Mid Term Study Sheet
EQ: What is science?
1. Everyday Argumentation
Types of
Argumentations
Scientific
Argumentation
Requires
Term
NOT science
2. Scientific Argumentation
1. Claim
2. Explanation
3. Reasoning
Explanation
Impossible to test
Based on feelings, opinions, bias, emotions, popularity, beliefs;
attacks the person
Based on facts, evidence, data, logic, tests; attacks the data
An answer to a scientific question
Data and observations that support the claim
Describes how the scientific concept connects the evidence to the claim.
Example
Beliefs, feelings, opinions, religions, cultural
systems
Religion
an organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, Christianity, Paganism, Judaism, Scientology
and world views that relate humanity to an order
of existence
Pseudoscience
Pseudo = fake
Astrology, Flat Earth Society, Ghost
Test do NOT produce reliable data
Hunters, Scientology
Science
is a systematic enterprise that builds and
Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics,
organizes knowledge in the form of
Astronomy, Biology
testable explanations and predictions about
the universe
Criteria for REAL SCIENCE
C.O.N.P.T.T Consistent – Observable- Natural-Prediction-Testable-Tentative
Practice Questions: Explain why it is /isn’t real science.
Explanation
1 Scientist discovered how to recombine DNA in new Not science. Science doesn't tell you how to use scientific
ways. The decision on whether or not we should
knowledge.
use that knowledge to correct a genetic disease,
develop a bruise-resistant apple, or construct a
new bacterium is based on what?
2 Do gods exist?
Science doesn't draw conclusions about supernatural
explanations. Questions that deal with supernatural
3 Do supernatural entities intervene in human
explanations are, by definition, beyond the realm of nature —
affairs?
and hence, also beyond the realm of what can be studied by
4 Is there a heaven or hell?
science.
3 Does karma really exists?
4 Will walking under a ladder actually cause bad
luck?
5 When is euthanasia the right thing to do?
Science doesn't make moral judgments. Questions like these
are important, but scientific research will not answer them.
6 What universal rights should humans have?
Individual people must make moral judgments.
7 Should other animals have rights?
8 Is a Beethoven symphony, a Kabuki performance,
Science doesn't make aesthetic judgments. Individuals make
or a Jackson Pollock painting is beautiful or
those decisions for themselves based on their own aesthetic
dreadful?
criteria.
9 What is the difference between religion and
Science investigates the natural world, while religion deals with
science?
the spiritual and supernatural — hence, the two can be
complementary.
10 How do populations of organisms change over
Science: is a systematic enterprise that builds and
time?
organizes knowledge in the form of
testable explanations and predictions about the universe
11 Which areas on Earth might be hit by a tsunami
Science helps us construct knowledge about the natural
after an earthquake?
world — knowledge that can then be harnessed to improve our
12 How did the hole in the ozone layer form?
lives and solve problems.
13 How can we protect our crops from pests?
EQ: How are scientific investigations performed?
Types of
1. Descriptive
Make observations to draw a conclustion. Hypothesis is not needed.
investigations 2. Comparative
Conduct an investigation to
Requires
determine relationships.
1. Hypothesis
2. Independent Variable
3. Experimental Conduct an investigation to
3. Dependent Variable
determine causation
4. Constants/Controls
(cause/effect)
5. Control test group
6. Experimental test groups
Term
AKA
Definition
Observation
Using senses to obtain information
Inference
a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning
Hypothesis
Prediction
Testable prediction based on observations. Usually an if/then/because
statement.
Independent
Test variable,
It is the only factor in the experiment that you change/vary for each
Variable
manipulated variable,
experimental test group. You change it to determine if it has an effect on
the cause
the outcome.
Constants
Controls
All other factor in the experiment that you keep exactly the same in each
test group sot that you can make sure that any change in the outcome is
due to the independent variable – which you changed
Dependent
Outcome variable,
It is the measureable/observable outcome/result of changing the
Variable
reaction variable, the
dependent variable
effect
Control test group
The control
This is the only test group where the test factor is either kept under
normal conditions or removed completely
Experimental test
These are the remaining test groups where the test factor is present and
groups
manipulated/changed for each group.
Practice Scenario: A student investigated the effect of
Idenitfy the following:
Answer
aged-grass compost (fertilizer made from decaying plant
material) on the growth of bean plants. She thought that Independent Variable
Age of compost
the compost would provide extra nutrients and make
plants grow faster. Thirty bean seeds were divided into
Dependent variable
Plant height after 14 days
three groups and planted in different flats (boxes). All
Constants
Compost: type, amount - Seed:
seeds germinated after 12 days and were allowed to
type, age
grow for five days. The flats were ach given the same
Water: time, amount, type – Light:
amount of water and the same amount of light. Flat A
intensity, amount, time –
was then fertilized with 3-month old compost; Flat B was
Humidity: amount - Temperature
given 6-month old compost; and Flat C was given no
Control group
Test group without compost
compost. At the end of 14 days the height of each plant
was measured in centimeters.
Experimental groups
Test groups with compost
Investigation type
Practice Scenario 2 : A student
investigated the effect of pH on a
pepsin enzyme. She placed the
enzyme in a neutral solution and
recorded the enzyme activity as she
gradually increased the pH. Then,
placed the same enzymes in a neutral
solution and recorded the enzyme
activity as she gradually decreaseing
the pH.
Comparative
Identify the following:
Answer
Investigation Type
Experimental
Independent V.
pH
Dependent V.
Enzyme activity
Constants
Enzyme: type, amount –Temperature-Starting pHamount of liquid
When enzyme is in a neutral pH
Control Group
Experimental Group
When pH is increased and decreased
5
4
3
2
1
0
Trial 1
Trial 2
Reaction Rate (seconds)
Plant Height
EQ: How is experimental data visually displayed?
Empirical Data
Individual pieces of information that is measured, collected, reported, analyzed, and visually
displayed.
Types of Data
1. Qualitative
Descriptions that include include sight, sound, touch, and smell. Qualitative data
can vary from person to person.
2. Quantitative
There is no variation in quantitative data. Characteristic that can be measured or
counted.
Graph
Mathematical structures that model relationships between objects (independent and dependent
variables).
Graph Axis
X – axis
It is the horizontal line (left/right). It usually represents the independent
variable.
Y – axis
It is the vertical line (up/down). It represents the dependent variable.
Types of Graphs
1. Bar graph
Used to display comparable data
2. Line graph
Used to show causation
Practice: What type of graph would you use to display this data?
1 The effects of temperature on reaction rate.
Line graph
2 The effectiveness of various laundry detergents.
Bar graph
3 Does light color affect the amount of moths attracted to it?
Bar graph
4 Does the amount of time affect distance traveled?
Line graph
Practice: Interpret this data
Trial 3
Pete's Plant Grower
Miracle Grow
Magic Plants
No Fertilizer
The effects of temperature on
reaction rate of an Alka Seltzer
tablet.
400
200
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 120
o
Temperature
C1
Series
Question
Answer
Question
Answer
1 What is the independent
variable?
2 What is the dependent
variable?
3 What is the control group?
Fertilizer type
1
Investigation type
Experimental
Plant height
2
Independent variable?
Temperature
3
Dependent variable?
Reaction Rate
4 What are the experiemtnal
groups?
Plants that do not
receive fertilizer
Plants that received
fertilizer
4
Control?
5 How many times was this
experiment repeated?
6 Investigation type
Repeated 2 = total of
3 times
comparative
5
Experimental groups
6
Based on the data displayed in the graph,
what inference can be made be made about
the relationship between the temperature
and reaction rate?
If the reaction rate time decreased, was it
faster or slower?
Normal conditins =
Room temperature
= 70o
Higher and lower
temperatures
Increasing the
temperature
decreases the
reaction rate.
Faster=less time
7
EQ: What happens when a hypothesis is repeatedly supported?
Term
phenomenon
natural
phenomenon
Scientific Fact
Hypothesis
Scientific Law
Definition
An event that takes place. Things that appear or are experienced. Not all phenomenon are
understood.
is an observable event which is not man-made
an impartial and verifiable observation
Testable prediction for a narrow phenomena
It is a univeral and unatlerable statement of what will naturally occur under specific conditions. It is
based on numerous facts.
Usually a mathematical equation.
Well supported description
Scientific Theory
An unifying explanantion on why various laws, facts, on the other hand, are broad explanations for
a wide range of phenomena.
They are concise (i.e., generally don't have a long list of exceptions and special rules), coherent,
systematic, predictive, and broadly applicable reflect broad understandings of a particular part of
the natural world.
The most POWERFUL explanation science has to offer.
Continuous investigations and new information influence theories
LIKE APPLES AND ORANGES – ONE CANNOT BECOME THE OTHER – A LAW WILL NEVER BECOME A THEORY – A THEORY
WILL NEVER BECOME A LAW
Both Laws and
Are
1. Supported by a large body of
Theories
empirical data.
2. Widely supported by scientific
community
3. Can evole with new data
4. Explain two differeint things (Law:
What will happen under specific
conditions. Theory: Why it will
happen.)
5. One can never become the other.
Practice: identify as a fact, hypothesis, law, or theory.
Correct Answer
1 Based on research performed by Edwin Hubble, Georges Lemaitre and Albert Einstein, among others,
Theory
2
the Big Bang _____ explains how the universe began almost 14 billion years ago with a massive
expansion event.
Hubble not only proved that there were other galaxies besides the Milky Way, he also discovered that
these galaxies were zipping away from our own, a motion he called recession. In order to quantify the
velocity of this galactic movement, Hubble proposed Hubble's ____ of Cosmic Expansion, an
equation that states: velocity = H0 ×distance. Velocity represents the galaxy's recessional
velocity; H0 is the Hubble constant, or parameter that indicates the rate at which the universe is
expanding; and distance is the galaxy's distance from the one with which it's being compared.
Law
3
Kepler's three _____ of planetary motion -- formed in the early 17th century -- describe how planets
orbit the sun. The first, sometimes called the _____ of orbits, states that planets orbit the sun
elliptically. The second, the ______ of areas, states that a line connecting a planet to the sun covers an
equal area over equal periods of time. In other words, if you're measuring the area created by drawing a
line from the Earth to the sun and tracking the Earth's movement over 30 days, the area will be the
same no matter where the Earth is in its orbit when measurements begin. The third one, the law of
periods, allows us to establish a clear relationship between a planet's orbital period and its distance
from the sun
Laws
4
We may take it for granted now, but more than 300 years ago Sir Isaac Newton proposed a
revolutionary idea: that any two objects, no matter their mass, exert gravitational force toward one
another. This ____is represented by an equation that many high schoolers encounter in physics class. It
goes as follows:
Law
5
F = G × [(m1m2)/r²]
F = G × [(m1m2)/r²]
F is the gravitational force between the two objects, measured in Newtons. M1 and m2 are the masses
of the two objects, while r is the distance between them. G is the gravitational constant, a number
currently calculated to be 6.672 × 10-11 N m² kg-2
According to most scientists, all life on Earth has a common ancestor. But in order to produce the
immense amount of difference among all living organisms, certain ones had to evolve into distinct
species.
In a basic sense, this differentiation occurred through evolution, through descent with modification
[source: UCMP].Populations of organisms developed different traits, through mechanisms such as
mutation. Those with traits that were more beneficial to survival such as, a frog whose brown coloring
allows it to be camouflaged in a swamp, were naturally selected for survival; hence the term natural
selection.
Theory
6
If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be
increased.
Hypothesis
7
If there is a relation between the wave length of light and the photosynthesis rate, then light of
different colors will cause the plant to make different amounts of oxygen.
Hypothesis
8 Sugar dissolves in water.
9 The planets orbit the sun.
1 Gravity pulls objects together.
0
EQ: What is biology? (Chapter 1)
Term
Break Down
Biology
Bio = Life
Logy = study of
Organism
Ism = state of being
Unicellular
Uni=one
Multicellular
Multi=many
Cell
Cell = Latin for little room
Species
Offspring
Biodiversity
Biosphere
Bio = life
Diversity = different
Bio=life
Fact
Fact
Fact
Explanation
The scientific study of all organisms
An individual living thing. May be unicellular or multicellular
Composed of one cell
Composed of may cells
The basic unit of life
Organisms that recognize each other, interbreed naturally, and
produce fertile offspring
An organisms decedents
The variety (# of different life forms) in a given area
Everywhere life exists
Sphere = 3 dimensional round space
Practice Questions
1
Is there greater biodiversity in a rainforest or a desert?
2
What is the smallest living thing?
3
Are you unicellular or multicellular?
4
There are two populations of snakes that look identical. They eat the same food and
live in the same type of environment. One lives in Texas and one lives in Florida. Are
they the same species?
5.
Are panthers and tigers the same species?
6.
What are all living things composed of?
7.
What is an organism?
8.
Is a single bacteria cell living?
9.
Are your skin cells or bone cells living?
Answers
Rainforest
Cell
Multicellular
No
No
Cells
A living individual
Yes- it’s an organism
Yes
10.
Are your skin cells or bone cells an organism?
No. They help make the
tissue that makes the
organs that make the
organism.
EQ: What are the unifying themes of biology? (Chapter 1)
Themes
Concepts (idea models) that come up time after time
1
Organization of Systems
Small systems work together to create larger systems
Organizational Level
Explanation
Examples
Atom
Smallest unit of an element that still maintains the Hydrogen,
properties of that element
Oxygen,
Carbon
Molecule
Atoms combine to form molecules which have
entirely different properties than the atoms which
they contain.
Organelle
Organs inside of the cell – cell structures
Cell
Cells are the smallest functioning unit of life. All
cells are surrounded by a cell membrane. Some
cells are surrounded by an additional cell wall. In
multicellular organisms, cells often perform
specialized functions.
Groups of cells with similar function working
together to perform a new function.
Muscle cell,
Skin cell,
Nerve cell
Two or more different types of tissues that work
together to perform a specific task.
Heart, Lung,
Brain, Liver,
Stomach
Tissue
Organ
Organ System A group of organs that work together to perform a
specific task.
Organism
The living individual that results from several
organ systems working together.
Water,
Carbohydrat
es, Lipids,
Proteins,
Amino
Acids, DNA
Golgi body
Nucleus
Mitochondri
a
Chloroplast
Muscle,
Skin,
Connective
Tissue
Digestive
system,
Respiratory
System,
Nervous
System,
Cardiovascul
ar System
Human,
Tree,
Cockroach,
Grass
2
Homeostasis
Homo = same
Stasis = stay
3
Evolution
4
DNA (Hereditable
Information)
5
Interdependence
Explains unity
of life
Explains
Diversity of
life
Individual organisms have hereditable information (DNA) that can be passed to
their offspring during reproduction which is the biological process by which new
individuals organisms (offspring) are produced from their parents.
Inter=betwee All organisms are mutually dependent on each other
n
Depend=rely
on
All organisms get larger (grow) and go through stages (develop)
All living things are composed of one or more cells.
Answers
6
Growth and Development
7
Cells
Questions
1
Organisms have feedback mechanisms that use energy to
regulate biological systems in order to maintain a constant
internal condition when exposed to diverse environments.
When there are slight changes in each generation of a population
of species eventually resulting in a population so different from
the original that it is an entirely different species. It may have
different habits, behaviors, or structures.
2
3
When you step out in the cold and start to shiver to keep warm?
When you drink an excessive amount of water and have to pee a lot to
get rid of the extra water
4 When cells join/work together to perform a specific task.
5 What are the subunits of cells?
6 What level of organization is larger and more complex than an atom but
still smaller and less complex than an organelle?
7 What is the largest level of organization?
8 There are some organisms that are not made up of organ systems, what
are they?
EQ: What characteristics do all organisms share? (Chapter 1)
1
Cell
All living things are composed of one
(unicellular) or more cells
(multicellular).
2
DNA
Hereditable information
3
Energy
4
Respond do stimuli
Energy is the ability to do work. It is
required for all of life’s process.
1. Stimuli
2. Response
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Tissue
Organelles
Molecules
Organism
Unicellular organisms like archaebacteria,
eubacteria, and protist
5
Grow and Develop
6
Reproduce
The biological process by which new individual organisms (offspring) are produced
from their parents.
EQ: How did scientific investigations lead to the development of the cell theory?
Janssen Brothers
First to combined two convex lenses within a tube
HOOKE
Discovered cellular composition of cork
Introduced the word cell
Schleiden
Noticed all plants are made of cells
Brown
Saw and named the nucleus
Leeuwehoek
Saw animal cells in a drop of water
Saw bacteria in saliva
Schwan
Discovered that all animals are made of cells
Schleiden and
Develop first
1. All living things are composed of cells
Schwant
cell theory
2. Cells are the basic units of life
3. Life spontaneous generates
Spontaneous Generation
Life can arise from non-living matter.
Experiments to disprove
Redi
spontaneous Generation
Pastuer
Virchow
Cell Theory
All life comes form life
1. All living things are composed of cells
2. Cells are the basic unit of life
3. New cells come from preexisting cells
EQ: What properties of water make life possible?
Molecular Formula Molecular
Polarity
Shape
Cohesion and Adhesion Surface Tension
Hydrogen Bonding
Less Dense as a solid:
Ice floats
Ice acts an insulation
Life continues to exist
under ice
High specific Heat Capacity
Water can absorb a lot of
heat without getting hot.
Cells and bodies of water
maintain homeostasis
1
2
3
4
5
What property of water allow it to maintain homeostasis during chemical reactions?
High specific heat capacity
What property of water makes it a universal solvent?
Polarity
What property allows individual water molecules to stick together
Hydrogen bonds
What is it called when water molecules stick to each other
Cohesion
What property of water allows certain objects and organisms to float/sit on its surface Surface tension
without breaking through and going under the water?
6 What is it called when water molecules stick to other molecules
Adhesion
7 When you suck soda up a straw, what two properties allow this action to occur?
Cohesion and Adhesion
EQ: What are the main chemical components of life?
Dihydrogen Monoxide
H2O
Almost all chemical reactions require water
Absorbs heat to maintain cellular homoeostasis during chemical
reactions
Polarity (+/-) allow it to dissolve (pull apart) almost everything = universal
solvent
Organic Compounds
Molecules built around carbon
Macromolecules
Micro Micromolecules join together to form macromolecules
=small
Macr
o=
large
Monomers
Mono Building blocks of organic
=One molecules
Come from foods
Polymers
Poly = 1 large macromolecule made up
many of many small molecules
(monomers)
Condensation Reaction
Hydrolysis Reaction
Hydro=
water
Joins two molecules together to form one larger molecule
Using water to break the bond of large molecule is broken down to
Lysis=to
break
Carbohydrate, Nucleic Acid, Protein, and Lipid
Polymer
Function
4 Main Macromolecules
Macromolecule
Monomer
(Building Block)
Carbohydrate
Monosaccharides
1 glucose molecule –
source of all energy
Disaccharides (two)
Polysaccharides
(many)
Long term energy storage in plants (starch)
Receptors
Plant cell wall
Short term energy storage in animals (glycogen)
DNA
RNA
ATP
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotides
Polynucleotide
Amino Acid
Protein
Amino Acid
Polypeptide
Enzymes
Fats oils, waxes,
phospholipids,
steroids
Receptors
Protein Channels in cellular membrane
structure
Membrane structure
Long term energy storage
Insulation
Lipid
None
EQ: How do enzymes work?
Enzyme
A protein that is a catalyst
Lowers activation energy
Function is based on structure
Activation Energy The amount of energy require to start or activate a chemical reaction
Catalyst
A substance that lowers
the amount of energy
required to start a
chemical reaction
Synthesis Syn=Put together
Thesis=Place/put
Degradation De=down/away
Grad=step
Activators
Inhibitors
Four Steps
1 Enzyme and substrate must be in the same area
2 Enzyme grabs specific substrate
3 Catalysis occurs = Substrate is changed
4 Product is released and enzyme returns to normal shape
EQ: What factors affect enzyme activity?
Temperature has two effects on enzymes:
1. It can change the rate of molecular
motion; and
2. It can cause changes in the shape of an
enzyme.
Enzyme-Substrate Concentration the concentration of the substrates,
enzymes and products influences the rates of enzymatic reactions. If the
enzyme concentration increases, the amount of product formed increases in a
specific time; if the enzyme numbers are decreased, the amount of product
formed decreases. If the substrate is present in a low concentration, enzyme
activity will also be impacted. Products cannot be formed until there is enough
substrate and enough enzymes.
pH The number of hydrogen ions dictate whether a pH will be acidic or
basic. The amount of hydrogen ions in an environment is very important in
determining the shapes of protein molecules; too many or too few H ions can
alter the shape of the enzyme. Each enzyme has its own optimum pH where
the substrates will fit; most enzymes work best in a pH at or near 7 (neutral).
Will accept electrons
EQ: What are the different types of cells?
2 Prokaryotic Pro=before
types
Kary=nucleus/kernel
Eukaryotic Eu=True
Kary=nucleus/kernel
Organelles
= little organs
Will donate
eletrons
Cell that lack nucleus and other membrane covered organelles
Cells that have a nucleus and other membrane organelle
Structures in a cell that perform specific
functions
Prokaryotes Unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and
other membrane bound organelles
1 Archeabac Archea=aci Found in
Dead Sea
teria
ent
extreme/har Volcano
sh
Vents
conditions
Hot Springs
where no
Animal Guts
other life
Radio active
can be found Waste
2 Eubacteria Eu=true
Ubiquitous = Desks
found
Bathrooms
everywhere Your Hands
Eukaryotes
Protista
Unicellular or multicellular organism. The cells contain a nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
a collection of single-celled organisms
that do not fit into any other category
One protist may have the characteristic
of a plant, animal, and/or fungus
Gave rise to (origin of ) all other
eukaryotes
Examples: Slime molds, algae, protozoa,
phytoplankton, zooplankton
Unicellular or multicellular
Fungi
Chitin in cell wall
Saprotrophic
Sapro = rotten
Trophic=nourishment
Plant Cell
Structure
DNA
Ribosomes
Mutlicellular
Animal Cell
Autotropic Auto=self
Trophic=nourishment
Cellulose in cell wall
Cells have chloroplast
Cells have large central vacuole
Prokaryote
Eukaryote
Structure
Naked (no
DNA (histones)
Cell membrane
histones)
Circular
Linear
Cell Wall
In cytoplasm
In Nucleus
Mitochondria
Smaller – less
Larger – more complex
Chloroplast
complex
No
Cytoplasm is full of them
Nucleus
Membrane
covered
Organelles
Cell size
Smaller
Reproducti Asexual
on
Cell
Binary fission
division
Cytoskelet No
on
Cellular
Unicellular
Structure
Nucleus
Ribosmes
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER)
Golgi body
Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Lysosome
Peroxisomes
Larger
Asexual or sexual
Large Vacuole
Lysosome
Multicellular
Motile
Lacks cell wall
Heterotrophic
Hetero=different
Trophic=nourishment
Animal
Y
Plant
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
N
Mitosis or meiosis
Yes
Multicellular
Membrane
Double
none
Single
single
single
single
single
Function
Store genetic information
Protein synthesis
a network branching sacs – protein synthesis and protein processing
contains receptors for product of rough ER – protein processing
contains enzymes for synthesizing phospholipids – a network of branching
sacs – lipid synthesis
digestion and recycling
oxidation of fatty acids, ethanol, and hydrogen peroxide
Vacuoles
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Cytoskeleton
single
double
double
None
coloration – storage of oils, carbohydrates, water, or toxins
ATP Production
photosynthesis
Microtubules
microtubules are thick,
structural support
microfilaments
Plasma/cell membrane
Cell wall
Flagellum
Cilium
Nuclear envelope
nucleolus
EQ: What is microscopy?
Electron Microscopy
Single
Selectively permeability to maintain homeostasis
No
Protection and structural support
(Plural: Flagella) flagellum is a whip-like structure that allows a cell to move
(Latin for eyelash; the plural is cilia) slender, microscopic, hair-like structures or
organelles that extend from the surface of nearly all mammalian cell
is a highly regulated membrane barrier that separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells
A small body in the nucleus of a cell that contains protein and RNA and is the site
for the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and for the formation of ribosomal subunits
Scanning Electron
Microscope
Transmission Electron
Microscope
Light Microscopy
strong spirals of
thousands of subunits
long, thin, and stringy
proteins
Compound Light Microscope
Dissecting Microscope
(stereoscopic)
SEM
Electrons are shot at the specimen’s surface –
microscope collects and counts scattered
electrons.
Computer generates image
TEM
TEM seeks to see what is inside or beyond the
surface
Used to see subcellular material – Ribosomes DNA
Electrons pass through the specimen and are
illuminated
Computer generates the image
Light is used
Most commonly used
Used to see microscope cells
Light is used
Used to magnify macroscopic stuff
Body tube
Nose Piece
Objective
Lenses
Stage clips
Diaphragm
Light
source
Eyepiece
Arm
Separates Ocular lens (10X) inside
the eyepiece from objective
lenses
Holds and rotates objective lenses
Low power (4X) – medium power
(10X) and high power (40X)
Holds slide in place during
viewing
Controls the amount of light
allowed to hit the specimen
Provides light
Holds the ocular lens (10X)
Supports nose piece and body
tube & used to carry
Stage
The image seen through the microscope is inverted. The top and
bottom are switched. The left and right are switched.
Coarse
adjustment
Fine
adjustment
Base
If you move the slide in this direction….
The image as seen through the ocular lens moves in this direction
Up
DOWN
Where you place the slide which
contains the specimen
Makes lager changes in focusing
Makes smaller/finer changes in
focusing
Supports microscope
Left Down
Right
Right Up
Left
Total Magnification
Ocular lens power X the power of the
objective lens being used
Low power objective 10 X 4 = 40
Med power objective 10 X 10 = 100
High power objective 10 X 40 = 400
Questions
Answers
1 Which microscope would you use to see the cells of a Sabal Palm?
Compound
2 Which microscope would you use to see the intricate details of the surface of a
SEM
butterfly’s wing?
3 Which microscope would you use to see the ribosomes inside of a cell?
TEM
4 Which microscope would you use to get a better view of a frogs intestines?
Dissecting
EQ: What does the plasma membrane look like?
What is another
Cellular membrane
name for the
plasma
membrane?
The phospholipid
Lipids
bilayer is formed
by which
macromolecule?
Which
Lipids, carbohydrates,
macromolecules
protein
are present in the
plasma
membrane?
Which
Amino acid
macromolecule is
not found in the
cellular
membrane?
The head of the
lipids in the
phospholipid
bilayer water
loving. What is
the term?
What term
describes the tails
of the lipids in the
phospholipid
bilayer?
EQ: How does cellular transport occur?
Semi-permeable
2 types of
transport
1
Passive
2
Active
Hydrophilic
Philic =
Loving
Hydro=
water
Hydrophobi
c
Hydro=
water
Phobic=
fearing
Semi = half/partly
Allows some substances, not all, to pass
Permeable = allowing to
pass
Substances move across the cellular membrane
Diffusion
without using energy
Types
Movement is down the concentration gradient
Facilitated
diffusion
Osmosis
Energy (ATP) IS required to move a substance across the cellular membrane
Movement is against the concentration gradient
Diffusion
Movement of molecules down a concentration gradient
Facilitated Diffusion Proteins in the membrane help transport molecules across the plasma membrane
Osmosis
The diffusion of water specifically through a cell membrane
Cell drinking: the cell engulfs extracellular fluid, including molecules
2 types 1. Endocytosis 1 Pinocytosis
such as sugars and proteins. Cell membrane surrounds it creating a
of
vacuole.
Cytosis
Cell eating: the cell engulfs debris, bacteria, or other sizable objects.
2 phagocytosis
Cell membrane surrounds it creating a vacuole.
2. Exocytosis
a process in which an intracellular vesicle (membrane bounded sphere) moves to
the plasma membrane and subsequent fusion of the vesicular membrane and
plasma membrane ensues.
Prefix/Suffix
Cyto = cell
Osis = denotes action
Endo = into
Exo = into
Exo = out of
Pino = drink
Phag = eat
EQ: Is osmosis controlled by the cell?
Solution Two substances that are evenly mixed together (sugar and water will mix evenly together). One of them is
called the solute and the other is the solvent.
Solute
Is the substance to be dissolved (sugar)
Solvent
Is the one doing the dissolving (water)
Lyse
a verb referring to the process of lysis
Lysis
Death of a cell by bursting
Water moves readily across cell membranes through special protein-lined channels, and if the total concentration of all
dissolved solutes is not equal on both sides, there will be net movement of water molecules into or out of the cell.
Whether there is net movement of water into or out of the cell and which direction it moves depends on whether the
cell’s environment is isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic
Cells in an isotonic solution
Iso= equal/same
Tonos = stretching
An isotonic solution means that the
total concentration of dissolved
solutes is the same in both the
solution and the cell.
Cells in a hypotonic solution
Hypo=below/under/less
Tonos = stretching
A hypotonic solution contains less
dissolved solutes than the cell. If
concentrations of dissolved solutes are
less outside the cell than inside, the
concentration of water outside is
correspondingly greater.
Cells in a hypertonic solution
Hyper= above/beyond
Tonos = stretching
A hypertonic solution contains a higher
concentration of dissolved solutes
than that of the cell. If concentrations
of dissolved solutes are greater
outside the cell, the concentration of
water outside is correspondingly lower
Solution
55% H2O
45% Glucose
Solution
80% H2O
20% Glucose
Solution
50% H2O
50% Glucose
CELL
55% H2O
45% Glucose
CELL
73% H2O
27% Glucose
CELL
73% H2O
27% Glucose
When cells are in isotonic solution,
movement of water out of the cell is
exactly balanced by movement of
water into the cell. A 0.9% solution
of NaCl (saline) is isotonic to animal
cells. When exposing animal tissues
to solutions, it is common to use an
isotonic solution such as Ringer's
buffered saline so as to prevent
osmotic effects and consequent
damage to cells.
When a cell is exposed to such
hypotonic conditions, there is net water
movement into the cell. Cells without
walls will swell and may burst (lyse) if
excess water is not removed from the
cell. Cells with walls often benefit from
the turgor pressure that develops in
hypotonic environments.
When a cell is exposed to a hypertonic
solution, water inside the cell will flow
outwards to attain equilibrium,
causing the cell to shrink. As cells lose
water, they lose the ability to function
or divide. Hypertonic environments
such as concentrated brines or syrups
have been used since antiquity for
food preservation because microbial
cells that would otherwise cause
spoilage are dehydrated in these very
hypertonic environments and are
unable to function.
EQ: How do new cells arise from existing cells?
Term
Explanation
Cellular Division the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells
There are three different types of cell division.
Somatic Cell
any cell of the body except sperm and Ova cells
Diploid cells
Sex Cell
Sperm and Ova cells
Also known as germ cells
Also called gametes
They are haploid cells
Diploid
They contain two complete (2n) sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent.
Haploid
They contain half (n) of the number of chromosomes (genetic material) that is in the diploid cell
Ova
Egg cell – female gamete
Parent cell
A cell that is the source of other cells
a cell that divides to produce two or more daughter cells,
Daughter cell
The new cells resulting from cellular division
Gametes
Sex cells - sperm and ova
Apo= by, from, of, since, than
process of programmed cell death
Apoptosis
Tosis = fall
Plasmid
is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can
replicate independently. They are most commonly found in bacteria as small, circular, double-stranded
DNA molecules
Binary
fission
reproduction of prokaryotic cells
DNA is replicated once
Cell grows larger
splits into two identical daughter cells
No nuclear division
mitosis
The division of the somatic cells of eukaryotic organisms
Nuclear division occurs
DNA replicated once
Cell grows larger
Cell divides once
meiosis
Produces two genetically identical daughter cells
1 diploid 2n cell produces 2 new diploid cells
the type of cell division that reduces the number of
chromosomes in order to produce gametes in sexually
reproducing organisms
Nuclear division occurs
DNA Replicated once
Cell grows larger
Cell divides twice
Produces four genetically diverse daughter cells
1 diploid 2n cell produces 2 diverse haploid (n) cells
Reduction in DNA
Go
G1
Dormancy phase= Cell is resting
Interphase
G2
Second Cell Growth
Duplication of organelles
Cell Growth
Duplication of Organelles
Prep DNA
G1/S
S
Cell commits to divide or die
Centrosome replication started
a normal cell will stop and go into apoptosis if cancer
DNA replication/synthesized
Many cancer drugs act here to destroy DNA
M
Prepare cell division
Cell checks DNA replication is successful
Cell checks chromosome segregation is
successful
Replication of centrosomes complete
Chromosomes drawn apart
Nuclear division
Cellular division
Cancer drugs can freeze the cell at this stage
causing the cell to enter apoptosis
If not, a normal cell will enter apoptosis
EQ: What is cancer?
Cancer
abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body
Also known as a malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm
vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary (not passed in germ line)
Sex cells (sperm and egg)
Germ line
Cancer that is not passed along in the germ line (not hereditary)
Sporadic
absence of a specific predisposing mutation in cells
Cancer
A vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary
Hereditary
Cancer
Tumor
Malignant
Benign
Neoplasm
Metastasis
Mutation in germ line will predispose you to the chance of developing cancer – doesn’t mean you will get
it
genetic background – besides specific mutation - may influence the likelihood of cancer
a swelling of a part of the body, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue,
whether benign or malignant.
very infectious
not harmful in effect, not malignant
an abnormal growth of tissue
is the spread of a cancer or other disease from one organ or part to another not directly connected with
it
EQ: What is cancer?
Cancer
abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body
Also known as a malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm
vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary (not passed in germ line)
Sex cells (sperm and egg)
Germ line
EQ: How do organisms get energy?
Reactant
a substance that changes in a chemical reaction
Product
the substances that are formed during the chemical change
ATP
is considered to be the 'energy currency' of cells.
Photosynthesis
Using light energy to converting carbon dioxide,
water into glucose and oxygen
Uses oxygen to convert and food (glucose) into
Aerobic Cellular
cellular energy (ATP) and carbon dioxide.
Respiration
Results in higher production of energy
Anaerobic respiration
(fermentation)
Written on the left side of the equation
Written on the right side of the equation
6CO2 + 6H20 + Light E
C6H12O6 + 6O2
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -------------------> 6CO2 +
6H2O + ~38 ATP
mainly in eukaryotic cells (mitochondria)
Oxygen is not present (or used – yeast)
Doesn’t reach final stage in mitochondria therefore produces less ATP
Results in ATP and ethyl alcohol
in yeast and plants
Results in lactic acid in animals
Glucose
Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
C6H12O6
Glucose
C6H12O6
2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy
Lactic acid + Energy
2C3H6O3 + 120 kJ/mol
Cellular Respiration in Animals
SC.912.L.14.7 Relate the structure of each of the major plant organs and tissues to physiological process.
Photosynthesis 2 H2O + CO2 + light energy --> carbohydrate (CH2O) + O2 + H2O
Transpiration
Technically defined as the loss of a plant's water to its environment through evaporation.
Four Basic Parts of Plants
Roots
Root plays a vital role in absorbing water and minerals. They are also involved in the storage of food, anchor the plant
and also propagate some plants.
Stem
Stem plays a vital role in transportation of materials, which includes- Water and minerals from roots to leaves and
manufactured food from leaves to roots. They are also involved in the storage of food and support leaves and
reproductive structures.
Leaves
Leaves plays a vital role in photosynthesis. They are also involved in food storage and helps in plants respiration. They
are also called as site of gas exchange
Flowers Flowers plays a vital role in producing fruits and in attracting insects for pollination. They contain the sexual organs for
the plant.
Phloem
Transportation of food and nutrients from leaves to storage organs
and growing parts of plant.
Xylem
Transportation of water and mineral from roots to other parts of
the plant.
Root hairs
Absorbent hair, the rhizoid - greatly increases the surface area of
the root.
Root cap
Section of tissue at the tip of a plant root. It is also called
calyptra. Root caps contain statocytes which are involved in gravity
perception in plants
Meristematic Undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the
Tissue
plant where growth can take place - give rise to various organs of
the plant and keep the plant growing.
Stomata
Leaf Structure
Guard
cells
Stomata
Vascular
tissue
Vascular
Tissue
Xylem
Phloem
Surrounding each stomata are two guard cells,
which regulate the opening and closing of
stomata to facilitate gas exchange for
photosynthesis and control transpiration in
plants.
the plant's pores, which are found on the
leaves,
Plants do not like losing water, but it is a
necessary trade-off because the stomata allow
gases to exchange during photosynthesis.
Similar to the sweat glands on your skin, plants
have openings on their leaves that allow water
to escape, called stomata (singular: stoma).
Stomata are usually found on the underside of a
leaf to reduce excess water loss,
The primary components of vascular tissue are
the xylem and phloem. These two tissues
transport fluid and nutrients internally.
Function
Movement
Flows
Distributes
Made of…
Transportation of water and
mineral from roots to other parts of the
plant. Forms vascular bundles with
phloem and gives mechanical strength to
plant due to presence of lignified cells.
Transportation of food and nutrients
from leaves to storage organs and
growing parts of plant.
Forms vascular bundles with xylem.
unidirectional
up
water and minerals taken
up by the roots; also the
primary component of
wood
Dead cells at
maturity
bidirectional
Up and
down
sugars and nutrients
manufactured in the shoot
Living cells at
maturity
Stamen
Sperm
The stamen (plural stamina or stamens) is the pollen-producing
reproductive organ of a flower: a slender filament supporting the
anther
The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports a
long style, topped by a stigma. and the mature ovule is a seed
The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are
produced.
Male gamete (germ cell/sex cell)
Egg
Female gamete (germ cell/sex cell)
Sepal
Outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that enclose a
developing bud.
Supports the anther
Pistil
Ovary
Filament
Anther
Style
Stigma
petal
receptacle
Pedicel
Fruit
seed
The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
The style leads down from the stigma to the ovary
The sticky surface at the top of the pistil; it traps and holds the
pollen.
Parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored to attract
pollinators. It is usually the reason why we buy and enjoy flowers.
The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are
attached.
The stalk of a flower.
The mature ovary is a fruit, a fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from
specific tissues of the flower, one or more ovaries, and in some cases accessory tissues.
Fruits are the means by which these plants disseminate seeds
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering known as the seed
coat.
The vascular
cambium
Dermal
tissue
Ground
tissue
(Plural cambia) located between the xylem and the phloem in the
stem and root of a vascular plant-the source xylem growth and
phloem growth (outwards [to the bark, rough or smooth, of the
plant]).
The epidermis – the tissue that covers the plant like a skin and gives
off a waxy substance to keep moisture inside the plant
Support system – stores food – produce materials