T205 (1)
AnswerZ 2 dr. Fadli’z rev
(NooWaaY)
(1) Compare "reductionism and holistic approach of thinking through suitable illustration?
(primer #2 p. 11 – example p. 21)
Reductionist thinking
 Breaking the whole picture into smaller parts which will lead to simple cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Looking for general principles from particular instances, ignoring subjective elements,
concentrating on simpler systems and breaking situations down into smaller parts where
single cause and effects are likely.
 Reductionist methods cannot help to cope with problems that arise as a result of the
complexity and interconnectedness between components in a system.
Holistic thinking
 Deals with wholes rather than parts.
 The problem is that it is not always clear what is whole and what is part. A person is a whole,
and can be a part in another situation.
 Start with looking at the whole, and if this doesn’t make sense look at the bigger whole of
which it forms a part.
 The problem with this idea is that it isn't always clear what is a whole and what is a part. A
person is a whole but he/she will be a part of a group.
 This approach is opposite of Reductionist thinking. In the same time they can be
complementary.
(2) Draw the spray diagram to illustrate the characteristics of "difficulties" and "mess"? (
primer # 4 p. 27 – diagram p. 29 )
(3) Compare "hard" and " soft" complexity through suitable examples?
p. 33)
Hard complexity:
( primer # 5
o Involved rational factors which tend to involve technical or computational
complexity.
o (Difficulties involve more hard complexity).
o Generating difficult computational problems: (illustrated by the game of chess)
o Ex: calculating March budget
Soft complexity:
o Involve emotional factors which involve the way people view and interact with the
situation
o (Messes involve soft complexity).
o The description of events is ambiguous
o Ex: considering divorce issue
(4) State the different models of "learning process". Discuss any one with suitable example? (
CF 1 , Reading 3 p. 27 )
Models of the learning process
1.
The acquisitive model of learning
This model of learning starts from a focus on the observable behaviour of the learner and
on the idea that this can be changed by feedback from the learning environment.
 It is associated with the idea that learning has to do with reproducing some desirable
behaviours or measurable outcomes.
 In this model, the learning process is seen as a process of accretion, so learners add to their
store of knowledge those items that are required for them to achieve their current goal.
 It is essential that learners have feedback regularly on how effectively they are achieving
the desired learning outcome at each stage. This model has some similarities to an input/
output model, with a feedback loop for correction of what has been recalled.
 Its limitations:
o Says little or nothing about what the learner should be doing or thinking while learning.
The learner is simply a ‘black box’ taking in the information and generating the output,
whatever that is.
o Learning here is a passive process of absorption of an input, unmodified. What goes on
when we learn, and the influences that affect that process, are left out in this model.
o Much of what we must learn comprises not details to be remembered, but ideas to be
understood, and techniques for analyzing and evaluating information. We also have to
learn about attitudes and feelings. This model pays no attention to this.

The student who
learns
Tutor
input
feedback
Output
from the
student
Assessment/
evaluation by tutor
Model
of acquisitive learning process
2.
The constructivist model of learning
Concentrates on what happens during the process of learning.
Identifies the central role of concepts and understandings that learners bring to new
learning and the way in which new and old ideas interact.
 Starts with learners use their existing frameworks of understanding to interpret what is
being taught.
 Learners are actively involved in processing what is taught, and as a result, the same ‘input’
is perceived differently by different learners and may well have quite different outcomes.
 The learning process is seen as a product of the relationship between three interconnecting
factors:
i. What students already know or can do.
ii. What students think the subject they are studying is about and what it takes to learn it.
iii. What teachers do, the tasks they set and the way these are interpreted by students.


A system map can help clarify this approach to learning. Such maps are a way of showing the
component parts which interact to create a system that is greater than the sum of its parts.
Although the component parts may interact, it is not customary to indicate this by lines or
arrows on this particular type of diagram.
Teaching activity
C
D
learner
A
B
Teacher
A system map of key elements in a constructivist model of learning
3.
The experiential model of learning (David Kolb)
 There are four distinctive kinds of knowledge, each is associated with a distinctive kind of
learning. The four kinds of learning are:
o Concrete experiencing,
o Reflective observation,
o Abstract analysis,
o Active experimentation.
 Kolb’s definition of learning: ‘the production of knowledge through the transformation of
knowledge’.
 Kolb views learning as a process (which has a kind of ‘value added’ quality).
concrete
experiencing
active
experimentation
reflective
observation
abstract
conceptualization/
analysis
The Kolb model of learning
(5) Discuss the role of "feed back" mechanism in systems thinking and practice? Explain the
various types of feed back loops using appropriate diagramming aids? ( primer # 7 p. 58 -59 )
Why unintended outcomes (mistakes)?
Because of many connections, interactions or relationships that exist between the part of a system
and the nature of those connections or interactions. Any method of thinking about things which
works by ignoring interconnections is going to make mistakes when it comes to systems.
o First type of ‘mistake’: wrong interpretation of the information present in the connections
o Second type of ‘mistake’: ignoring the effects of feedback, which is a particularly potent kind
of interconnection, present in a very wide variety of systems.
 Negative (balancing) feedback: information about the outcome of the process is being fed
back to the beginning of the process in order to control it. ‘Negative’ because it leads to a
dampening down or check of the effect caused by the input. Negative feedback is used to
make a balance.
Council increases
car park charges
More people
wanting to park in
the city center
Fewer people
wanting to park in
the city center
Council reduces
car park charges
Diagrammatic representation of negative or balancing feedback

Positive (reinforcing) feedback: exaggerates and reinforces the process. ‘Positive’ because
it acts to reinforce the effect, either as a vicious circle or a virtuous one.
Increasing sales of
a good product
Increasing numbers of
people told how good
the product is by wordof-month
Increasing numbers of
satisfied customers
(a) virtuous circle
Decrease in market
share for newspaper B
Decrease in price
for newspaper A
Decrease in price
for newspaper B
Decrease in
market share for
newspaper A
(b) vicious circle
Diagrammatic representation of positive or reinforcing feedback
(6) What do you understand by "system thinking" approach ? Draw a spray diagram
showing the various attributes of this approach? ( primer # 3 p. 23)
System thinking is a specialized branch of holistic thinking.
1.
Changing one perspective leads to change in attitude and approach which make it easier to
identify the social components required to solve complex situations.
2.
Holistic thinking. This avoids losing the issues which are associated with the connectedness
of the situation.
3.
Simplifying by making more abstract. Some simplification is essential to make a problem
tractable, but the simplification must not reduce the connectedness.
4.
Using standard systems and diagrams. These are tools of the trade rather than
characteristics of systems thinking.
(7) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of "adaptors " and "innovators" style of people, the
two extremes of the dimension? (CF2 # P. 16-21)
Weaknesses of the Adaptor style:
 Tendency to jump to a conclusion prematurely
 Set the boundaries too narrowly
 Reluctance to take risks
Weaknesses of the Innovator style:
 Not thinking through the consequences of action
 Lack of attention to detail
Kirton’s inventory has three sub-scales which give a useful insight into the three main components
of the Adaptor-Innovator distinction. The three sub-scales measure:
 The flow of ideas: Adaptors produce small number of well-focused ideas, while innovators
produce a large spread of ideas, expecting many to be discarded.
 The value placed on efficiency: Adaptors tend to focus on one task, value efficiency and
give attention to detail. Innovators tend to work on multiple tasks, value a wide overview,
and give less attention to detail.
 The value placed on rule and group conformity: Adaptors prefer working within existing
practices and group structures. Innovators tend to bend the rules and challenge the status
quo.
Summary of the main differences between high adaptors and high innovators
High Adaptor
High Innovator
Prefer open loop control strategy.
Prefer closed loop control strategy.
Adaptors tend to see themselves as
supportive, practical, stable, methodical,
co-operative, safe, etc.
Innovators tend to see themselves as full
of ideas, energetic, challenging, open to
change, intuitive, not hanging on to the
past, and risky.
They prefer stable and well-structured
working environments.
Prefer an unstructured and often changing
working environment, and may not place
much value on established procedures
and conventions.
Seeks solutions to problems in tried and
understood ways.
Questions basic assumption.
Resolves problems by introducing
improvements and increased efficiency
(doing things better).
Resolves problems by redefining them.
(doing things differently)
Rarely challenges rules, maintains group
stability.
Often challenges rules, is a catalyst to
settled groups.
Produces a few relevant, safe ideas for
immediate implementation.
Produces many ideas, including those
seen as irrelevant, unsound, risky.
Offers solutions which fall within the
paradigm and are acceptable within the
general consensus
Offers solutions which fall outside the
paradigm and are not immediately
acceptable to the consensus.
Tents to focus on one task at a time, and
tends to work by making incremental
changes that improve present methods
and practices suggesting small numbers
of options without upsetting existing
situations.
They may have many projects on the go
at once, because they often start a project
and then leave it unfinished.
Weaknesses:
The adaptor style includes a tendency to
jump to a conclusion prematurely, or to
set the boundaries too narrowly, and to
reluctance to take risks.
Weaknesses:
Innovator style includes not thinking
through the consequences of action, and
lack of attention to detail.
Each extreme tends to have a poor view of the other:
Innovators are generally seen by adaptors as being abrasive and insensitive, despite the
former's denial of these traits. This misunderstanding usually occurs because the innovator
attacks the adaptor's theories and assumptions, both explicitly when feeling that the adaptor
needs a push in the right direction to get out of a rut, and implicitly by showing a disregard for
the rules, conventions, and standards of behaviour.
Adaptors can be viewed pejoratively by innovators, suggesting that the more extreme types
are far more likely to disagree than collaborate. Innovators tend to see adaptors as stuffy and
unenterprising, wedded to systems, rules and norms which are too restricting to their (the
innovators) liking. Innovators overlook how much of the smooth running of all around them,
but they are aware of the less acceptable face of efficient bureaucracy.
(8) Discuss the source of conflict mechanism in an organization of your interest?
( CF2 # 17 P. 121)
Six sources of conflict (apply to any organization you like)
1. Misunderstandings: understand the issue in wrong way may cause conflict.
2. Differences of value: These can be the familiar ethical differences apparent in society. Also
there are value disagreements about the underlying purposes of the organization itself.
3. Differences in viewpoint: disagreements about the means to achieve particular ends, how to
increase profitability, improve efficiency, or whatever.
4. Differences of interest: Control, status, autonomy, resources. Personal and departmental
interests are continually brought into conflict.
5. Differences in style: one person may tend to oversimplify situations while a colleague tends
t perceive things as very complicated. Some people like to have a well-defined plan in mind
while others feel constrained by plans and prefer the option of last minute changes.
6. Unconscious factors: By definition, this is the conflict-generating mechanism of which we
are least aware.
(9) Discuss the kinds of pay –off pattern for conflict resolution?( CF2 #19 P. 140)
Imagine that you have two parties in conflict over something; there are basically four kinds of payoff pattern that are possible:
Pay-off: is what you get from a particular resolution of a conflict.
Party A
A wins
A loses
B wins
Win-win
Win-lose
Party B
B loses
Lose-lose
Lose-win

Win-lose or Lose-win: These tend to be "zero sum" outcomes. If two children fighting over
which should have a toy, there is no wider gain whether Harry gets the toy or Mary gets it;
there is still one just one toy.

The lose-lose: If two departments each need a new piece of equipment costing $10, but there is
only $10 available in total, offering each department $5 is probably a bad lose-lose solution.

The win-win: Where a resolution is achieved in which both parties get an outcome that they
are happy with, this outcome may or may not be the original outcome that triggered the
conflict, since win-win solutions are usually the result of collaboration and good problemsolving.
(10) Discuss the various type of "visible " and "invisible" powers as understood by you in
your working environment?(CF 2 # 18 P. 130)
Reading 18: Powers visible and invisible
1 Visible powers
The visible power resources provide a fairly straightforward way into difficult agreements, but the
power of individuals and groups in organizations will vary over different issues.
1. Position Power: The most obvious source of power in organizations is that which stems from a
person's formal position (formal authority, status and control of rewards)
2. Expert Power: Organizations use specialist knowledge to cope with task and environmental
uncertainty. This means that on certain issues they must rely on and accept the judgment of
those who possess that knowledge. Using of appeals to expertise to influence others.
3. Dependence Power: When people join organizations it is because they want something from
the organization and they are willing to contribute in the roles. Inducements are offered in
return for contributions. However, since each side wants what the other is offering, this
exchange involves a measure of dependence. Clearly if someone depends on you for
something, then for you this is a source of power. Dependence power may be used at other
organizational levels; there have been occasions when a number of senior managers have
blocked particular proposals by threatening to resign en bloc.
4. Personal Power: It refers to those abilities and qualities which enable some people to be more
influential than others with otherwise comparable power resources. For example, the ability to
take the role of the other, and anticipate the reactions of potential opponents is characteristic of
successful negotiators. Some people have these capacities with training and some of them
without training.
2 Invisible Powers
Invisible power is the indirect or informal exercise of power that occurs outside of the accepted
decision-making process, and which may not be recognized by some of those concerned. Invisible
power can be exercised in three domains:
 How an issue is presented can affect the way it is treated.
 Many organizational practices develop informally and so bypass explicit decision-making
processes.
 Power can be exercised by preventing particular issues or conflicts of interest from being
considered. Potential conflicts could be avoided by various ways:
1.
Latent intimidation ‫التهديد الخفي‬
2.
Promoting values and beliefs that minimize disagreement.
3.
Controlling work relationships to minimize opposition ‫تضارب تعارض‬
4.
Institutional bias ‫نزعة أو اتحاد‬
(11) What do you understand by "active listening "? discuss the characteristics of " active
listening " by using suitable systemic diagram ? (CF2 # 14 P. 85)
Active Listening: It is called active because the listener has a very definite responsibility. The
listener does not passively absorb the words which are spoken but:
 Actively tries to grasp the facts and the feelings in what is said, and tries by paying attention to
help the speaker work out his or her problems.
 Feeds back to the speaker, in the listener's own words, the content that has been understood by
the listener.
Active listening: it is simply to be interested in the person speaking, as a human being, as well as
interested in the issues and problems which may be the content of the communication
What we achieve by listening
 Listening is the most effective agent for individual personality change and group development.
 Listening changes people's attitudes toward themselves and others, also changes their basic
values and personal philosophy.
 Listening provides more information than any other activity, it builds deep, positive
relationships and tends to alter constructively the attitudes of the listener. Listening is a growth
experience.
Elements of effective meanings:
1.
Listen for total meaning
2.
Respond to feelings
3.
Note all cues
4.
Feed back in your own words.
(12) What do you understand by "model" in systems practice? describe the various
categories of these models using spray diagram? ( T553 # 3 P.9 )
Model: is a simplified representation of some person's or group's view of a situation, constructed
to assist in working with that situation in a systemic manner.
Mental models; implicit and explicit
Implicit Mental Models: models of the world in which we live which constrain and determine what
we perceive in the world about us, how we think about situation, people, organizations and
problems.
Read Box 1 P 10 it gives two examples of implicit mental models affecting behavior
Because these models affect our perception of the world they become self-sealing. This means that
the mental model dictates the type of information that the person will perceive and that these
perceptions will then reinforce the original belief.
3.2 Some general categories of models

Mental Models: Verbal models are important both as the external representation of our
internal mental, and probably as part of the thinking process.

Iconic models: Using some physical material to represent physical aspects of a situation.
(models of new products or developments) See figure 4 p 13.

Graphical models: They are a wide range of two-dimensional representations which can be
used in systems modeling.

Quantities (mathematical) modes: using mathematical techniques to calculate numerical
values for the properties of the defined system, and can be used to explore the results of
different possible actions. See table p14.
(13) Explain the different relationship dynamics viz ." criticalness" , " blame " and
"
guilt" using suitable illustration ? (CF 2 # 12 P. 69) Read paragraph 4 p (70) for more illustration
(example of one want to stop smoking
Criticalness, Blame and Guilt
 Our beliefs about others are a powerful influence on the nature of the relationship. So too are
our beliefs about ourselves
 Three common features of many relationship dynamics that can be understood and their effect
reduced in consequence, are:
o Criticalness
 Criticalness is an attitude of non-acceptance towards the other person
 May use the same language as a correction, but has an additional emotional overtone
 What is changed when the source of tension is accepted, is your attitude towards the
behaviour you are criticizing
 The key steps in approaching criticalness in oneself are:
 Notice as precisely as you can what exactly it is that you are critical of
 Reflect on when you have done, or wanted to do, something similar
 Recognize the aspect of yourself that you are not accepting that lies at the root of your
criticalness
o Blame
 Blame is holding the other person responsible for something which you, and probably they,
regard negatively
 It is the attribution of responsibility to the other person that is the strongest characteristic of
blame
 It is destructive of all sorts of relationships, but particularly work or task based relationships
(people will work to avoid the blame rather than accomplish the task)
 There are two immediate consequences of blaming other people:
 It defines you as powerless in the situation
 There is no learning about how to avoid a repetition of the event
o Guilt
 People who feel guilty will go further and use the event, and the blaming of themselves, to
reinforce a negative self-image
 It finds a simple reason for whatever occurred (I am bad) without any genuine learning about
how to avoid the situation or event in the future
(14) explain the advantage and disadvantage of multi – criteria approach (MCA)? ( CF4 # 32
P. 157-166)
Strengths of multi-criteria mapping:
1. It is pluralistic: it is possible simultaneously to contemplate several alternative solutions.
2. It more realistically reflects multi-dimensional nature of reality.
3. It pragmatically acknowledges uncertainty and the role of subjective judgments.
4. It is open-ended and reflexive, allowing for continual appraisal and review.
5. It is transparent and accessible, open to wider public participations.
6. Allow for greater interaction and deliberation between the participants.
Weaknesses:
1. Scores we chosen build on assumes, so if I think that some criteria have 4 scores others my
conflict with me and think that it must be.
2. It assumes that decision makers know the subject from all sides to judge & choose suitable
criteria.
3. Its forecasting is subjective and unreliable.
(15) I illustrate the simple tools for exploring the environment ?( CF5 # 10 P.67)
Tool (1): STEP checklist and STEPS (Social, Technological, Economic, Political, and
Sustainability) STEPS check list is a useful method to identify and mapping a range of
environmental interactions with your organization. Its advantage is its simplicity and wide
applicability.
Tool (2): SOWT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats): In SWOT the value
lies on the wider discussions, ideas, observations, etc. It is a vehicle for discussion and the
exchange of views as an analytic tool. What you learn on the journey often matters as much as
what you achieve at the destination.
Tool (3): 5Ws and H (Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How) It is essentially a list of the
six main questions engines; it draws attention to the basic components of any human situation:

Human elements;

Physical elements;

Locations;

Times;

Explanations;

And mechanisms.
Tool (4): Inputs, Transformation, and Outputs: This way is to consider your organization as a
transformation process.
Resources, people,
Transformation
Materials, energy,
Goods
process
Technology, information,
Services
Expertise, capital
We have to see:
What environmental factors could affect inputs, transformation, and outputs?
Tool (5): Auditing Mintzberg's Stakeholders: If we you want to understand what is going on
in a situation, or if you want to intervene in a situation in some way, it's very useful to think
about the stakeholders, as they are the people who matter in the situation.
Tool (6): Economic Sector Analysis: Economists group economic activities according to
sectors. All the organizations in a particular sector produce similar products or services, and
ten to be affected by similar influences. So it’s a useful way to explore an organization's
environment is to identify its sector ( other organizations in the same sector, customers, the
differences, competitive advantage, the net work of supply chain and distribution channels
work).
(16) Compare "self managed team "and" self organizing team" through suitable
illustration? ( CF3 # 1 P.13 Table 1.2)
Self-managed team
*It may be permanent or only temporary; it
operates in an informal and non-hierarchical
manner. Better customer service, more
motivated staff, and better quality of output are
the three features of self-managed teams.
Self-organizing team
*The team will work together, operating
outside the formal structures, until its task is
done and then it will disband
*It is often found in organizations that are
developing total quality management and
quality assurance approaches.
*It can be found in highly flexible innovative
organizations that based on creativity and
informality.
*Usually part of the formal reporting structure.
*Usually outside the formal reporting
structure.
*Members usually selected by management.
*Members usually self-selected.
*Informal style of working.
*Informal style of working.
*Indirectly controlled by senior management.
*Senior management influences only team's
boundary.
*Usually a permanent leader, but may change.
*Variable leadership, perhaps one, perhaps
changing, perhaps shared.
*Empowered by senior management.
*Empowered by the team members,
supportive culture, and environment.
*It may be formed for improvement
*It may be formed in response to and issue,
idea or challenge.
(17) Discuss the stages of team building? (CF3 # 2 P. 25 – 26)
Tuckman identified four stages for group establishment or development:
1. Forming:
The group is not yet a group but a number of individuals, at this stage the purpose of the group
is to discuss the group's title, leadership and life span, individuals will establish personal
identities in the group.
2. Storming:
Most groups go through a stage of conflict following the initial, at this stage, purpose,
leadership, roles and norms may be challenged. If successfully handled, this stage leads to the
formulation of more realistic objectives and procedures.
3. Norming:
During this stage the group members establish the patterns of work and norms for the group
(the degree of openness, trust, confidence).
4. Performing:
Only when the previous three stages have been successfully completed will the group be able
to be productive.
To these for stages were later added a fifth stage:
5. Adjourning or mourning
Members may face significant uncertainties as they move away to new challenges. The team
leader may need to minimize the stress that is associated with changes and transitions. The
team leader may encourage the team members to maintain links with each other and develop
their relations through new activities and projects.
(18) Explain the four strategies to cope with organizational environment ?
( CF5 # 8
P. 46)
1 Problem articulating skills:
This refers to the process whereby someone considers a complex, confusing situation, and finds a
way to define and express what is needed. This is one of the key roles a good manager plays,
because if a challenge can be well articulated and communicated then it becomes accessible.
2 Simplifying strategies
There are many various simplifying strategies managers can use to try to grasp the enormous
complexity of their organization's environment
1. Selective attention. Focusing the areas which might be directly or indirectly important to
you rather than switching attention at random.
2. Assuming universality. This is the assumption that my experience of environmental
events is everyone's experience. I have found that aspect A always easy to manage, while B
has been troublesome, so I assume that these are true everywhere.
3. Averaging. Assuming that individuals and organizations behave like the average individual
or organization.
4. Assuming continuity over time. Assuming that work in the past will work in the same
way in the future, things will keep going in the same way. The business will keep growing;
customers will keep the same level of satisfaction.
Local focus. Focusing on the nearest part of the environment and assuming that it
represents the whole.
6. Typifying. Assuming that particular cases (cases I know very well) can be generalized to
different contexts. If I know one large scale producer well, I would probably be justified in
assuming that I do have some knowledge of the general issues facing large-scale producers.
The trick is to recognize just what my experience is "typical" of.
7. Problem bias: Focusing on the major problems and ignoring the minor ones.
5.
3 Control by colonization.
This has become a less popular strategy, as the difficulties of attempting to exercise complete
control over one's environment. Modern forms of commercial empire, such as Benetton and
Marks and Spencer tend to be based on alliances.
4 Finding ways to work with environment uncertainty.
Most organizations and their managers have had to learn to work with the uncertainties and to
respond quickly to different emerging situations. Here are four possibilities:
 Accepting uncertainty and preparing for it: To learn to expect the unexpected, and to
recognize that we live in a world that is constantly changing and full of uncertainty. One way
to cope with the changing environment is to learn to live with it.
 Learning and adaptation: In new and unfamiliar environments we need to learn how to
learn and how to adapt to changing. Those who are always learning are those who can ride
the waves of change and who see a changing world as full of opportunities not damages.
 Networking and connecting. Another very valuable way of coping with uncertainty is to
spend time networking and making connections with other organizations. This will keep you
in close touch with what is going on in the many environments that surround your
organization.
 Creativity and Innovation: Uncertainties may offer unexpected opportunities to do things
differently to be creative and highly innovative. As the old saying goes: "Necessity is the
mother of invention".
(19) Differentiate "task oriented " and " relationship oriented" behavior of project manager
for achieving team effectiveness?( CF3 # 3 P. 43 -44)
Team effectiveness depends on both task and relationship-oriented behaviours.
1 Task-oriented behaviours
 Estimating and planning (costs, tasks, skills)
 Assembling a team (assembling team, motivating them, managing conflict and ensuring
good communication).
 Reporting and liaising (project manager is the spokesman who has to liaise with senior
management, clients).
 Putting tools in place (choose appropriate tools for the jobs)
2 Relationship-oriented behaviours
 Managing and coordinating work
 Managing changes
 Managing inter-group relationships
 Managing external boundaries.
(20) List the different perspectives of "decision making" .discuss one of the perspectives
through suitable illustrations? ( CF4 # 31 P. 145 )
There are three styles of decision making:
1. Analytical Approach:
The work of decision-making can be handled by activities like, gathering data, developing
models, forming interpretations, devising options. So the initial goals setting and the final
decision must belong with the decision maker. And also serious analysis should take place to
identify the different kinds of uncertainty about the working environment and about the
related decisions, about values about objectives, etc. See figure 27.1 p(125
2. Negotiated approach
Decisions are established as a result of open and free discussion and negotiations of
stakeholders in which wider range of stakeholder concerns are met. Negotiated agreement
can also be seen as an expression of the personalities as well as stakeholders' judgments
about the facts which can lead to a dark decision.
3. Incremental and Emergent Decisions
Decisions can happen for urgent reasons that don't really involve choice at all. So the
decision maker is being forced to take the decision immediately and everyone knows that a
decision has been made.
(21) Why there is resistance to change? Discuss the important ethical issues about the extent
to which the system practitioner has the right to reduce resistance in an organization? ( CF4
# 34 P. 177)
Resistance to change
There are many reasons why change is usually regarded with apprehension:
1. It can crate anxieties around crucial areas such as job security.
2. It often upsets familiar surroundings and patterns of relationships that we feel comfortable
about.
3. In practical terms, it may result of complications.
4. It may demand skills you don't have.
Not all change is good, nor is all resistance bad.
There are important ethical issues about the extent to which a system practitioner has the right to
reduce resistance or to try and deal with it as if it were essentially an aberration, a failing or a
scheming, self-interested maneuver on the part of those we deem to be opponents of change.