-----. -.
, A
/
THE CONCEFT MAP: A TOOL FOR
LEARNING SCIENCE CONCEPTS AND UNDERSTANDING
COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF PRESERVICE TEACHERS
A CASE STUDY
by
Mary Wong Siew Lian
A Thesis Submitted
in F u l f h e n t of the Requirement
for the Degree of Master of Science
in Cognitive Psychology
Faculty of Cognitive Science and Human Development
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
January 1997
-
DEDICATION
To my family members and friends, without whose encouragement and
support this thesis WOUM mt have been possible,
No portion of the wark ~ : f todin this thesis has
subd*d in 5uppd elf
im.
qpflcatioa for mother degree or qualifacation of fhis or my other dversity or M W o n
I would WE tc, extend my sincere gratitude and apprecia~onto my
or,
hfessor Dr.Rmdi bin Arof for his invaluable advice, gukbnce, and support throu@out
the course of my research. My sincere
d Ri-
and appreciatioflt also go to Dr.Baji Abang
the co-supervisor for this research, Dr.
Dr. Richard Redding (fJniversity of V'
cam*g
b z a k Mabitj 0,
and
for their helpful comments and advice
this r e e k
I am phularfy grateful to Jacinta
Wong Ling Hutg, Noos A h A
Oon Hock for their assistance in the validation of the test
ulho marked all the essay mwm-scripts in this research.
to Jacinta
I would also Eke to
Mr. E w b g Agas, the Principal of Bahr Lintmg
Teachers' College, for permission to hvofve tfie pre-stxvke Zear;hers as subjects csf my
to &e fow groups of pre-service teachem who particbd in
study. My sincere
thlci study.
Last but not least, my
members, C
O
h:
torhestaffof
M friends,
~
and all others who have mdesed assistawe and supprt in
om way or anotheb.
ABSTRACT
This case study focused on the concept map as a tool for learning science concepts and
understandingcognitiveprocesses of presedvice science teachers. Ninety-nine presetvice
scienceteachers from Batu Lintang Teachers' College, Kuching, participated in this study.
A comparison of subjects' performance in the pre- and posttreatmeat achievement tests
showed that subjects who were taught science concepts using concept mapping performed
significantly better @ < -01) than subjects who were taught using the lecture method. The
concept map was also used to gain insights into the knowledge organization of highachievers and low-achievers through quantitative content analysis of their concept maps.
Cornlatiom between subjects' achievement and their concept map characteristicsrevealed
that compared
tQ
low-achievers, high-achieves consbucted better and more complex
concept maps with more appropriate concepts, more appropriate lids, cross-I&,
and
c o a t hierafchical ordering of concepts. This study also inquired into differences in h@achievers' and low-achievers' knowledge processing m concept mapping. Pos&matment
interviews which focused on how subjects went about mapping concepts revealed that
high-achievers were more thorough m the concept mapping process, taking time to
idea*
concept meanings before forming the relevant Idcages between concepts. The
low-achievezs, however, expended less effort at cognitive processing of knowledge during
concept mapping. In addition, the effect of the use of high-achievers' concept maps to
teach low-achievers science concepts was 8150 investigated. Postireatment inkwiews and
qualitative content analysis of concept maps revealed that low-achievers did not really
benefit iiom the use of such an approach.
ABSTRAK
Kajian kes ini memberi fokus kepada penggunaan peta konsep untuk mempelajari konsep
konsep sains dan mengeaali proses kognisi guru-guru saiDs pra-peakhidmatan. Seramai
sembilan puluh sembilan orang guru sains pra-perkhidmatan dari Maktab Pesguruan Batu
Lintang, Kuching, telah dilibatkan dalam kajian ini. Kajian perbandingan p a p a i a n
subjek menunjukkm pehbezaan yang sipifkm @ < .01) antara lcumpulan subjek yang
diajar konsep sains menggmakan kaedah pebne&an konsep dan kumpulan subjek yang
diajar m e a q p d m lcaedah kuliah.Peta konsep juga digunakan untuk menyiasat tentang
organismi pgetahuan Inrmpulan subjek yang beqencapaian tinggi dan kumpulan subjek
yang beqmcapaian mdah melalui analisis lamtitatif pe& konsep mmka. Dapatan
menunjukkan kumpulan subjek yang lmpencapaian tinggi menghasiUcan peta konsep yang
lebih baik dan kompleks yang menganchmgi lebih banyak konsep dan ikatan antara konsep
yang behit, " c r o s s - W dm susunan k0nse.p-konsep secara be&kaki y a q betul
bexbanding dengan kumpdan subjek yang berpencapaian mdah. Kajian ini juga
menyiasat tentang pexbezaan dalam cara subjek berpencapaian tinggi dan subjek
bexpencapaian rendah memproses pengetahuan seaaasa pesne&an konsep, Hasil kajian
menunjukkan lampulan subjek yang be'pencapaian tinggi lebih teliti dalam proses
pemetaan konsep. Mmka meluangkan masa untuk mengenafpasti makna konsep sebelum
membuat pkaitan yang releven antara komep-konsep. Kumpulan subjek yang
beqencapaian rendah pula didapati tidak begitu b m - s u n g g u h dalam peinprosesan
maklumat secara kognitif semasa p e t a a n konsep. Kajian juga telah menyiasat tentang
kesan meqguna peta konsep hasilan kumpulan subjek berpe.ncapaian tinggi untuk
-ajar
kcmsepkonsep sains kepada kumplltan subjek bqencapaian readah. Dapatan
menuqjukbn pen&-
ini kurang bermanfaat kepada kumpulan subjek btrpencapaian
rendah.
vi
CONTENTS
Page
ACICNOW'LEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
X
LIST OF HGURES
X
.
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
1
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
The Statemeat of the Problem
2
1.3
objectives Of The Study
7
1.4
Hypotheses
7
1.5
S
8
1.6
D e m o n Of Terms
9
LfTERAmRENtEW
16
2.1
In-tion
16
2.2
Contributions of Cognitive Psychology
17
2.3
concept Mapping
26
2.4
Methods of Co~~f:pt
Mapping
28
25
The Concept Map as a Learning Tool
34
2.6
Assessment in Concept Mapping
43
2.7
'IEe Concept Map as a Research Tool
46
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
i
~ Of The
~ Study
e
Page
CB[APTE]R
.
METHOD
50
3.1
Inlmhxtion
50
3.2
Subjects
50
33
Jilsmmedlts
51
3.4
Procedure
54
3.5
Statistical Analysis
63
4
FLM)INGS AM) DISCUSSION
64
4.1
In4miwtion
64
4.2
Comparison of Subjects' Science Achievement
64
43
Correlations Between Achievement and
CHAPTER 3
Concept Map C h a r a c t e ~ s
Diffmces in High-Achievm' and
Low-Achievers' Knowledge Processing in
a-t
M w P ~ ~
The Effect of Using High-Achievers'
Concept Maps to Teach Low-Achieveas
Science Concepts
CHAPTER 5
.
CONCLUSION
Summary
Implications of the Study
Suggestions for Further R e m h
Page
APPENDXmS
A
Students' Profile
B
Iistmment X and Marking Scheme
C
Instmnent Y and Marking Scheme
D
Interview Questions
E
In&oductionto Concept Mapping
F
Sample Nigh-Achievers' e0-t
G
PosttreaQapldnt Co1~~ep2
Mapping Exrrscise
H
Sample High-Achievers' and Low-Achievers' Concept Maps
f
Interview T m r i p t s - Interviews with High-Achieve=
Maps
and Low-Achievers
J
Interview Transcripts - Interviews with Low-Achievers
K
Interview
ripts - Interviews with
chievers
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
3.4
Schedule of Treatments
4.2a
Means, Standard Deviations and ?-Tests Comparing Pretest
55
Scores of the Treatment and Non-Treatment Groups
4.2b
Means,Standard Deviations and t-Tests Comparing Pretest and
Posttest Scores of the Treatment and Non-Treatment Chups
4.2
66
67
Means, Standard Deviations and ?-Tests Comparing Posttest
,
Scorn of the Treatment and Non-Tmatment Groups
4.26
Meaas, Standard Deviations and t-Tests Compafing Meaa
Oain Scores of the Treatment and Non-Treatment Groups
4.3
Correlations Between Achievement and Five Concept Map
characteristics
LIST OF F?GlBES
Page
Figure
3.4
Sample "ideal" Map
61
4,3a
A High-Achiever's Concept Map
75
4.3b
A Low-Achiever's Concept Map
76
5.la
Concept Mapping - aa Effective Tool for Learning Science
5.l b
Concepts
91
High-Achievers' and tow-Achievers' Concept Maps
92
Page
Figure
5,lc
High-Achievers' Knowledge Prowsing in Concept Mapping
93
5,ld
Low-Achievers' Knowledge Pr-ing
in C3mcept Mapping
94
5.Ie
Low-Achievers' Difficulty in Unde~tandingHigh-Achievers'
eo-t
5,lf
Maps
High-Achievers' Laming of Science Concepts
95
96
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Introduction
In recent years, science education in Malaysia has been given greater
emphasis as the nation heads towards building a society which is more
knowledgeable and skilled in science and technology. This move is necessary
because of the increasing demand for skilled rnan-power in the industrial field and
the need to equip the future generation to meet the challenges of a world that is
becoming increasingly science and technology oriented. As a result much
emphasis is being placed on science education in schools and other institutions of
learning throughout the nation.
l%isemphasis is evident with the recent introduction of Science to the new
Integrated Primary School Curriculum (Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 1993,
October), starting with Year Four students. The aim of this move is not only to
expose students to science education but also to inculcate an mterest in science at
an early age. Efforts are also being made to stress the importance of science and
promote intenst in science at the secondary and higher levels of education. For
example, under the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum (Kurikulum
Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah) implemented in 1988, aIl students have to study
Science until Form Five. In addition, they are encouraged to take up subjects such
as Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Additional Science at the upper secondary
level. At the Form Six level, there has been a revision in the Chemistry, Physics
and Biology syllabuses with the aim to motivate more students to take up science
2
subjects. Among the steps to promote interest in science and technology are:
1) road shows targeted at creating more enthusiasm among secondary school
students about the world of science through "dramatic and vivid experiments, 2)
involving students in innovative and creative science projects and competitions
during science and technology exhibitions, and 3) t a b on the importance of
science and job opportunities in the field of science and technology.
Apart from the above changes in the curriculum and efforts at promoting
interest in science and technology, steps are also being taken to improve the
quality of science teaching and learning. These include: 1) providing in-&e
training to upgrade science teachers' knowledge and skill in teaching science, 2)
encouraging the use of studentcentered instructional strategies, and 3) allocating
more funds for scientific equipment and improvement of school laboratory
facilities.
All these steps are being taken with the aim to increase students' interest
in science and technology and to improve their achievement in science subjects.
The Statement of the Problem
Tbe efforts of the Malaysian Education Ministry to promote interest in
science and technology and improve the teaching and learning of science subjects
is indeed commendable. However, statistics show that students' performance in
science subjects is still not up to the expected standard Recent figures released
by the Examination Syndicate, Ministry of Education, showed a decline in
students' performance in science subjects in the 1994 secondary school public
examinations. The perfoxmance of students in Form Six Biology and Physics
suffered a drop of 5.66% and 37% respectively in the percentage of passes
3
compared to the 1993 results (Chan & de Paul, 1995). In the Form Five
examinations, students' performance in Additional Science and Biology dropped
by 4.3% and 1.0% respectively in the percentage of passes compared to the 1993
results (Jayakrishnan & Tan, 1995). A report of a detailed analysis of students'
scienceperformance in the above examination (Lembaga Peperiksaan, 1995, June)
stated that students generally had poor understanding of science concepts and
wuld not answer questions which required higher cognitive skills such as
knowledge application, analysis of diagrams and charts and problem-solving.
Similar reports of analyses of students' performance in Form Tbree Science
(Lembaga Pepebiksaan, 1994, February and 1995, April) also stated that students
faced Wiulty m answering higher-order questions which required an
u n a d i n g of science concepts and application of scientific knowledge. These
findings indicate that s t u h t s lack indepth u n a d i n g of science concepts and
are unable to transfer learning to other situations.
A decline in students' achievement in science has also been noticeable in
other parts of the world. According to Bybee and Robertson (1992), then have
been reports (Weiss, 1978,1987; Mullis & Jenkins, 1988) of decline in students'
achievement in science and widespread support for reforms in science education
in America in the late 1980s. Koballa (1988) and Mason and Kahle (1989),
through interviews with students, found that most of them had difficulty
understanding sciexe concepts and considered science to be boring, a list of big
words and facts, intimidating, and not relevant to their lives. A study by Mason
(1992) found that pre-service science teachers themselves held somewhat fuzzy,
if not inaccurate, knowledge of various scientific concepts and were unable to
explain how various concepts were related. This lack of interest m science and
4
poor understanding of science concepts amongst both students and potential
science teachers has been a matter of grave concern in recent years.
Re-h
was conducted to find out the reasons for this lack of
understanding of science concepts and poor science achievement of students.
According to Bybee and Robertson (1992), researchers such as Weiss (1987) and
Mullis and Jenkins (1988) found that science instruction in schools tended to be
dominated by teacher lectures and reading the textbook. Tobin, Capie and
Bettemourt (1988) cited studies which reported that: 1) science teachers
emphasized facts and techniques with little emphasis on inquiry (Stake & Easley,
1978), 2) teachers emphasized completion of academic work (to the possible
detriment of student undmtanding of the science content) so that students could
cover the course content and perform well on tests gobin & Gallagher, 1987;
Gallagher, 1985), and 3) Sanford (1985), noted that science teachm reduced
cognitive demands of academic bsks though: giving too much guidance until
relatively little work was left to students; group work where students copied from
one anothes, open-book tests; using easy or familiar contents on tests;grading on
completion rather than accuracy; aad assigning more marks to memory or
procedural components of a task.In most of the above cases, instruction did not
provide opportunities for students to engage actively in cognitive processing of
information during learning. Novak (1988) and his team of researchers, tbrough
dozens of interviews with secondary school students and university students found
that the majority of them were not organizing infomation into meaningful
cognitive frameworks during learning. Instead they wexe primarily learning by
rote.
5
Meanwhile, advances in educational research, particularly in the field of
Cognitive Psychology, have led to a better understanding of how learning takes
place. An area of research termed constructivism put forward the idea that
learning involves the active cognitive construction of knowledge and conceptual
change. During learning, new conceptions are integrated with prior conceptions
and alternative conceptions or misconceptions may be discarded. The
establishment of co~ectionsbetween new and existing conceptions suggest an
integration of concepts within a subject matter. According to the constructivist
view, learning involves the active participation of the learner in forming
appropriate connections between concepts in order to acquire an integrated
understanding of the m a e a l learned. Cognitive conceptions of learning also
emphasized the importance of organizing knowledge in an orderly manner, that
is, him-,
so as to facilitate recall and application of the material learned.
Efforts were made to translate these new conceptions of learning into classroom
practices and concept mapping is one of the pedagogical tools towards this end.
Studies by Novak and his team of researchers at Comell University
(Novak, 1981; Symington & Novak, 1982; Novak, Gowin & Johansen, 1983)
seemed to indicate that concept mapping is an effective tool for helping students
learn science concepts. More recent studies by Novak and Musonda (1991),
Jege.de, Alaiyemola and Okebukola (1990), Pankratius (1990) and Horton et a1
(1993) also showed that concept mapping enhanced science achievement of
students. In view of the above promising findings concerning concept mapping,
it is considered worthwhile to fiuthex explore the efficacy of this strategy.
Moreover, in Malaysia, according to information from the Educational Planning
and Research Division, Ministry of Education (de Silva, K, personal
6
communication, May 18, 1995), there is as yet no record of previous research on
concept mapping.
Apart from its use as a learning tool, the concept map has also been found
to be useful as a tool for cognitive research (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Starr &
Krajcik, 1990; Novak & Musonda, 1991). A number of researchers (Fraser &
Edwards, 1985; Novak, 1988) have noted that there is a positive relationship
between student achievement and the quality of their concept maps. They found
that high-achieving students produced wncept maps which were more complex
and had better hierarchical organization of concepts than low-achieving students.
A more detailed study on the relationship between achievement and specific
concept map characteristics would provide further insights into differences in highachiever and low-achievex knowledge organization.
The above-mentioned studies indicate that there is a difference in the
stmctwe and complexity of high-achievers' and low-achievers' concept maps. This
leads to the question of how the thought processes of high-achievers and lowachievers differ as they map concepts. What are the cognitive processes which
contribute to cliff-es
in the structure and content of their concept maps? It
would be interesting to inquire closely into the thought processes which mak the
difference in the way they proceh knowledge during wncept mapping.
A related question in this study is whether the use of high-achievers'
concept maps to teach low-achievers science concepts will improve their
understanding of science concepts. Will low-achievers learn science concepts more
effectively though examining the concept maps generated by their peers, the highachievexs? The fin-
from such an inquiry willhave important bearing on peex-
teaching and how to help low-achievers improve in their learning of scieace
1.3
Objectives of the Study
This study therefore aimed to further explore the eficacy of the concept
map as a tool for learning science concepts, to gain insights into differences in
high-achievers' and low-achievers' cognitive processes, and to investigatethe effect
of using high-achievers' concept maps to teach low-achievers scimce concepts.
Specifically, this study aimed to:
i)
determine whether concept mapping improves pre-service teachers'
u11-W
hi)
of science concepts.
examine the r e l a t i o m between achievement and concept map
characteristics.
iii)
find out how high-achievers and low-achievers differ with respect to the
way they process knowledge in concept mapping.
iv)
find out the effect of the use of high-achievers' concept maps to teach low-
achievers science concepts.
1.4
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were put forward for the objectives in this study:
1.4.1 Subjects taught science concepts using concept mapping will achieve
higher scores m the achievement test than subjects taught science concepts
using the lecture method.
1.4.2 There is a positive correlation between achievement scores and
i)
the number of appropriate links in the map,
ii)
the average number of appropriate concepts per cluster.
iii)
the hierarchy score for the map
1.4.3 There is a negative correlation between achievement scores and
1.4.4
i)
the number of inappropriate links in the map,
ii)
the avmge number of inappropriate concepts per cluster.
High-achievers' knowledge processing in concept mapping diffm from that
of low-achievm' m that high-achievers are more thorough at mapping
concepts than are low-achieveas.
1.4.5
Low-achievers' learning of science concepts through high-achievers'
concept maps is more effective than through their own construction of
concept maps.
1.5
The Significance of the Study .
Tbe findings of this study will be of benefit to teachers and teachex-
educators in search of more effective strategies for the teaching and learning of
science concepts. If concept mapping is indexxi effective in enhancing scieace
achieveanent of students through helping them to organize and conssrmct
knowledge efficiently, then its use as an instructional tool in the leaming of
scieme concepts &odd be more widely encouraged.
The findings on the correlation between concept map characteristics and
student achievement will provide information on how the knowledge organization
of high-achievers and low-achievers differ. These fmdings will be beneficial to
teachers who intend to use the concept map as a tool for cognitive-based
assessment.
This study will also provide insights into how high-achieveas and lowachievers process knowledge in concept mapping. The insights gained will be
useful to teachers in taking steps to improve stu&nts' understanding of science
concepts through concept mapping.
The investigation on the effect of using high-achievers' concept maps to
teach low-achievers science concepts will provide information on how peerteaching through concept mapping can be improved.
1.6
Definition of Terms
The terms used in this study are &fined as follows:
1.6.1 The term "conceptm
refm to "a perceived regularity in events or objects
designated by a label" (Novak, 1988, p. 82). For example, the word "chair"
conceptualizes an object .with legs, a seat, and a back, that is used for
sitting on. Novak (cited in Ahlberg, 1993, p. 9) also used the &finition
"concepts are what we think with". Ahlbedg (1993, p. 9) &fined concepts
as "basic elements of thhkhg". Klausmeier (1993, p. 285) said, "a concept
consists of an individual's organized information about one or more things
- objects, events, ideas, processes or relations that enables the individual
to discriminate a particular thing or class of things from other things or
classes of things and also to relate it to otber things or classes of things."
10
According to Reber (1985), the term "concept1' refers to the internal,
psychological representation of a complex of objects which share some
attributefs) or properties. In this study, the term "concept" is used to refer
to an individual's mental representation of objects, events, ideas or
processes.
1.6.2 A concept map is a schematic device used to enable the learner to
explicitly represent a number of concepts. A concept map in its simplest
form consists of just two concepts connected by a linking word to fom
a proposition. For example, "sky is blue" is a proposition consisting of
two concepts, "sky" and ''blue" and a linking word, "is" (Novak &
Gowin, 1984, p. 15). Propositions therefore consist of two or more
concepts semantically "linked'' together by linking words. A complex
concept map consists of many concept labels embedded m a framework of
propositions. In this study, the term "concept map" is used to refer to a
complex concept map.
1.6.3 Concept mapping, according to Novak and Gowm (1984), is the process
of organizing concepts and relationships between concepts in a hierarchical
manner, from more inclusive co~~;epts
to more specific, less inclusive
concepts. Concept maps are hierarchical m that the more genezal, more
inclusive concepts are at the top of the map, with progressively more
specific, less inclusive concepts arranged below them. The term "concept
mapping used in this study refers to the process of organizing concepts
~~~hically and fonning meanmgful relatiomhips between the concepts.
I1
1.6.4
CInstes ar chunks are generally used tx, refa to groups of superoraafe
and linked d o d i n a t e (at least two) wncepts. Fur exarapfe ia a concept:
map on plantsd h e concept "flowers" (a tmpmmka& concep9 may be
linked with concepts such as "nectarnand "pet&" (subordinate concepts)
to fomi a cluster of ~ 0 ~ 0The
s tt:m
. "
to refer to wups of related concepts
~
1 will~ be "used in this study
a concept map.
1.6.5 Crass-links refer b meaningful comectiom Wweegl one s e p & of the
concept. f i i d y snd mo&m segment (kJovak & Gowin, 1984) that is,
between concepts belonging to dEmnt clwbrs in the map. For example
k the abovememttiuned c
q n q on plan& the superonhab concepts
"flowm" and "stems" may be finkied to s u m t e concepts such as
"p&aW and leaves" rmpedvely. " P ~ may
" also be: linked to the
concept "twt",Howerer the c m p t "reda m y also h litlked to "leaves"
(a m e p t in a diffkrent ~~)
as some hvess am red in colour. The link
formal between "I.ed" and leaves" is a cross-link.In the F n t studysbudy,
"@ross-links" is used to refer to lidages betwees concepts be10nging to
diff6?xex&clusteks in a concept map.
1.6.6 Cognitive prwmsm, tm
& F i by N
h (1967), refem to all the
pmmxm by which .the sensory input is tmn&"mdreduced, stored,
m v d aod usad The tenn wgnibivff pl3ce?fses is often used
synmymwsfy with cogoitia. I
l
c
c
u
m to Andamn (1994), cognition
comprises all mental activity or states involved in knowing and the mind's
functr;onhg, and h W pmcqtion, attmtioa, memory, imagery,
12
language functions, devebpaaental processes, problenr-solving and the area
of artificial intelligence (which lies outside the discipline of psychology).
M a t h (19%) categorized cognitive processes info: 1) basic cognitive
processes which include a) perceptual processes sx~chas attention and
pattern recognition, and b) memory processes such as infomation
processing, and 2) higher-order cogaitive processes such as imagery,
problem-solving, reasoning, decision making, language comprehension and
production, and mebcognition.
Perception has to do with attaching m&g
to sensory infomation
received. Reber (1983, described perceptual processes as those processes
that give coherence and unity to seawry input It invoives such processes
as attention and pattern re~oelion.Attentiion is often consi&red as a state
of concentrating on something. As J-es
(cited in Caiotb:, 1994, p. 95)put
it, "it is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one
out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of
thought, It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal
effectively with others."
Pattern recognition concerns how we recognize the eanvironmental
stimuli as e x e m p h of concepts akmdy in memory (Leahey & H d ,
1993). Reba (3985) defines it as the act of recognizing that a particular
array of s h d w elements or sequence of s h d w elements is
representative of a particdm pattern. Attention and pattern recognition
occur to help iden*
and select information for further processing.
13
Memoacy p ~ ~ ~ e srefer
s e sto those processes wbich store and retrieve
information. According to Gaiotti (1994) memory is seen to be an active,
constructive process. The Wornation does not "sit sti21" in the storehouse
waiting ta be re&ievd. Instead, it appears &at some further processing of
the information occurs, either during storage ox at tbe time of retrieval.
][nformationprocessing, as dehed by Reber (f985),refers to the notion
of organking, inkrprethg and responding to h c
infomation.
Incoming information is initially processed in the short-tpdm memory or
working memory where it is held just long enough (about 30 seconds) for
a decision to be made about W e r processing, especially mcading for
long-term storage. The information in working memory may also include
infomatJcrn which has been retrieved &om the tong-tE:m memory a d
which is interacting with the new stimulus infomation e
the
m m o q system, tong-tam memory is another component of information
prm*
and it involves processes such as e n d g and recail. EeGodjng
refm to the process of transforming information into one or n.1~111forms
:
of represeatation sa that it can be retained in long-term memory
@enjafie1&, 1992). Recall is the process of retrieving i n f o d o n from
memory. b o d i n g and mall an:closely related especially as the method
of encoding can affect the ease of retrieval.
The higher-order cognitive processes include those processes
associated with more complex fonns of cognition. h g e r y , according to
I Z h (19851, is a cognitive process that operates "as if" one had a m e d
picture that was im analag of a d-world scene. m e image is not
nw&Xy
treated as a reproduction of an earlier event, but rather as a