to Pew Hispanic Center data, 7% of Latino
students are undocumented, and approximately 65,000 undocumented students graduate
from U.S. high schools every year (Perez, 2010). To help determine the choice process
of undocumented Latino students, the author used a mixed-method study using in-depth
and one-on-one interviews and a quantitative questionnaire to collect data. The data
collection was guided by using the theoretical framework emphasizing social networks
and exchange of college information. Fourteen participants were chosen to participate in
the study, half from a community college and the other half from four-year institutions
(Perez, 2010). The findings of the researcher indicated when choosing a college, students
consider cost, affordability, networks, and the option to attend (Perez, 2010).
Perceived Ability of Latino Students
Cavazos (2009) wrote a narrative of her experiences as a student teacher at a
primarily Latino-dominated high school. The themes that emerged from her journal
observations were: (a) high expectations before the semester, (b) conflicting messages,
43
(c) teachers’ expectations for standard students, (d) low expectations, and (e) students'
internalized expectations (Cavazos, 2009). Cavazos observed a teacher who taught three
11th grade classes, and two 12th grade advanced placement classes. After three weeks
into the semester, Cavazos was given the opportunity to teach. Most of the students who
were in the three standard classes were English language learners who were
mainstreamed into the classes. As Cavazos observed all classes, she was reminded why
she wanted to encourage all students to pursue higher education. She also realized
students were being treated differently based on their perceived abilities. Findings also
indicated many students internalize low expectations placed on them, thus fueling a
negative self-fulfilling prophecy (Cavazos, 2009).
Cavazos and Cavazos (2010) conducted a qualitative study on nine Latino college
students who described their high school experiences with their teachers. To participate
in the study, these nine college students had to: (a) have a GPA of 2.9 or higher, (b) selfidentify as Hispanic or Latino, (c) be enrolled at a Hispanic-serving institution, and (d)
have attended a predominately Latino high school (Cavazos & Cavazos, 2010). The
themes presented after analyzing the data were high expectations, low expectations for
non-AP students, mentoring, and lack of mentoring (Cavazos, & Cavazos, 2010).
The results for Cavazos and Cavazos (2010) indicated those enrolled in highachieving academic tracks reported they received high expectations from their teachers.
These students also perceived students not enrolled in high-achieving classes to not
pursue higher education due to the comments their teachers made about them. Findings
44
also indicated those students who were not enrolled in AP courses did not receive
guidance and support from their teachers (Cavazos & Cavazos, 2010).
Gibbons and Shoffner (2004) found 27% of graduating high school students were
first-generation students. These students did not have parents who attended college. The
researchers used social cognitive theory and career counselors to aide students who were
prospective first-generation college students. One role high school counselors took on
was aiding students with career counseling. Barker and Satcher (2000) found counselors
agreed career counseling involves having the students assess their abilities, interests, and
skills to identify what steps will help guide them in pursuing a particular career choice.
The American School Counseling Association developed the national model helping
counselors with aiding students to develop career awareness, identify career goals, and
apply these ideas to reach their career goal.
Inman and Mayes (1999) discovered first-generation Latino students who
attended community college were most likely to be female, older, come from low-socio
economic backgrounds, and have more financial dependents than other students. Horn
and Nunez (2000) found college students also were most likely to be African American
and Hispanic as well as come from low-income families. Gibson (2004) also found
students from this category have a strong desire to attend college, perceive themselves
equally as capable as other college students, and comprehend the importance of college
course options at the college level. Inman and Mayes also found the college students had
a stronger desire to obtain their degrees. “There are five specific areas in which first-
45
generation college students seem to have different demographics than other college
students” (Gibson, 2004, p. 2). These specific areas have to do with the lack of parental
guidance, how they prepare for college personally and academically, and why they chose
to attend college. The first area is the fact these prospective first-generation college
students apply to college without the help of their parents. Parents cannot help their
students with the requirements for colleges because they are unaware of the process for
career and college planning. Since students cannot turn to their parents for college
guidance, they turn to their college counselors for information. However, sometimes
they feel the information provided is not as useful.
The second area is the preparation for college life while still attending high
school. Brooks-Terry (1988) found first-generation college students are more likely to
drop out of college than any other students, but not always due to academic failure. They
were more likely to drop out of college because they made the wrong college choice or
because of family restraints. “However, low-income students who participated in
community service and had successful leadership experience in high school were more
likely to show academic progress at the college level” (Gibbons & Shoffner, 2004, p. 93).
The third challenge was first-generation Latino students differ in academic preparation.
Horn and Nunez found only14% of first-generation Latino students took algebra in the
eighth grade to advance to higher levels of math in order to meet the requirements for
college admissions. Riehl (1994) found first-generation students were more likely to
score lower on SATs, have a lower grade point average, and have a worse first-year
46
college experience. The fourth obstacle is first-generation students view attending
college different than other college-bound youths. They mostly view attending college as
a way to secure a higher paying job and attend college closer to home. The last obstacle
is the differences in personality and basic living experience. “First-generation students
may be less likely to be involved in campus activities due to their work requirements and
commute from home, leading to more difficulties in connecting with college life”
(Gibson, 2004, p. 3).
Social Cognitive theory is based on Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive theory and
focuses on how career and academics shift, how career choices are formed and how they
develop into action. The three tenets are focused on self-efficacy, outcome expectations,
and goals. Self-efficacy is how people perceive their ability to complete a given task.
Their beliefs about their abilities constantly change. Outcome expectations focus on
consequences if a particular action is performed. A goal is the decision to perform an
activity. “Race and gender may limit or expand exposure to various careers, or may
influence how a person views the possibility of achievement related to a particular
interest. Biases and role socialization are also relevant to this issue” (Lent, Brown, &
Hackett, 1996, p. 4). An example of role socialization is that minority students may not
have role models for their career interests so they are led to believe people of their
backgrounds do not pursue that career choice. Social Cognitive Career theory (SCCT)
states career interests are regulated by self-efficacy and outcome expectations. People
form goals based on the outcomes derived from their experiences, which can cause a
47
person to keep pursuing his or her career choice if he or she had positive outcomes, or if
not, to change his or her career path (Lent et al., 1996).
Rationale for the Study
The rationale for conducting this study was the researcher believed there was not
enough attention paid to Latino students wanting to attend a four-year university without
having already completed at least two years at a community college. This study wanted
to address the importance of completing the California A-G requirements to become
eligible for a California four-year public university. According to the 2008 U.S Census,
Latinos made up 36.6% of California’s population, and in 2025, Latinos will comprise
25% of all students enrolled in U.S. public schools (as cited in Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).
Stern (2009) indicated only 60% of Latino students graduate from a four-year college,
compared to 77% of African Americans and 76% of Whites. Since Latinos are becoming
the majority of the U.S population, the researcher felt more information was needed to
address Latino students who aspire to attend a California University.
Summary
The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which first-generation
Latino high school students are taking the California A-G requirements and aspire to
attend a four-year university. The rationale for conducting this study was there is not
much attention paid to Latino students wanting to attend a four-year university without
48
having already completed at least two years at a community college. This researcher
wanted to address the importance of completing the California A-G requirements to
become eligible for a California four-year public university.
The first topic dealt with the history of the California A-G requirements and how
they became implemented in California high schools. The second section concerned
knowledge of the California A-G requirements. The researcher wanted to examine how
Latino students become aware of these requirements to be eligible for a four-year
university in California. The third subtopic is exemplary programs. The purpose of this
section is to discuss some of the exemplary programs Latino in which students are
enrolled, such as AVID and magnet programs. The last topics of this review of the
literature were the Latino achievement gap. The sections addressed why there is a big
achievement gap among Latino students and specifically examined retention rates and the
perceived ability of Latino students. This study is imperative to the California-A-G
requirements and Latino students because Latinos are becoming the biggest majority
across the country, yet they are underrepresented in higher education. This issue needs to
be addressed, and educators, administrators, and government officials need to narrow the
achievement gap of first-generation Latino students.
49
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter describes the methodology for the study of the California A-G
requirements and first-generation Latino students. The purpose of the study was to
determine the extent to which the California A-G requirements are being met by firstgeneration Latino students who aspire to attend a California four-year public university.
This chapter addresses the setting in which the study took place and how the research was
conducted and analyzed.
Research Design
Setting of the Study
The site for this study was a northern California public high school (Green Hawk
High School), located near a major northern California metropolitan area. Green Hawk
High is approximately 26 miles south of a California state university campus. Green
Hawk High is located in a very strong Latino migrant community and belongs to a school
district serving two other schools. Green Hawk High serves 1,200 students from ninth
grade to 12th grade, and has a student-to-teacher ratio of 22:1.
50
Population and Sample
The population of the sample for this study consisted of 25 first-generation Latino
students, 17 females and eight males between the ages of 17 and 18. Out of those 25
students who completed the questionnaire, six students (three females and three males)
also agreed to be interviewed. To participate in the study, the students had to (a) be
seniors or incoming seniors, meaning students entering their last year of high school and
expecting to graduate within their last academic year; (b) be first-generation Latino
students, students who have immigrated from their Latin homeland; and (3) have a 2.0
GPA or higher. This regulation was put into place because 2.0 is the minimum GPA
required to apply for most California public institutions.
Demographics
Table 1 details respondent gender, age, and GPA. A large percentage of the
respondents were females, 17 years of age, and had a GPA between 2.6 and 3.0. All
respondents stated they were of Mexican descent.
51
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Characteristic
Gender
Age
GPA
N
Percentage
Females
17
68
Males
8
32
17
17
68
18
8
32
2.6-3.0
18
72
3.1-3.5
6
24
3.6-4.0
1
4
Data Collection Procedures
The design of the study was a mixed-methods approach, using qualitative and
quantitative data. Two questionnaires using a Likert-type scale of strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree were completed (see Appendix A). One
questionnaire was used for the student participants, and one questionnaire was designed
for the counselors and administrators. The student questionnaire consisted of four
multiple-choice questions addressing their age, gender, GPA, and ethnicity and 18
additional questions. The counselor questionnaire consisted of 15 questions. Along with
52
having students and counselors fill out a questionnaire, the researcher also interviewed
some students and counselors. The questions asked in the questionnaires for the students
concerned the California A-G requirements and how the students felt about them and
how likely they were to attend a California public university. Questions also asked if
parents and guardians supported the students in wanting to attend a university. The
counselor questionnaire focused on how likely counselors were to mention the California
A-G requirements to their designated students. In addition to asking about encouraging
students to maintain at least a 2.0 GPA, the questions concerned how likely the
counselors were to encourage their students to apply to a four-year university. The
questionnaire for the counselors also addressed their ability to translate information
concerning college readiness and preparation to parents who only speak Spanish.
The data collection procedures were step-by-step processes. The researcher had
to obtain permission from the principal and counselors to conduct her study at Green
Hawk High. The researcher requested a meeting with the vice principal to discuss her
research proposal. Once the researcher received approval for her study to be conducted
at Green Hawk High, she then had to print out her questionnaires for both counselors and
students and attach a consent letter to both sets of questionnaires. The researcher also
decided to write a letter in Spanish to parents and guardians about her study, so there
would be more clarification as to why the guardian needed to sign if they decided it was
good idea to have their child volunteer anonymously in the study. The vice principal of
Green Hawk High offered to distribute the questionnaires to students who fit the
53
requirements of the study every time she met with them and even had the counselors
distribute them every time they came across students who would qualify for the study,
which resulted in a snowball effect. All research data collection was purposeful
sampling. Once the questionnaires were distributed and turned in, the researcher had to
go back to Green Hawk High and collect her questionnaires, interview counselors and
students, and analyze the data.
Data Analysis Procedures
The intent of this study was to gather and analyze data to determine the extent to
which the California A-G requirements were being met by first-generation Latino
students who aspired to attend a California Public Institution. The researcher attempted
to gather personal accounts from the respondents. The data were analyzed statistically to
help identify how knowledgeable Latino students were about the California A-G
requirements.
Limitations of the Study
One of the greatest challenges of this study was getting schools to participate.
The researcher originally wanted to collect data from two schools to compare and
contrast them. However, Green Hawk High was the only school the researcher was
successfully able to gather data from students and counselors. The researcher had
requested to obtain permission from five schools, but was unsuccessful in being able to
find enough Latino participants who met the requirements or did not receive any email
54
correspondences from administrators at each of the different schools. What was even
more frustrating was the researcher had obtained permission from one school in the
central California valley area, and even had a counselor who wanted to help out and get
students to participate; however, after having talked to two senior classrooms and having
had a meeting with a group of approximately 20 students, none of the students turned in
their questionnaire.
The second limitation of the study was the small sample size the researcher was
able to secure, one school with only 25 students to participate in the study. Since there
were only 25 students who participated, one cannot assume other first-generation students
would have responded similarly if they were to also participate in the study. More
participants would give more conclusive results for the study. The third limitation was
the age of the participants. Because most participants were under the age of 18, they
were considered minors and they had to obtain consent from a parent or guardian to
participate in the study (see Appendix B). If they did not receive approval from their
guardians, they could not fill out the questionnaire. The researcher believed if more
students were 18, they would be willing to fill out the questionnaire and be more likely to
hand them in on the same day they were given the survey. The researcher felt if she had
had participants who were considered adults, then her study would have been a little
easier to conduct. She strongly recommends future researchers use adult participants, and
it would be extremely helpful if one had inside access to participants as well, whether at
the work place or any organizations of which one may be a part.
55
Chapter 4
RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
This chapter presents the data collected, the findings and interpretations of the
data, and a summary. For the purposes of this study, the results of the questionnaire are
presented with the information for the total group of respondents (n=25). Six students
were interviewed (n=6). The total number of counselors who responded to their separate
questionnaires was two. The total number of counselors interviewed is represented by
n=1. The analysis methods used included statistics and percentages.
The questionnaire for the students focused on the following areas of inquiry:
demographic information, knowledge of A-G requirements, attendance of a four-year
university or not, information about GPA, AVID, AP, and honors courses. Twenty-two
questions, four of which just asked demographic questions, were based on the five areas
of inquiry. Potential responses were defined by a Likert-type scale.
Presentation of Data
The findings are presented in the following order: (a) demographics, (b)
knowledge of A-G requirements, (c) attendance of a four-year university, (d) GPA, and
(e) AVID, AP, and honors courses.
56
Findings
There were 25 participants total, and out of those 25 participants, 68% were
female and 32% were male. Sixty-eight percent of the participants were 17 years of age,
meaning they were minors and had to obtain parent or guardian consent to participate in
the study. What the researcher also found from her data was 72% only had a GPA of a
2.6-3.0, which is not very high. UCs and CSUs require a minimum GPA of a 3.0 to be
eligible for admission. However, both university systems strongly encourage students to
get a higher GPA because the selection process is competitive for both systems,
especially UCs. The researcher did not include ethnicity as part of Table 1 because all
students claimed they were of Mexican descent. However, one student did claim she was
both Mexican and “other.” What the researcher found peculiar was only 32% of
participants were male. The researcher assumes this is because males are less interested
in academics, but no research was done to prove that. Table 2 describes how
knowledgeable the students were about the A-G requirements.
Survey
Knowledge of California A-G requirements. Table 2 describes how
knowledgeable the 25 participants were about the California A-G requirements from the
six questions pertaining to that information.
57
Table 2
Respondent Knowledge of A-G Requirements
Questions:
Strongly
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree
I have Heard about the A-G
Agree
0%
12%
8%
40%
40%
36%
52%
4%
4%
4%
8%
12%
28%
32%
20%
0%
8%
0%
52%
40%
0%
0%
12%
44%
44%
8%
12%
28%
32%
20%
requirements.
My Counselors never mentioned the
A-G requirements to me.
My teacher mentioned the A-G
requirements to me.
I will complete all of the requirements
on time.
I believe it is important to complete
the A-G requirements.
My teacher focused on completing the
A-G requirements.
The students were asked six questions having to do with the California A-G
requirements, which are displayed in Table 2. Forty percent of respondents strongly
agreed and agreed they had heard of the California A-G requirements during their four
years of high school at Green Hawk High. Yet, 12% of students disagreed to having
58
heard of the California A-G requirements, and 8% of students were neutral. Fifty-two
percent of participants disagreed their counselors ever mentioned the California A-G
requirements to them. There were another 36% who also strongly disagreed their
counselors mentioned the requirements to them. As for whether their teachers had
mentioned the California A-G requirements to them, 32% agreed and 12% disagreed.
The fourth question asked if students would complete all the A-G requirements on time,
and 52% agreed they would complete them, while 8% stated they would not complete
them on time. There were only 44% of students who agreed it was important to complete
the A-G requirements, while 12% neither agreed or disagreed as to whether they were
important to complete. Finally, the last question asked if the students believed their
teachers focused on completing the CA A-G, and 32% responded by agreeing, while 12%
disagreed.
University or no university. Table 3 pertains to questions inquiring about
attending a California public institution. The seven questions asked are displayed in
Table 3.
59
Table 3
Respondent Interest in University
Question:
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree
I believe it is important to attend a
Agree
0%
12%
36%
36%
16%
0%
4%
8%
56%
32%
0%
0%
0%
52%
48%
0%
0%
28%
52%
20%
0%
0%
44%
44%
12%
0%
4%
12%
60%
24%
4%
12%
28%
32%
24%
four-year university.
My parents would be proud of me if I
attend a university.
My counselors are motivating me to
pursue a four-year university.
My teachers are motivating me to
pursue a four-year university.
My parents/guardians are encouraging
me to pursue a four-year university.
I am going to apply to a four-year
university.
If accepted, I will be the first in my
family to attend a university.
Seven questions pertained to statements regarding a California institution. The
first question asked if the students felt it was important to attend a four-year university,
60
and 36% of respondents agreed, while 12% disagreed. The second question inquired if
their parents or guardians would be proud if they attended a university, and 56% agreed,
while 4% disagreed. The third question asked if their counselors were motivating them
to attend a university, and 52% agreed, but not one participant disagreed. There were
also 52% of respondents who agreed their teachers were motivating them to pursue a
university. Participants were asked if their parents and or guardians were encouraging
them to pursue a university, and 44% of participants were both neutral or agreed their
parents were motivating them to go to a university. Participants were asked if they were
going to apply to a university, and 60% of respondents agreed, 24% strongly agreed, 12%
were neutral, and 4% disagreed. Lastly, participants were asked if they were accepted
into a university they would be their first in their family to attend a university, and 24%
strongly agreed, 32% agreed, 28% were neutral, 12% disagreed, and 4% strongly
disagreed.
Grade point averages. Table 4 pertains to the statement, “I am going to maintain
at least a 2.0 by the end of the semester.”
61
Table 4
GPA Motivation
Question
Strongly
Disagree Neutral Agree
Disagree
I am going to maintain at least a 2.0
0
Strongly
Agree
20%
0
44%
36%
by the end of the semester.
There were 36% of participants who strongly agreed they were going to maintain
at least a 2.0 by the end of the semester. Also, 44% agreed and 20% disagreed. No
participants strongly disagreed or were neutral to whether they were going to have a 2.0
by the end of the semester.
AVID, AP, and honors courses. Four questions pertained to AVID, AP, and
honors courses.
62
Table 5
Academic Involvement
Question
Strongly Disagreed Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree
I am involved with AVID
Agree
0
8%
0
48%
44%
8%
48%
0
16%
28%
I have taken Honors courses.
8%
48%
0%
20%
24%
I believe that my teachers treat students
12%
24%
48%
4%
12%
I have/will take Advanced Placement
(AP) courses)
who are enrolled in AP/Honors courses
better than students who are in regular
courses.
Forty-four percent of the participants strongly agreed they were a part of AVID,
and 48% agreed. No participants were neutral about being in AVID, and only 8%
disagreed they were in AVID. Forty-eight percent disagreed they had taken AP courses,
which was a significant finding, and 28% strongly agreed they had taken some AP
courses. Another significant finding was there were also 48% who did not take honors
courses during high school, and only 24% who strongly agreed to having taken honors
courses. As for agreeing whether their teachers treated AP and honors students
63
differently, 48% were neutral, and only 12% strongly agreed, 4% agreed, 24% disagreed
and 12% strongly disagreed.
Student Interviews
The next part of the chapter focuses on the six interviews collected at Green
Hawk High. Three participants were female and three were male. The questions asked
in the interview were: (a) How knowledgeable were you about the California A-G
requirements? (b) What California universities are you planning on applying to? (c)
What makes you want to go to college? (d) Are your parents/guardians supportive of you
applying to college? (e) What concerns do you have about attending college? (f) How
did your counselors and teachers help you in the college application process? (g) Do you
have any siblings that went to college?
I didn’t know anything about them (California A-G requirements) when I was a
freshman. I found out about them because my counselors were telling me over
and over again about them. I really don’t know which college I want to apply to.
I do want to go to college, but I am unsure. I’m concerned about the college
atmosphere; I’m scared to grow up. Yeah, (parents) are supportive and tell me I
should go. I am a first-generation, and I’m an only child, so I will be the first and
only in my family to go to college. I’m still thinking about which universities to
apply to and don’t have a safe option. (Female 1, 17, senior)
64
I wasn’t sure about the California A-G requirements. My counselors and teachers
helped me understand them a lot. I don't plan on applying right away. I want to
get a job first. I’m wanting to get a job to help my parents out. I plan on
attending college later on. I’m concerned about paying for college because it can
be expensive sometimes. My parents are supportive of attending college, and I
would be the first in my family to go to college when I do apply. (Male 1,17,
senior)
I was not that knowledgeable about the CA A-G requirements. I didn’t really
hear of them. I am familiar now that you mention what exactly they were.
Counselors would tell me what to take. I’m going to apply Consumes River
community college. I would probably try to transfer to a four-year university, not
sure what I really want to go to. My parents are supportive of attending college,
and I would be the first in my family to attend college. I am concerned about the
workload. I’m in the oldest one, and would be the first to attend college. (Male 2,
17, senior)
I was pretty knowledgeable about the California A-G requirements. I’m wanting
to apply to a college in California, UOP (University of Phoenix). My parents are
very supportive of attending college, and I would be the first in my family to
attend college. I’m concerned about getting all the classes I need. My counselors
65
were very encouraging and would tell me things of what to do in the future; I’m
taking honors and AP classes this year. (Female 2, 17, senior)
I was familiar with the California A-G requirements and thought they were easy,
but as I kept going, they kept getting harder. I’m in a course called AVID, and so
we are going to apply. I want to apply to University of Phoenix. My parents are
supportive of attending college. I am the youngest of six and have some siblings
who are and did attend college. One sister is attending Devry, and another
graduated from college, but I can’t remember which college. The females in my
family have pursued college, but not the males in my family. I’m concerned if
college is going to be easy or if the professors are going to help you. I’m also
concerned with paying for college. (Female 3, 17, senior)
When I started high school, I didn't know them, but I took AVID, and they started
helping me know them. My counselors would help me pick out my classes and
would tell me which classes would meet the A-G requirements. I wanted to meet
those requirements. My parents always tell us to keep studying so we can go to
college. I want to apply to community college, Consumes River, and four-year,
Sacramento State and San Jose State. I have a brother who is currently attending
Consumes River College. My brother and I are the first to attend college. I’m
66
concerned about the money and how I’m going to pay for it and how difficult the
classes are, but I’m up to the challenge. (Male 3, 17, senior)
Five out of the six wanted to pursue higher education by either applying to a fouryear right away or by going to a community college and then transferring. One student, a
male, wanted to get a job and work for a while before deciding to apply to college. Two
females were interested in applying to a proprietary school and did not state whether they
were interested in a UC or CSU. Four out of the six would be the first in their families to
attend college, and everyone stated their parents were very supportive of them continuing
their education. Everyone also stated their counselors and teachers helped them learn
about the California A-G requirements and which classes to take. Five out of the six also
did not know what the California A-G requirements were when they started high school.
Two out of the six mentioned they were interested in California public institutions, and
one mentioned he or she was interested in CSU Sacramento or San Jose State, while the
other was not sure at the moment, but knew he or she wanted to pursue education.
Counselors
Table 6 focuses on the counselors who filled out the questionnaire. There were a
total of two participants. Out of the two participants, one decided to be interviewed.
Table 6 displays the 15 questions presented in the questionnaire on a Likert-type scale
ranging from strongly disagree to agree.
67
Table 6
Results of Counselors’ Questionnaires
Questions
Strongly
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree
I make every effort to mention the A-G
Agree
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
0%
50%
50%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
50%
50%
requirements to all students, especially
Latino Students.
I make sure to encourage students to
maintain at least a 2.0 G.P.A.
I make sure to mention four-year universities
to my students.
When a student is missing some A-G
requirements, I let them know.
I make an effort to make classroom visits to
advertise the A-G requirements.
Often times, many of my Latino students
will be the first in their family to pursue a
four-year university.
I let my students know the FAFSA and other
ways to apply for financial aid.
Many of my Latino students are bilingual.
68
Table 6 continued
Questions
Strongly
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree
Many of my Latino students’ parents are
Agree
50%
0%
0%
50%
0%
0%
0%
0%
50%
50%
We host a college night.
0%
0%
0%
50%
50%
I believe it is important for students to
0%
0%
0%
50%
50%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
Spanish-speaking only.
I do my best to provide documents in
Spanish regarding college.
pursue higher education.
Many times, those who I encourage will
often apply for a four-year university.
I am proud to see my students get into a
university.
I am passionate in helping my students
succeed.
Both counselors strongly agreed they made every effort to mention the A-G
requirements to all students, especially Latino students. Both counselors also stated they
encouraged their students to maintain at least a 2.0 GPA, mentioned four-year
universities, and let the students know when they are missing some A-G requirements.
The two counselors also agreed they made an effort to make classroom visits to advertise
69
the A-G requirements. When asked, “often times, many of my Latino students will be the
first in their family to pursue a four-year university,” 50% agreed and 50% strongly
agreed. Both participants strongly agreed they let their students know about FAFSA and
other ways to apply for financial aid. When asked, “many of my Latino students are
bilingual,” 50% of participants agreed, while the other 50% strongly agreed. One
participant strongly disagreed to the statement “many of my Latino students’ parents are
Spanish-speaking only,” while the other participant agreed.
To the next question, “I do my best to provide documents in Spanish regarding
college,” 50% agreed and 50% strongly agreed. When it came to answering, “we host a
college night,” 50% agreed and 50% strongly agreed. The next question, “I believe it is
important for students to pursue higher education” resulted in 50% of participants
agreeing and 50% of participants strongly agreeing. Both participants agreed those they
encouraged to apply for a four-year university often applied to a four-year university.
Lastly, both participants strongly agreed they were proud to see their students get into a
university and passionate about helping them succeed.
Counselor interview. There was one counselor who agreed to the interview and
who submitted her responses by way of email since her time was limited for an in-person
interview. There were five questions asked, and they were: (a) How are the California AG requirements for admissions into a CSU/UC implemented into the curriculum? (b)
How do you advertise the importance of the A-G requirements to your students? (c) Do
you encounter a lot of Latino students who are interested in attending a California Public
70
university and are meeting the admission requirements for a CSU/UC? (d) What do you
think are some of the challenges that Latino students face when trying to prepare for the
college application process? (e) What are some of the barriers Latino students face in
education today?
Question 1-How are the California A-G requirements for admissions into a
CSU/UC implemented into the curriculum? The counselor replied:
Counselors go out to classes to talk to ninth grade students about the A-G
requirements, help students create a four-year plan, for 10th grade students
counselors make appointments to discuss the information. On the first week of
school the teachers go over the student handout, especially the A-G requirements
information. Teachers throughout the school talk to their classes about the
requirements. In AVID, students do several activities for students to be
familiarized with the A-G requirements.
Question 2-How do you advertise the importance of the A-G requirements to
your students? The counselor replied, “We have posters in the office; teachers do
reminders of their specific content area requirement; several teachers have posters in their
classrooms.”
Question 3-Do you encounter a lot of Latino students who are interested in
attending a California Public University and are meeting the admission requirements
for CSU/UC? The counselor replied, “I have met with several Latino students who
71
would like to attend a CSU or UC; they have met the requirements and applied. Some
don’t attend due to financial hardship or transportation.”
Question 4-What do you think are some of the challenges that Latino students
face when trying to prepare for the college application process? The counselor replied,
“Not knowing how to fill out the application, deadlines, internet access, not knowing
what information is needed.”
Question 5-What are some of the barriers Latino students face in education
today?
Not being at the same grade level in the content areas, especially reading level.
Some students struggle on getting access to information and not having someone
at home to help with homework. The belief that college or university is too
difficult and they will not have the support to be successful.”
What was reiterated from the counselor’s perspective was that counselors make
an effort to educate their students on the California A-G requirements. The counselors
encourage their students to strive for a four-year university and pursue higher education.
However, because only one counselor answered the questionnaire, the researcher cannot
assume other counselors would do the same for their students.
72
Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which the California A-G
requirements were being met by first-generation Latino students who aspire to attend a
four-year California public institution. The rationale for conducting this study was there
is not much attention paid to Latino students wanting to attend a four-year university
without having already completed at least two years at a community college. This study
wanted to address the importance of completing the California A-G requirements to
become eligible for a California four-year public university.
The first topic dealt with the history of the California A-G requirements and how
they became implemented in California high schools. The second section contained
knowledge of the California A-G requirements. The researcher wanted to examine how
Latino students became aware of these requirements in order to be eligible for a four-year
university in California. The third topic was exemplary programs. The purpose of this
section was to discuss some of the exemplary programs in which Latino students are
enrolled such as AVID and magnet programs. The last topic of this review of the
literature was the Latino Achievement gap. This section addressed why there is a big
achievement gap among Latino students and specifically examined retention rates and the
perceived ability of Latino students. This study is imperative to the California-A-G
73
requirements and Latino students because Latinos are becoming the biggest majority
across the country, yet they are underrepresented in higher education. This issue needs to
be addressed, and educators, administrators, and government officials need to narrow the
achievement gap of first-generation Latino students.
Conclusions
The researcher interpreted her findings as follows: most of her 25 students were
not very knowledgeable about the California A-G requirements at first, but throughout
their duration of high school, they became increasingly familiar with the California A-G
requirements. There were 52% of participants who disagreed their counselors mentioned
the California A-G requirements to them. Out of the 25 students who participated in the
study, only 8% disagreed they were involved with AVID. From the 25 participants, 72%
fell into the category of maintaining a GPA of a 2.6-3.0, which is a significant finding, as
University of California and California State University System requires students to have
a minimum GPA of a 3.0 to meet the admissions GPA requirement. Of the six
interviewed, five wanted to pursue higher education by either applying to a four-year
university or going to a community college and then transferring, and 60% of respondents
from the questionnaire stated they agreed to apply to a four-year university.
As for the counselors in the study, both counselors strongly agreed they made
every effort to mention the A-G requirements to all students, especially Latino students.
Both counselors also stated they encouraged their students to maintain at least a 2.0 GPA,
74
mentioned four-year universities, and let the students know when they are missing some
A-G requirements. The two counselors also agreed they made an effort to make
classroom visits to advertise the A-G requirements.
Recommendations for Further Study
As previously identified, the purpose of this study was to determine the extent to
which the California A-G requirements were being met by first-generation Latino
students who aspire to attend a four-year California public institution. The study focused
on 25 students from a northern California high school who were seniors (17 females,
eight males), as well as six student interviews. In addition, the study included two
counselor questionnaires and one counselor interview. Both the student and counselor
questionnaires were based on a Likert-type scale with no open-ended questions. The
researcher recommends more participants for the study, and if possible, a comparison
between two schools, instead of just focusing on one school. By comparing two schools
within the same school district, one could determine if both schools have the same
practice of encouraging Latino students to meet the California A-G requirements and
applying to a California public institution. In addition, the researcher recommends more
interviews, and if possible, even follow-up interviews with the same interviewees. One
could determine if a particular student applied to a university and was accepted.
More research is needed on the California A-G requirements, and how educators,
administrators, and teachers can help increase awareness about the admissions
75
requirements for California public institutions. As Latinos are becoming the biggest
ethnic group in the United States, the Latino achievement gap needs to be addressed.
More Latinos should want to strive toward higher education and be granted equal
opportunity and access to AP and honors classes to help meet the California A-G
requirements.
76
APPENDICES
77
APPENDIX A
Questionnaires
Student Questionnaire
1)Age:
A) 15
B) 16
C) 17
D) 18
2) Gender:
A) Male
B) Female
3) GPA:
A) 2.6-3.0
B) 3.1-3.5
C) 3.6-4.0
4)Ethnicity:
A) Mexican
B )Salvadorian
C) Puerto Rican
D) Other
78
Please check the answer that applies to each statement.
Question
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral
I have heard about
the A-G
requirements
My counselors
never mentioned
the A-G
requirements to me.
My teacher
mentioned the A-G
requirements to me
I will complete all
of the A-G
requirements on
time
I believe it is
important to
complete the A-G
requirements.
My teacher focused
on completing the
A-G requirements.
I believe it is
important to attend
a four-year
university.
My parents would
be proud of me if I
attend a university.
Agree Strongly
Agree
79
Question
My counselors are
motivating me to
pursue a four-year
university.
My teachers are
motivating me to
pursue a four-year
university.
My
parents/guardians
are encouraging me
to pursue a fouryear university.
I am going to apply
to a four-year
university.
If accepted, I will
be the first in my
family to attend a
university.
I am going to
maintain at least a
2.0 by the end of
the semester.
I am involved with
AVID.
I have/will take
Advanced
Placement (AP)
courses.
I have taken Honor
courses.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral
Agree Strongly
Agree
80
Question
I believe that my
teachers treat
students who are
enrolled in
AP/Honors courses
better than students
who are in regular
courses.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral
Agree Strongly
Agree
81
Counselor Questionnaire
Please check the answer that applies to each question.
Question
I make every effort
to mention the AG requirements to
all students,
especially Latino
Students.
I make sure to
encourage students
to maintain at least
a 2.0 G.P.A
I make sure to
mention four-year
universities to my
students.
When a student is
missing some a-g
requirements, I let
them know.
I make an effort to
make classroom
visits to advertise
the a-g
requirements.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
82
Question
Often times, many
of my Latino
students will be the
first in their family
to pursue a fouryear university.
I let my students
know of FASFA
and other ways to
apply for financial
aid.
Many of my
Latino students are
bilingual.
Many of my
Latino students’
parents are
Spanish-speaking
only.
I do my best to
provide documents
in Spanish
regarding college.
We host a college
night.
I believe it is
important for
students to pursue
higher education.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
83
Question
Many times, those
who I encourage
will often apply for
a four-year
university.
I am proud to see
my students get
into a university.
I am passionate in
helping my
students succeed.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
84
APPENDIX B
Consent to Participate in Research
For Students Over 18
CALIFORNIA A-G REQUIREMENTS AND LATINO STUDENTS.
You are being invited to participate in a research study about the California A-G requirements
and First-Generation Latino Students. The purpose of this study is to determine the extent in
which the California A-G requirements are being met by First-Generation Latino students who
aspire to attend a four-year university. This study is being conducted by Maricela Melendrez, a
graduate student from the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at California State
University, Sacramento.
There are no known risks if you decide to participate in this research study. There are no costs
to you for participating in the study. The information you provide will help determine the extent
in which the California A-G requirements are being met by First-Generation Latino Students. The
questionnaire will take about three minutes to complete. The information collected may not
benefit you directly, but the information learned in this study should provide more general
benefits.
This survey is anonymous. Do not write your name on the survey. No one will be able to
identify you or your answers, and no one will know whether or not you participated in the study.
The Institutional Review Board may inspect these records. Should the data be published, no
individual information will be disclosed.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. By completing the survey, you are voluntarily
agreeing to participate. You are free to decline to answer any particular question you do not wish
to answer for any reason.
If you have any questions about the study, please contact Maricela Melendrez at
[email protected], or 559-246-6137.
PARTICIPANT SIGNATURE
DATE
85
THE CALIFORNIA A-G REQUIREMENTS AND LATINO STUDENTS.
Consent For Students Under 18
You are being asked for permission to have your student participate in a research study about
the California A-G requirements and First-Generation Latino Students. The purpose of this study
is to determine the extent in which the California A-G requirements are being met by FirstGeneration Latino students who aspire to attend a four-year university. This study is being
conducted by Maricela Melendrez, a graduate student from the Educational Leadership and
Policy Studies at California State University, Sacramento.
There are no known risks if your student decides to participate in this research study. There are
no costs to you or your student for participating in the study. The information your student
provides will help determine the extent in which the California A-G requirements are being met
by First-Generation Latino Students. The questionnaire will take about three minutes to complete.
The information collected may not benefit your student directly, but the information learned in
this study should provide more general benefits.
This survey is anonymous. The student will not write their name on the survey. No one will be
able to identify your student or their answers, and no one will know whether or not your student
participated in the study. The Institutional Review Board may inspect these records. Should the
data be published, no individual information will be disclosed.
Your student’s participation in this study is voluntary. By completing the survey, your student
is voluntarily agreeing to participate. Your student is free to decline to answer any particular
question that they do not wish to answer for any reason.
If you have any questions about the study, please contact Maricela Melendrez at
[email protected], or 559-246-6137.
PARENT SIGNATURE
DATE
STUDENT SIGNATURE
DATE
86
Consent For Administrator and Counselors
CALIFORNIA A-G REQUIREMENTS AND LATINO STUDENTS.
You are being invited to participate in a research study about the California A-G requirements
and First-Generation Latino Students. The purpose of this study is to determine the extent in
which the California A-G requirements are being met by First-Generation Latino students who
aspire to attend a four-year university. This study is being conducted by Maricela Melendrez, a
graduate student from the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at California State
University, Sacramento.
There are no known risks if you decide to participate in this research study. There are no costs
to you for participating in the study. The information you provide will help determine the extent
in which the California A-G requirements are being met by First-Generation Latino Students, and
how you as a Counselor help assist these students. The questionnaire will take about three
minutes to complete. The information collected may not benefit you directly, but the information
learned in this study should provide more general benefits.
This survey is anonymous. Do not write your name on the survey. No one will be able to
identify you or your answers, and no one will know whether or not you participated in the study.
The Institutional Review Board may inspect these records. Should the data be published, no
individual information will be disclosed.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. By completing the survey, you are voluntarily
agreeing to participate. You are free to decline to answer any particular question you do not wish
to answer for any reason.
If you have any questions about the study, please contact Maricela Melendrez,
[email protected], or 559-246-6137. You may also contact Dr. Cowan, who is my
Thesis advisor at 916-278-6154, or [email protected].
PARTICIPANT SIGNATURE
DATE
87
Spanish Letter to Parents
Estimados Padres:
Su hijo(a) esta invitado(a) en participar en un estudio que esta examinando los requisitos
de California que ayudan a preparar los estudiantes a entrar en una universidad publica en
el estado, y la población Latino que se identifica la generación primera. El propósito de
este estudio es a determinar como los estudiantes Latinos que se identifica la generación
primera están tomando los requisitos de California que ayudan a los estudiantes entrar en
una Universidad publica de el estado, y que aspire asistir una universidad publica de
California.
No hay ningún riesgo si su estudiante decide participar en este estudio. No hay ningún
esfuerzo o sacrificio si su estudiante decide participar en este estudio. La información que
su hijo proviene va ayudar determinar como los estudiantes Latinos que se identifica la
generación primera están tomando los requisitos de California que ayudan a los
estudiantes entrar en una Universidad publica de el estado, y que aspire asistir una
universidad publica de California. El cuestionario solamente toma aproximadamente tres
minutos de cumplir. La información a lo mejor no dará beneficios directamente a su
hijo(a), pero la información colectada dará beneficios para el estudio.
El cuestionario es anónimo. Su estudiante no pondrá su nombre en el cuestionario. Nadie
podrá identificar las respuestas de su hijo(a), y nadie sabrá si su hijo(a) participo en el
estudio. El Departamento de Investigación de Estudios a lo mejor investigara ese estudio.
Si la información colectada será publicada, no información de su hijo(a) será revelada.
La participación de su hijo(a) en este estudio es voluntario. Completando el cuestionario
significa que su estudiante esta de acuerdo en querer participar en el estudio. Su hijo(a)
tiene la opción de no responder a alguna respuesta por cualquier razón.
Si usted o su hijo(a) tiene alguna pregunta sobre el estudio, se puede comunicarse con
Maricela Melendrez, [email protected], o 559-246-6137 o Dr. Geni Cowan,
[email protected].
88
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