MENTORING FOR EARLY
CHILDHOOD TEACHERS
RESEARCH REPORT 2012
Prepared for:
Department of Education and Early Childhood Development
Prepared by:
Assoc Prof Andrea Nolan*
Dr Anne-Marie Morrissey^
Dr Iris Dumenden*
*Victoria University
^Deakin University
December 2012
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
2|P a g e
MENTORING RESEARCH REPORT
DECEMBER 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1 Aim .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Background ................................................................................................................ 5
2.
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE ................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Overview and the BES Method ........................................................................................ 6
2.2 What is Mentoring? ...................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Conceptual concerns, issues and tensions in mentoring ...................................................... 10
2.4 Summaries of Research Evidence.................................................................................. 12
3.
EXPLORING MENTORING WITHIN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD FIELD IN VICTORIA: INDIVIDUAL
INITIATIVES ................................................................................................................................................. 26
3.1
Methodology ............................................................................................................ 26
3.2 Summarising the initiatives ........................................................................................... 27
4.
WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ....................................................................................................................... 33
5.
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 36
6.
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................................. 39
Appendix A: Empirical research on mentoring in the Early Childhood Contexts
Appendix B: Empirical research on mentoring in Schools
Appendix C: Empirical research on E-mentoring
FIGURES
Figure 1: Beaunea’s model of teachers’ perspectives of influences on mentoring relationships (2009, p. 99)…..Pg. 17
Figure 2: French’s (2004) conceptualisation of the purposes of narratives in e-mentoring exchanges………....Pg. 25
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
3|P a g e
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This Mentoring for Early Childhood Teachers Research Report 2012 grew out of the brief to explore the current
mentoring capacity of the early childhood sector with a view to developing future mentoring arrangements for new
to the profession or professionally isolated early childhood teachers. The report provides commentary on the
current availability of mentoring opportunities for early childhood teachers in Victoria, including mentoring offered
through kindergarten cluster management and other local networks. Therefore existing mentoring programs for
early childhood teachers across the state of Victoria were mapped, and the characteristics of these mentoring
initiatives noted. Interviews were conducted with representatives of the initiatives and related documents were
sourced in order to build up a detailed understanding of each program. Working across the nine DEECD regions
(Barwon South Western Region, Eastern Metropolitan region, Hume Region, Gippsland Region, Grampians
Region, Loddon Mallee Region, Northern Metropolitan Region, Southern Metropolitan Region, and Western
Metropolitan region) every effort was made to track mentoring initiatives, however, due to the unresponsiveness
of some program representatives, local government officials and DEECD regional staff, not all regions are included
in this report. However, most types of mentoring opportunities available within the state have been covered by
more than one example each – from the large purpose-designed fully-funded program, to experienced teachers
paid a few hours a week for their mentoring time, to free peer-to-peer mentoring within network groups. It must be
noted that this report is dominated by the voices of managers, course coordinators and trainers. There was limited
opportunity to involve the mentees themselves; however their views were incorporated where possible. Managers,
trainers, and co-ordinators who were interviewed for this report were always asked for the names of mentees who
could be approached to be interviewed. No names were ever forthcoming despite numerous attempts. It should
be noted that some of the interviewees relayed feedback from the new graduates / mentees, in particular, on how
having a mentor had benefited them.
Alongside the mapping process, an extensive literature review was conducted using a Best Evidence Synthesis
(BES) method. Having a dedicated Research Officer assigned to the Professional Mentoring Program for Early
Childhood Teachers project, meant that a comprehensive review of all relevant literature could be undertaken
ensuring the evidence highlighted was current, extensive and representative. This review summarised the research
evidence under the categories of:



Mentoring in the Early Childhood contexts;
Mentoring in Schools;
E-mentoring (also referred to as telementoring or online mentoring).
Considering both the current state of mentoring in Victoria and the findings from the research literature, a number
of indicators arise for mentoring programs to be successful. These relate to the value placed on mentoring and the
role of the mentor, whether there is support and training for mentors, the availability of resources, the divisions
between mentoring and other management functions, tailoring mentoring so that each individual receives a
mentoring program that is unique to their professional needs, and the need for formal evaluations to take place
which can inform the future success of programs.
Research shows that effective mentoring reduces teacher attrition and enhances outcomes for children. We could
regard teachers’ professional lives as moving along a mentoring continuum, from being mentored as a pre-service
and graduating teacher, to eventually becoming experienced mentor teachers themselves. Identifying the changing
mentoring needs and roles of teachers, and providing resources to support them through these career stages, may
be a profitable investment.
With infrastructure such as funding and resources being a major determinant of future programs we hope that this
report can provide information which will help inform further decisions about the ‘shape’ of mentoring in the early
childhood sector in the years to come.
Associate Professor Andrea Nolan and Dr Anne-Marie Morrissey
December 2012
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
4|P a g e
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Aim
The brief of the research component of the Professional Mentoring Program for Early Childhood Teachers was to
explore the current mentoring initiatives on offer to early childhood teachers as a way of determining the capacity
of the sector. This was needed to inform the thinking around future mentoring arrangements for early childhood
teachers joining the profession, or those teachers who were professionally isolated.
1.2
Background
This report presents an exploration of mentoring, mentoring models and evaluates the capacity of the early
childhood sector to support mentoring of early childhood teachers. Included in the report is the investigation of the
mentoring model used by VIT for provisionally registered teachers and other models currently employed by cluster
managers and local governments.
Findings from a previous project which involved a review of the literature surrounding effective professional learning
models for supporting early career early childhood teachers (Mayer & Nolan, 2008) informed the early stages of
this work. Mayer and Nolan’s (2008) work highlighted supportive models of professional learning implemented both
nationally and internationally and the important role mentoring played within successful models. This work provided
the stimulus for a more focused and updated literature review and also provided the background to a more localised
study of mentoring models currently being implemented across Victoria. The research mapped programs that were
currently on offer to kindergarten teachers across the state providing information about program design, delivery
and content. The DEECD, whilst not holding information relating to the availability of alternative mentoring
programs, did have anecdotal information that these mentoring initiatives did exist in varying forms across regions.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
5|P a g e
2.
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
By Dr Iris Dumenden
2.1
Overview and the BES Method
LITERATURE REVIEW USING A BEST EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS METHOD
Research Question:
How best to create an effective, sustainable mentoring program for Early Childhood teachers in Victoria?
OVERVIEW
This Literature Review starts with an explanation of the Best Evidence Synthesis (BES) method. This is followed
by a review of the term ‘mentoring’ – its meaning in general and in the educational context in particular. This is
then followed by a review of conceptualisations of ‘the good mentor’. Finally, a summary of research evidence is
provided for each of the following:



Mentoring in the Early Childhood contexts;
Mentoring in Schools;
E-mentoring (also referred to as telementoring or online mentoring).
Details of the studies included in the summaries can be found in the Appendices.
INTRODUCTION
Research synthesis for the social sciences
The evidence-based research synthesis method originated from the biomedical sciences, in which there are easily
quantifiable outcomes. But there are those who argue for its use in the social sciences, where outcomes are not
so easily quantifiable, noting that a systematic review in the social sciences is
…simply a way of accessing research knowledge; in this sense it is a piece of research in its own
right. Systematic reviews synthesise the results of primary research, use explicit and transparent
methods, and are accountable, replicable and updateable” (Oakley, 2002, p. 280).
Oakley’s review of three initiatives in the UK on the conduct of systematic research, or what she calls
‘evidence-based everything’ (p. 284) led her to conclude that evidence-based research synthesis in the
social sciences represents a ‘paradigm shift in thinking about the relationship between academic research
and real world policy and practice’ (p. 284). In particular, she noted that research synthesis work in
education suggests the possibility of developing ‘collaborative, democratic and systematic structures for
reviewing research evidence, which will help to open up the traditionally rather esoteric world of educational
research to public scrutiny’ (p. 284).
The Best Evidence Synthesis (BES) method
The research synthesis method used in this literature review is the Best Evidence Synthesis (BES) method.
According to Boaz, Ashby and Young (2002: 4-6), a BES method consists of the following seven features:
1. Use of protocols to guide the process: the protocol specifies the plan by which the reviewer will identify,
appraise and collect evidence.
2. Focus is on answering a specific question or questions.
3. Aim to identify as much of the relevant research as possible.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
6|P a g e
4. Appraise the quality of the research included in the review using inclusion/exclusion criteria set out in the
protocol/plan.
5. Synthesise the research findings of the studies included using meta-analysis (for quantitative studies) or
narrative analysis (for qualitative analysis). A narrative analysis looks at the similarities and differences
between studies and their outcomes.
6. Aim to be as objective as possible to remove bias.
7. Update the review in order to remain relevant.
A modified BES approach
A modified BES method (Mitchell & Cubey, 2003) has been used to review the literature on mentoring. This
modified BES method consists of the following elements:
1. A plan by which to identify, appraise and collect evidence: Published research findings regarding the mentoring
of new teachers have been collected and appraised – both in the context of Early Childhood education and
(because of the paucity of literature on mentoring in the Early Childhood context) in education in general.
2. A specific question which will be answered: The literature has been reviewed to specifically answer the
question: “How best to create an effective, sustainable mentoring program for Early Childhood teachers in
Victoria?”
3. Identification of as much of the relevant research as is possible: A comprehensive search of the available
literature from 2000-2012 was conducted, particularly for research papers published in peer-reviewed journals
devoted to Early Childhood, Teacher Education, and Mentoring topics/issues.
4. Appraisal of the quality of research using inclusion/exclusion criteria: The following criteria were used in
appraising published research papers:
 Mentoring context
 Overview of research evidence
 Promising practices
 Principles/components that can inform the development of effective mentoring programs
 A decision on whether to include the article in the synthesis.
These criteria are the basis of the columns in each of the Appendices, each of which lists the studies reviewed.
Through this systematic listing of studies reviewed, the review has been made explicit and transparent, and
accountable, replicable and updateable (Oakley, 2002).
5. Synthesis of research findings: The majority of the empirical research on mentoring in the educational context
are small scale and qualitative in nature; therefore, narrative analysis has been used to synthesise research
findings.
2.2
What is Mentoring?
The term ‘mentoring’ can be traced back to Greek mythology and the Homeric legend wherein Odysseus entrusted
his infant son, Telemachus, to the care of Mentor, an old friend, and Athene, the goddess of wisdom. In Odysseus’
absence, Mentor and Athene were to prepare Telemachus to become the next king. This reference to Greek
mythology foregrounds the attributes of advice, care and wisdom necessary in the fulfilment of the role of mentor
(Colley, 2002; Whitehead, 1995). In its modern use, ‘mentoring’ is a term used to describe the activities of qualified
and experienced practitioners involved in the professional development of students and newly-qualified or newlyrecruited personnel through on-the-job training or support (Whitehead, 1995). In this modern sense, mentoring is
used widely and in many different contexts.
A definition of mentoring
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
7|P a g e
In an effort to arrive at a consensus on the concept of ‘mentoring’, Roberts (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of
mentoring research and debate covering the period 1978-1999 across several disciplines. As a result of this effort,
he offers the following synthesis:

A definition of mentoring:
Mentoring is a ‘formalised process whereby a more knowledgeable and experienced person actuates a
supportive role of overseeing and encouraging reflection and learning within a less experienced and
knowledgeable person, so as to facilitate that person’s career and development’ (p. 162).

Mentoring, as a phenomenon, has the following essential attributes (Roberts defines ‘essential attributes’
as attributes that cannot be removed without removing the very nature of mentoring):
o A process
o A supportive relationship
o A helping process
o A teaching-learning process
o A reflective process
o A career development process
o A formalised process
o A role constructed by or for a mentor.

The contingent attributes (those which mentoring can do without but still be called ‘mentoring’) are:
o Coaching
o Sponsoring
o Role modelling
o Assessing
o An informal process.

The following processes make up the ‘mentoring process’:
o Establishing rapport (initiation)
o Direction setting (getting established)
o Progress making (development)
o Moving on (finalising/maintenance).

Finally, these are the ‘phases of mentoring’:
o Prescriptive
o Persuasive
o Collaborative
o Confirmative.
Note that Roberts conceptualises mentoring as a ‘process’ – a formalised process, an informal process, a helping
process, and a career-development process – and not as a ‘structure’.
A definition of the ‘good mentor’
Witte and Wolf (2003, p. 97) defines a ‘good mentor’ as
…an individual being effective in different interpersonal contexts, committed to the role of mentoring,
skilled at providing instructional support, and a model of the continuous learner. Additionally, a good
mentor also enhances various forms of interactions and student perceptions as these constructs
specifically relate to the educational experiences of the learning community members.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
8|P a g e
Using his experience helping school districts design mentor-based, entry-year programs, Rowley (1999) identified
what he calls six basic but essential qualities of a good mentor. He also noted the implications that these qualities
have for mentor-based entry-year programs for new teachers and for mentor training for experienced teachers.
These six qualities include:
1. The good mentor is committed to the role of mentoring – the good mentor is committed to helping beginning
teachers find success and gratification in their new work; they show up for and stay on the job; they understand
that persistence is important in mentoring; commitment flows from a resolute belief that mentors are capable
of having a significant and positive impact on another person’s life; this belief is founded in the knowledge that
mentoring is challenging and requires significant investments of time and energy.
Implication: To increase the odds that mentors are committed to the role, formal mentor training is required.
Committing to undergoing training weeds out those who are not committed to the role, as well as providing
specific roles and responsibilities associated with being a mentor. The training would also require the mentor
to maintain logs or journals of mentor-mentee activities. Finally, mentors must be compensated for their work
(such as a stipend, release from extra duties, and extra opportunities for professional development):
compensation makes a statement about the importance of the mentoring work being done.
2. The good mentor is accepting of the beginning teacher – an important element of a mentoring relationship is
empathy, that is, accepting a person without making judgments and temporarily setting aside personal beliefs
and values. The good mentor accepts that the beginning teacher is a developing person and professional.
Implication: A training program for mentors needs to engage prospective mentors in reflecting on the qualities
of effective helpers by reading the works of Carl Rogers (1958) and Combs, Avila and Purkey (1971). The
training should also include: understanding the problems and concerns of beginning teachers, theories on
adult development, revisiting mentors’ own first years of teaching.
3. The good mentor is skilled at providing instructional support – that is, mentors need to provide coaching in
improving instructional design and delivery (this is equivalent to coaching to improve a tennis serve or golf
swing, i.e., specific instructions to improve performance).
Implication: The mentor training program should equip mentors with the knowledge, skills and dispositions
necessary for effective coaching, such as: the value of description over interpretation.
4. The good mentor is effective in different interpersonal contexts – that is, good mentor teachers recognize that
each mentoring relationship occurs in a unique, interpersonal context. This requires mentors to have a deep
understanding of their own communication styles and to be willing to objectively observe the behaviour of the
mentee.
Implication: A mentor training program that asks mentors to complete and reflect on self-inventories of their
leadership and supervisory styles.
5. The good mentor is a model of a continuous learner – good mentors are open to learning from colleagues,
including beginning teachers.
Implication: Give mentors extra opportunities for professional development and support to attend professional
conferences related to their work.
6. The good mentor communicates hope and optimism – mentors should have the ability to communicate a belief
that a person is capable of transcending present challenges and accomplishing great things in the future –
that is, the human potential of their mentees.
Implication: Mentor training programs should make sure that they recruit veteran teachers who have not yet
lost their positive outlook.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
9|P a g e
The benefits of mentoring
The literature on mentoring often discuss the reciprocal benefits to both novice teachers and mentors: mentoring
supports new professionals while revitalising experienced teachers’ reflective practice, professional development
and the capacity to impact the educational system (Buysse et al, 2003; Boyer & Lee, 2001; McCormick & Brennan,
2001; Moir & Gless, 2001).
Katz (1977) noted that teachers of young children experience different stages of professional development.
Beginning teachers are in survival mode, focused on day-to-day survival in the classroom and often experiencing
anxiety about their ability to meet classroom challenges and realities. This survival stage may last the first whole
year of teaching, during which they need support, understanding, encouragement, comfort and guidance. On the
other hand, experienced teachers experience a stage of renewal or maturity, during which time they are confident
in their skills, and become more reflective and interested in widening the scope of their professional knowledge
and skills. Experienced teachers can benefit from opportunities to network with peers and examine issues and
problems in the early childhood classroom and field. Thus, a mentoring program would be a suitable framework
through which supportive relationships between beginning and experienced teaches could form and ultimately
enhance their professional work and improve early childhood practice (Pavia et al, 2003).
Holloway (2001) also notes that experienced teachers benefit from mentoring beginning teachers because they
(experienced teachers) believe mentoring allows them to help others, improve themselves, receive respect,
develop collegiality, and profit from novice teachers’ fresh ideas and energy. That is, the benefits of mentoring are
both career-related and psychosocial. Holloway also proposes, as Rowley (1999) does, that in order to be effective
mentors, prospective mentors need to undergo training that includes: professional development about the
mentoring process, understanding what is expected of them as mentors, support, and opportunities to discuss
ideas, problems and solutions with other mentors.
Mentoring can also play a part in the socialisation process for beginning teachers. Da Ros and Swick (1995) noted
that the initiation of people new to teaching occurred without much thought or preparation. They argued that the
socialisation of beginning teachers should be planned, with the neophyte being supported towards increasing
competence, and the experienced staff supported in utilising the new staff as sources of strength and enrichment
in the classroom. Their case study of a teaching assistant’s socialisation into a preschool environment confirmed
the need for five teacher socialisation processes: (1) the development and use of planned, continued professional
growth strategies, (2) the development and support of meaningful mentoring programs, (3) the use of affective
support that allows new teachers to build confidence and competence, (4) the use of personal narratives to
increase understanding of self and self-other dynamics typical in classrooms and schools, and (5) the use of
reflection strategies to engage teachers in individual and collaborative assessments of their teaching.
2.3
Conceptual concerns, issues and tensions in mentoring
This section is a review of literature reviews on mentoring. It provides a sense of the changing trends in mentoring
within the educational field: from the move from a competency model of mentoring to a reflective model of
mentoring; a questioning of the value of conceptualising mentoring on the myth of the good mentor based on
Homer’s Odyssey; and the re-conceptualisation of the mentor as a single person to a network composed of multiple
networking partners.
The influence of cultural trends on models of mentoring
In the mid-1990s, Whitehead (1995) reviewed the literature on the use of mentoring in educational contexts, after
government initiatives in England and Wales started mandating the involvement of practising teachers in the initial
training of student teachers. Her review noted that, alongside mandates from the government, cultural trends,
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
10 | P a g e
such as postmodernism, had reconfigured initial teacher training and brought mentoring into being.
Postmodernism brought a decline in the dominance of intellectuals and accorded equal status to practising
teachers through their increased involvement in the training of students. It also brought the liberating potential of
pluralism and through mentors, greater democratisation (p. 130).
Whitehead noted a consensus on the knowledge and skills mentors need to support and challenge students – that
is, that mentors should be able to examine and share the basis of their professional knowledge, while helping
students to reflect and examine the principles informing their own developing practice. This pointed towards a
reflective model of mentoring, which was seen as complementing the apprenticeship and competency models (the
practical, technicist, ‘master teacher’ concept of mentoring). The reflective model of mentoring reconceptualised
the work of teachers-as-mentors as a form of intellectual labour, with teachers critically questioning their pedagogy,
as well as the nature of society and schooling that inform it. Whitehead concluded that as mentoring develops and
evolves, the differences between the intentions of those who initiate/mandate mentoring as a requirement within
schools (that is, government/policy makers) and those whose practices give it meaning (teachers) will emerge
within the context of cultural trends.
The myth versus the reality
By the early 2000s, Colley (2002) noted that mentoring had become the ‘in thing’ – a favoured policy initiative in
many countries, including Britain and North America, both as an element of professional development and in
addressing social inclusion. As a professional development tool, mentoring has direct relevance to teacher
education. As a tool for addressing social exclusion, it meant that teachers needed to liaise with mentors allocated
to their students. Despite its popularity, Colley noted that mentoring is weakly conceptualised. She thus set about
a review of the literature on mentoring in order to deconstruct it from its mythical and overwhelmingly favourable
and celebratory conceptions.
According to Colley, the literature on mentoring from the late 1970s to 1980s tended to define mentoring in terms
of the functions of the mentor, often using the figure of Mentor or the goddess Athene from Homer’s Odyssey as a
rhetorical representation of ‘the good mentor’ - a wise and kindly elder, a surrogate parent, a trusted adviser, an
educator and guide. The mentor is nurturing, supporting, protecting, role modelling, and possessing a visionary
perception of his mentee’s true potential. As well, the role demands integrity, personal investment, with the
relationship between mentor and mentee as based on deep mutual affection and respect. Based on the goddess
Athene, the role has a ‘specialness’ – an inspirational character, selfless, caring, self-sacrificing, a commitment
beyond ‘the call of duty’, a role ‘above and beyond’ (p. 260). However, Colley is critical of this uncritical view of
mentoring. She notes that the notion of a kindly and self-sacrificing mentor is a modern creation, in actual contrast
to the brutality portrayed in the Odyssey, and warns that ‘myths are commonly used to legitimate and secure
consensus for dominant discourses…Myths deny the influence of context upon meaning, and conflate form and
substance, as they represent historical phenomena as natural, and their contingent appearance as an eternal and
immutable essence’ (p. 261).
Colley argues that conceptualisations of mentoring based on the myth of Mentor or the goddess Athene (who
would sometimes disguise herself as Mentor) are hierarchical, directive and paternalistic, based on models of male
development, even when applied to all female dyads. Colley therefore urges a feminist Marxist perspective on
mentoring to counter this mythical view. This perspective, Colley points out, allows us to see that the increasing
institutionalisation of mentoring is transforming a traditionally dyadic relationship into a triad, with dominant
groupings (such as the government) inserting an invisible yet powerful agenda into the practice of mentoring, such
as, for example, mentors becoming gatekeepers to the profession through policy prescriptions about teaching
practices deemed acceptable or necessary for entry into the profession (p. 263). In this way, mentoring becomes
a form of social control, where the aim is to fit mentees into society as it exists, rather than to equip them with a
critical understanding of society and the means by which they may seek to change it (p. 268). The notion of a selfPUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
11 | P a g e
sacrificing mentor is also exploitative of mentors, with an ‘enslaving essence’ that is pervasive and deeply
oppressive to those in the teaching profession, particularly for women (p. 269). In conclusion, Colley argues that
current implementations of mentoring work against both mentor and mentee. She notes that mentoring within
initial teacher education needs further investigation; she exhorts us to challenge ‘the easy currency which the term
[mentoring] has gained in such contexts of professional development…[w]e need to know about the specific
contexts of mentoring for student teachers, and about the ways in which mentors and mentees construct their
roles’ (p. 270).
From single mentor to mentoring networks
A review of published literature on mentoring in the higher education context by Sorcinelli and Yun (2007) showed
the emergence of a new model of mentoring. They noted that the traditional, one-to-one, top-down mentoring
model where a single person was expected to possess the necessary expertise to help the protégé or mentee was
being replaced by model that encourages a broader, more flexible network of support. The earlier model of a
single, seasoned mentor was no longer realistic in the new complex academic environment. This precipitated the
emergence of the latter model, in which early-career faculty members ‘build robust networks by engaging multiple
“mentoring partners” in non-hierarchical, collaborative, cross-cultural partnerships to address specific areas of
faculty activity, such as research, teaching, working towards tenure, and striking a balance between work and life’
(p. 58). This form of mentoring is a reciprocal partnership, benefiting both mentors and mentees. Janasz and
Sullivan (2004, cited in Sorcinelli & Yun, 2007) call this the ‘multi-mentor network model’, while van Emmerik (2004,
cited in Sorcinelli & Yun, 2007) calls it a ‘mentoring constellation’. However, van Emmerik notes that multiple
mentoring contacts do not replace the traditional single mentor, but should be in addition to that core mentoring
relationship. For example, Wasburn (2007, cited in Sorcinelli & Yun, 2007), describes an ambitious mentoring
program for female faculty at Purdue University based on ‘strategic collaboration’ – that is, a hybrid of the traditional
grooming and emerging network models.
In their review, Sorcinelli and Yun cited the various ways that the multi-mentor network model may be implemented,
through:

a series of workshops and forums (Akerlind & Quinlan, 2001),

the creation of peer communities (Angelique, Kyle & Taylor, 2002)

peer-mentoring groups (Smith et al, 2001; Jacelon et al, 2003)

a year-long mentoring program involving mentoring across career stages (Pierce, 2001)

mentoring panels and workshops at conferences of professional associations (Hardwick, 2005)

a year-long seminar for incoming tenure-track faculty that is facilitated by second- and third-year faculty and
‘brokered’ by senior faculty (Reder et al, 2006).
2.4
Summaries of Research Evidence
There are three summaries included in this literature review:
1.
Mentoring in Early Childhood Contexts;
2.
Mentoring in Schools;
3.
E-mentoring (also called online mentoring or telementoring).
Each summary is based on information contained in the Appendices. The table in Appendix 1 contains the details
of empirical research on Mentoring in Early Childhood Contexts that were published from 2000 to 2012 (presented
in chronological order). The column headings of the table reflect the appraisal criteria explained earlier in the
section 2.1: A modified BES approach. The summary or synthesis is presented in narrative format. The other two
summaries have been produced using the same methodology.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
12 | P a g e
Summary 1: Mentoring in Early Childhood Contexts
Twelve studies are included in this synthesis, as reported in 12 journal articles and one doctoral dissertation. They
are all small-scale, with the number of participants ranging from n=1 to 78. The study with just one participant is
a single case study of a mentor (Ryan & Hornbeck, 2004). The study with 78 participants was an interview-based
study of early childhood centre directors who mentored their staff into pursuing higher education qualifications.
The rest of the studies were conducted with both mentors and mentees as participants. Three studies in particular
(Cassady et al, 2003; Puig & Recchia, 2008; Uttley & Horn, 2008) pointed out that their participants were all female,
as is typical in the field. The following sub-sections summarise the lessons learnt from these studies.
Principles/components for a successful mentoring program
The principles/components of a mentoring program that can inform the development of an effective mentoring
program in the early childhood context include:

Orientation meeting for mentors and mentees – to explain and establish the goals of the program, define
the roles of mentors and mentees, and manage the expectations of both mentors and mentees (Pavia et
al, 2003; Gallagher et al, 2011a, 2011b)

Mentor training – mentoring is a set of skills that need to be learnt and experienced practitioners are not
necessarily ready or skilled to help someone else develop professionally; therefore some programs
provided direct training to mentors (Stanulis & Russell, 2000; Pavia et al, 2003) or mentors were enrolled
in a university course on mentoring or leadership (Uttley & Horm, 2008)

Mentor support – either a mentor group or a Mentor Coordinator; this acknowledges mentors’ need for
mentoring and support during the mentoring process (Stanulis & Russell, 2000)

Planned meetings – of both mentors and mentees together, of mentors only, and of mentees only:
o mentors saw a mentors-only meeting as a forum for an exchange of ideas (Pavia et al, 2003)
o the mentees saw the mentees-only meeting as an opportunity to discuss and share their
concerns regarding working with children (Pavia et al, 2003)
o collaborative dialogue sessions enabled discussion of beliefs, ideals, and the role of the teacher
(Elliott, 2004)

Planned visits to each other’s centres/workplace (Pavia et al, 2003)

Time for the mentoring relationship to flourish, which includes:
o Contact time for mentor and mentee to get together
o Time to build a relationship in order to build trust between mentor and mentee (Stanulis &
Russell, 2000)
o Funding for time release to allow time for the mentoring to happen (Pavia et al, 2003)

The concept of ‘mutual mentoring’ where there is collaboration between university-based and school/centrebased participants in the process of mentoring (Stanulis & Russell, 2000)

Individual meetings with mentors at the end of the program to gain feedback (Stanulis & Russell, 2000)

Pairing of mentors and mentees should take into account geographical proximity so as to allow for the
development of successful relationships

Goals should be established by both mentors and mentees to provide direction and purpose

A third party may provide the necessary link between mentor and mentee in order to facilitate the
development of the mentoring relationship (Pavia et al, 2003)
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
13 | P a g e

Each mentoring relationship is unique, therefore, mentoring programs should allow for individualised
mentoring in order to accommodate each participant’s developmental needs (Pavia et al, 2003)

Team teaching, reflective practice and an action-research project provided for collaborative dialogue,
reflection, and the importance of theory (Elliott, 2004)

The availability of full-time, onsite mentors (that is, mentors freed from their own classroom responsibilities)
available to provide support to the beginning teacher in ‘real time’ enables a beginning teacher to go from
novice to ‘more expert’ in just one year (Davis & Higdon, 2008)

Mentor-apprentice model of mentoring – collaborative teaching resulted in higher levels of satisfaction for
both mentors and mentees particularly when they worked in the same classroom and worked with the sameage children (Uttley & Horm, 2008)

Financial recognition of the mentors’ work through reimbursement of expenses – also seen as a recognition
of the mentors’ service (Gallagher et al, 2011a, 2011b).

For the mentoring of newly-hired teachers by veteran teachers in the same centre (Beaunae, 2009), the
mentoring program included:
o a tour of the buildings
o introductions to all staff
o review of employee handbook, accident/incident report procedures, parent handbook, the
centre’s philosophy and mission statements
o mentee shadows the mentor for a few hours
o regularly scheduled meetings between mentor and mentee
o mentor to be available to answer questions and concerns
o mentor to make the new employee welcomed and valued
o mentor to act as advocate or advisor for mentee when mentee is faced with challenges in the
classroom, with the children, and other teachers.
Problems to watch out for
The studies also include information on problems to watch out for when establishing a mentoring program in an
early childhood setting:

Mentor-mentee matching: pre-arranged pairing may be problematic due to incompatibilities in
responsibilities, life stages, personalities, working experiences, type of service/program, socio-economic
status of families and children (Pavia et al, 2003)

Forced or pre-arranged pairing of individuals does not always work: the pairing of individuals in such a close
relationship requires expertise (Pavia et al, 2003). Pavia et al also suggested that a group meeting prior to
the mentoring happening should allow for a more natural pairing

Finding the time for mentor and mentee to meet: trying to find a mutually available time to meet or observe
each other’s classrooms was a challenge for mentors and mentees, who still had ongoing responsibilities
in their own workplaces (Gallagher et al 2011a, 2011b)

Mentees felt pressured to ‘perform’ (Gallagher et al, 2011a, 2011b), or to have a ‘problem’ for the mentor
to solve (Pavia et al, 2003)

Mentors were cautious about being the ‘know-it-all’ or imposing themselves or their ‘styles’ on mentees
(Pavia et al, 2003)

The name used to designate the mentees became a problem in one study (Pavia et al, 2003): the term
‘protégé’ was resented due to implied unequal roles; mentees, who were experienced teachers, wanted to
be seen as peers with the ability to give support to the mentor as well
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
14 | P a g e

A mentor without the necessary experiential base from which to draw examples and to model changes were
resisted by teachers who had more experience (Ryan & Hornbeck, 2004)

Reform initiatives cannot be handed top-down (from policy makers to teachers) through mentoring
programs: teachers’ perspectives regarding reforms have to be taken into account for them to have
ownership, ‘buy into’, or act on these initiatives (Ryan & Hornbeck, 2004)

Choice versus obligation to participate: the program may suffer when participants do not have an ‘obligation’
to participate consistently and continuously with the program’s elements (Puig & Recchia, 2008)

Costs of program may need to be balanced against participation: when participants are not obliged to
participate in the program, it may result in such a small and/or sporadic participation rate such that it is not
worthwhile to run the program (Puig & Recchia, 2008)

First year teachers are so overwhelmed by their work that despite good intentions and interests, they may
not have the time or energy to participate in mentoring programs. Second and third-year teachers may be
more suitable participants for an obligation-free mentoring program (Puig & Recchia, 2008).
Who were the mentors?
The mentors included:

Experienced teachers (Stanulis & Russell, 2000; Cassady et al, 2003; Elliott, 2004, Beaunea, 2009)

Supervising teachers during placements were re-conceptualised as mentors in the sense of mentors-asguides (Stanulis & Russell, 2000)

Principals (Heung-Ling, 2003)

Curriculum specialists or staff developers (Ryan & Hornbeck, 2004)

Centre Directors (Deustch & Tong, 2011)

University lecturers/supervisors/professors (Puig & Recchia, 2008).
Who were the mentees?
Mentees included:

Student/preservice teachers (Stanulis & Russell, 2000; Heung-Ling, 2003; Cassady et al 2003; Elliott, 2004)

Beginning/apprentice/less experienced teachers (Pavia et al, 2003; Puig & Recchia, 2008; Uttley & Horm,
2008; Beaunea, 2009; Gallagher et al, 2011a, 2011b)

Experienced teachers (Pavia et al 2003; Ryan & Hornbeck, 2004)

Newly-hired teachers (Beaunea, 2009).
Building successful mentoring relationships
Many of the studies reviewed suggested that the essence of a successful mentoring program lies in the mentoring
relationship between mentor and mentee. As such, relationship-building is a critical part of the mentoring process.
Three of the studies reviewed focused on this particular component of the mentoring process (Pavia et al, 2003;
Heung-Ling, 2003; Beaunea, 2009). Some aspects of relationship-building have already been discussed above:
initial orientation meeting, group meetings, planned contact time between paired mentor-mentee, and care in the
pairing up of mentor and mentee. Additionally, Heung-Ling listed the following dimensions of an effective tutoring
relationship: a high comfort level, respect, trust, openness, encouragement, ongoing support, regular
communication, mentor’s expertise, level of commitment and time availability. Heung-Ling noted that these
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
15 | P a g e
dimensions were probably interrelated – for example, the mentor’s level of expertise contributing to the mentee’s
comfort level with his/her mentor.
The most critical element in building a successful mentoring relationship is time. As mentioned, the ‘time’ element
includes: the length of time that the mentoring program is run should allow for trust to be established between a
mentor and mentee so as to build a successful mentoring relationship; contact time between mentor and mentee
should be pre-planned in the program so that the mentor and mentee can get to know each other and build a
relationship; and there should be funding for time release to allow the mentor and mentee some time-off from their
regular duties/responsibilities and thus carve out some space for the mentoring to occur.
Cassady et al (2003) also noted that a successful mentoring relationship depended on both mentors and mentees
having a clear understanding of the role of the mentor. This meant that there had to be a clear definition of roles
and responsibilities, which should be established early on during the mentoring program.
Beaunea’s (2009) doctoral research project focused on theorising the interpersonal relationships between mentors
and mentees. She noted that mentoring relationships were focused on and strongly influenced by four aspects of
the early childhood environment: physical, professional, social and emotional environments, and weakly influenced
by the personal characteristics of participants. Her diagram in Figure 1 below, (taken from Beaunea, 2009, p. 99)
illustrates the details of what is included in each of these environments and their relationships to each other.
Gallagher et al’s (2011a, 2011b) study used mentoring as an ‘intervention’ to combat shortage and high turnover
rates of early childhood teachers. Their study emphasised building a trusting relationship with the mentee through
ongoing support for the mentee during an entire year. To facilitate this type of mentoring, the researchers matched
mentors and mentees based on classroom geographic proximity (also suggested by Pavia et al, 2003) and
professional compatibility.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
16 | P a g e
Figure 1: Beaunea’s model of teachers’ perspectives of influences on mentoring relationships
(2009, p.99)
Benefits of mentoring
There were benefits to both mentors and mentees in the mentoring process:

Mentoring of beginning teachers helps in teacher retention and alleviate the shortage of qualified early
childhood teachers

Mentoring is a process of socialisation into the field for a beginning teacher

Mentors noted that being a mentor enhanced one’s view of one’s own professional identity (Pavia et al,
2003) and made them realise their own ‘personal faults’; they also mentioned that being able to provide
help, support, listening to and getting to know others, and accomplishing goals as benefits (Gallagher et al
2011a, 2011b)
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
17 | P a g e

Mentees were encouraged to pursue higher education qualifications in order to receive better pay (this
addresses two issues typical of early childhood staff: they are lowly paid and not highly qualified)

Mentees noted the improvement of their classroom environments through new ideas and better methods
as benefits of mentoring (Gallagher et al, 2011a, 2011b)

For mentoring that involved collaboration by mentor and mentee in classroom teaching, there were
improved outcomes for children. This was shown empirically by Gallagher et al (2011a, 2011b) wherein
children in classrooms where their teacher was not mentored showed decline in social functioning towards
the end of the year. Gallagher et al theorised this outcome as suggesting that beginning teachers need
support throughout the year to prevent decline in the classroom environment over the course of the year

Gallagher et al’s study also emphasised the deepening of mentees’ knowledge and conceptual
understanding, promoting a sense of self and purpose, and increasing intentional application of newly
acquired knowledge to teaching skills.
Summary 2: Mentoring in Schools
This summary is based on information contained in Appendix 2, which contains the details of empirical research
on Mentoring in Schools from 2000-2012. The column headings in Appendix 2 reflect the appraisal criteria
explained earlier in section 2.1: A modified BES approach.
Mentoring of new or beginning teachers is a more developed initiative in the school context than it is in the early
childhood context. Thus, there is more focus on the nuances of the mentoring process itself, as well as more
research into what it means to be a successful mentor. This is reflected in the research papers published on the
topic and summarised here.
Most of the studies are small-scale with a few that are single case studies (Feinman-Nemsar, 2001; Orland, 2011;
Certo, 2005a), reflecting a focus on identifying mentor characteristics and strategies that contribute towards a
successful mentoring process. There were two relatively large-scale studies: a study that included 77 novice
teachers and 11 mentors (LoCasale-Crouch, 2012) and one that involved 136 participants using a survey
instrument (Clark & Byrnes, 2012). One interesting paper (Orland-Barak & Rachamin, 2009), which reported on
the use of video for reflective mentoring, is described in more detail in this summary.
It is worth noting that one paper (LoCasale-Crouch, 2012) suggested that, aside from investigating the mentoring
program itself and the mentors, the school’s culture and novice teachers’ strengths and stressors should also be
investigated to determine the effectiveness of mentoring or induction programs.
Principles/components for a successful mentoring program
The principles/components that are necessary in the development of a successful mentoring program include:

Mentor training:
o Feinman-Nemser (2001) noted the importance of mentor training to:
 learn how to support beginning teachers
 learn to be more direct, and
 broaden ideas about teaching children.
o Holloway (2001) proposed that prospective mentors need to undergo training that includes:
 professional development about the mentoring process
 understanding what is expected of them as mentors
 support and opportunities to discuss ideas, problems and solutions with other mentors.
o Mentor training programs should include developing mentor questioning skills and encouraging
reflection in beginning teachers (Certo, 2005b).
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
18 | P a g e

Time:
o
o
o
o
o
Mentoring programs should also include time for beginning teachers to observe their mentors –
i.e., the inclusion of ‘modelling’ as a mentoring activity (Certo, 2005b)
Release time for common planning and for the mentor and mentee to be able to observe each
other’s teaching (Clark & Byrnes, 2012)
Novice teacher spending time with a mentor – the more time spent with a mentor, the better the
outcomes, although the authors caution that it is important to know the ‘what’ that happens during
these interactions, i.e., more work is needed to measure the ‘what’ that occurs between mentors
and mentees (LoCasale-Crouch et al, 2012)
Full-time mentors are able to support their novice teachers better than part-time mentors,
although this may be due to issues of training and support for part-time mentors (LoCasaleCrouch et al, 2012)
Novice teachers who felt supported in their relationship with their mentor reported higher levels
of self-efficacy and reflection (LoCasale-Crouch et al, 2012). This is directly related to mentoring
time and quality of relationship between mentor and mentee. However, the authors caution that
the ‘intensity’ of relationship needs to be looked into further.

Mentor characteristics:
o Mentors must be whole-heartedly motivated (Lindgren, 2005)
o Be a good listener and be encouraging during times when the mentee is experiencing self-doubt
(Clark & Byrnes, 2012)
o Ideally teach the same grade or content as the novice teacher – this relates to the novice
teacher’s positive sense of support and instructional support (LoCasale-Crouch, 2012).

Mentoring activities appreciated by the mentees:
o Mentor discussions that address mentees’ concerns (Lindgren, 2005)
o Mentoring that emphasises educational discussions (Lindgren, 2005)
o Mentor modelling of behaviour, in particular, professional behaviour when communicating with
parents (Clark & Byrnes, 2012)
o Assistance with teaching content and planning units (Clark & Byrnes, 2012)
o Providing a bridge to existing school culture (Clark & Byrnes, 2012)
o Modelling effective techniques of instruction (Clark & Byrnes, 2012).

Mentoring activities noted by mentees as not helpful (Clark & Byrnes, 2012):
o encouragement to self-assess teaching practices; and
o modelling reflective teaching by examining and questioning teaching practices.
Clark and Byrnes (2012) note that the above findings suggest that novice teachers may find emotional
support and direct information and assistance more useful than engaging in reflective conversations with
their mentors about practices. This probably reflects the fact that teachers are in ‘survival mode’ during their
first year, and their most immediate need is to be socialised into the profession.

Aims of the mentoring program must be clearly defined – awareness of goals and expectations would
facilitate the mentoring process (Lindgren, 2005).

Mentoring handbook – a mentorship handbook is helpful in guiding the mentoring process in terms of setting
target goals and ongoing evaluation of the progress of the mentoring process (Certo, 2005a).

Mentees must take responsibility for a productive mentorship (Lindgren, 2005).

A facilitator is needed to oversee the mentees’ tutoring experience to ensure there are no communication
problems between mentor and mentee (Lindgren, 2005).

Support from administrators of mentoring programs to ensure that the necessary resources are available
to support the mentoring process – for example, providing release time for common planning and for the
mentor and mentee to be able to observe each other’s teaching (Clark & Byrnes, 2012).
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
19 | P a g e
Analysing successful mentors
Some of the research papers reviewed were single case studies of particularly successful mentors (FeinmanNemser, 2001; Orland, 2001; Certo, 2005a) that helped the researchers develop an understanding of what it is to
be a good mentor. These studies are detailed below.
Feinman-Nemser (2001) followed one particularly ‘thoughtful’ mentor for two years while he mentored beginning
teachers in Michigan, USA. She wanted to understand the ‘insides’ of mentoring by this particular mentor, so as
to understand the influence of mentoring on novices and their teaching. She also wanted to develop and
understand mentoring as an educational practice – what she calls ‘educative mentoring’ (Feinman-Nemser, 1998),
which builds on Dewey’s concept of educative experiences. Educative experiences are experiences that promote
future growth and lead to richer subsequent experiences (Dewey, 1988). She notes that the promise of educative
mentoring lies, not in easing novices’ entry into teaching, but in helping them confront difficult problems of practice
and using teaching as a site for learning.
In following one particularly thoughtful mentor for two years, Feinman-Nemser sought to document an example of
what is possible, rather than what is probable. These are her findings:

The mentor can be conceptualised as a ‘co-thinker’ rather than the expert. By engaging novice teachers in
‘productive consultations’, the mentor gets to know what beginning teachers think about an issue.

The mentor is an ‘educational companion’. The mentor offers personal support and professional
perspectives to novices, which are tailored to the novices’ individual needs and purposes.

Strategies used by successful mentors include:
o Finding openings – finding fruitful topics salient to the novice, which can lead to discussions
about basic issues that all teachers should be thinking about
o Pinpointing problems – based on the notion that problems are constructed rather than given,
problems must be pinpointed and identified, rather than vaguely constructed
o Noticing signs of growth – mentors should notice and give specific feedback regarding individual
accomplishments, and unique strengths and needs of the novice teacher, rather than giving
general praise
o Focusing on the children – the focus of educative mentoring is on the learning of the children in
the classroom (which, of course, leads to learning by the novice teacher on how to teach to learn)
o Reinforcing understanding of theory
o Giving living examples of one person’s way of teaching, and
o Modelling ‘wondering’ about teaching.
Orland (2001) also followed one mentor in Israel as she went about her mentoring tasks. The study was meant to
shed light on the process of learning to mentor as it develops over time – that is, to understand the character,
process and consequences of mentoring from the perspective of the mentor and in relation to their occupational
contexts. In her study, Orland concluded that the transition of an experienced teacher into a mentor of teachers
was similar to the developmental stages of a novice teacher.
In Orland’s study, the mentor, of Anglo-Saxon background, was mentor to 14 teachers of English as a Foreign
Language; the mentees were all from a Russian background. The mentoring program became an intervention
project geared towards introducing experienced immigrant teachers into the school system in Israel, in the use of
communicative approaches to teaching English, in working collaboratively with peers, and on reflecting on their
practice. Orland’s participant mentor used the notion of ‘reading a mentoring situation’ as an organising metaphor
to describe the forms and meanings of ‘learning to mentor’. Orland analysed ‘reading a mentoring situation’ as
entailing the following five themes:
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
20 | P a g e

transferring the mentor’s assumptions as a teacher to the mentoring context

comparing different mentoring contexts

analysing how systemic conditions affect mentoring

developing awareness of how the mentor’s own educational views influences her mentoring agenda, and

analysing how interpersonal, organisational and professional aspects of the mentoring context operate
integratively.
Certo (2005a) also conducted a single case study by following one mentoring dyad – both second-grade teachers
in an urban elementary school in Virginia, USA. Certo’s aim in conducting the case study was for teacher-mentors
to learn from this case study on how to be a mentor, and for teacher-educators, policy-makers, administrators and
prospective mentors to become aware of the tremendous amount of time, energy and requisite skills that are
required to become a ‘quality mentor’.
Certo’s analysis noted that a mentor’s activities could be divided into three types: supportive, challenging, and
two-way/reciprocal (each party learning and taking ideas from each other), as detailed below:

Supportive activities included:
o checking in (e.g., asking at the end of the day, “How was your day?”)
o listening
o reassuring
o providing information – e.g., nuances of curriculum and instruction, explanations of rules,
expectations and procedures, and system-wide policies
o providing structure – e.g., managing workload and paperwork, and
o mentor sharing instructional resources and supplies with mentee.

Challenging activities include:
o planning together
o developing assessments
o inviting experimentation
o providing insight and feedback, and
o questioning / encouraging reflection.

‘Two-way street’ (reciprocal learning) activities included:
o mentoring contributes to the mentor’s own professional development
o reduces feelings of isolation for the mentor
o triggers reflection of the mentor’s own practice, and
o mentor also learns from the protégé.
Reflective mentoring using video
One interesting study (Orland-Barak & Rachamin, 2009) used two levels of video-taping to examine the mentoring
process:

Video-taping of the mentee while teaching – used for reflection during the mentoring session; and

Video-taping of the mentoring session – used to prompt the mentor to reflect on her mentoring practices.
The study drew from the literature on reflection, mentoring, and the use of video in an action-research project, to
examine the forms and meaning that reflection on learning takes through the use of different forms of reflection. It
also took advantage of video as presenting a mode of ‘delayed reflection’ with an opportunity for detachment from
the immediate experience, which allowed for a deeper analysis and reflection.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
21 | P a g e
From their study, Orland-Barak and Rachamin conclude that:

Reflective mentoring allows the mentee to shape her own process of mentored learning (i.e., it empowered
the mentee to shape her own learning)

Reflective mentoring means combining guidance with facilitation

Reflective mentoring extends the mentors’ cycle of learning

Reflective learning allowed for reciprocal learning

There are reciprocal connections between learning to teach and learning to mentor (a double loop)

Video can be used as a reflective tool that allowed for new angles of observation into learning to teach and
learning to mentor, and

Video allows for critical self-examination.
Summary 3: E-Mentoring
This summary is based on information contained in Appendix 3, which contains the details of empirical research
on e-mentoring from 2000-2012. The column headings in the Appendix reflect the appraisal criteria explained
earlier in section 2.1: A modified BES approach.
E-mentoring is also called online mentoring or telementoring in the literature. This review will use the term ementoring because it suggests a more inclusive form of mentoring that includes emails and other electronic-based
forms of communication, as opposed to online mentoring, which suggests website-based synchronous
communication, and telementoring which suggests video-conferencing. As Kealy and Mullen foretold in 2003:
The distant mentors of tomorrow will not only need to pioneer original ways of defining and expressing the roles of
“mentor” and “protégé”, they will also need to devise imaginative ways to encourage peer collaboration (Kealy &
Mullen, 2003, p. 8).
A review of the literature on formal/structured e-mentoring programs by Single and Single (2005) noted that ementoring could ‘level the playing field’ by providing mentoring to those who would otherwise not be able to receive
mentoring. On the other hand, they noted that e-mentoring was not a panacea, nor an inexpensive version of faceto-face mentoring. They advise that e-mentoring should only be provided when face-to-face mentoring is not
available, feasible or appropriate. Their review of available research also showed that, similarly to face-to-face
mentoring, e-mentoring succeeded only when there were adequate programmatic supports to facilitate the
establishment and maintenance of the mentoring process.
Single and Single (2005) also noted that e-mentoring can be thought of as an alternative mode of mentoring that
facilitates the expansion of mentoring opportunities, particularly to those who are left out of informal networks.
Their findings suggest that the benefits of e-mentoring are the same as that of face-to-face mentoring, which are:
informational, psychosocial and instrumental. In addition, e-mentoring offers benefits that are not necessarily
facilitated in face-to-face mentoring, such as: impartiality and the fostering of inter-organisational connections
through electronic communications. Finally, unlike face-to-face mentoring, e-mentoring does not need to rely on
traditional mentoring models: e-mentoring models include communal or group e-mentoring.
Presented below is a synthesis of research findings. The final subsection specifically looks at a doctoral research
project (French, 2004), which looked at the nature of mentoring in an online context. It provides an insider
perspective of the processes involved in e-mentoring and is thus worthy of a lengthy discussion of its findings.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
22 | P a g e
Principles/components for a successful e-mentoring program
The principles/components that are necessary in the development of a successful e-mentoring program include:

Ready access to technology (Single & Single 2005) and technical support (Kealy & Mullen, 2003)

Technology that supports individual learning (Kealy & Mullen, 2003)

Face-to-face orientation prior to the start of the e-mentoring process (Boyer, 2003; Phillon, 2003; Cassady
et al, 2003) – face-to-face meetings are crucial to establishing a sense of community and facilitating virtual
interactions (Phillon, 2003)

Occasional face-to-face meetings (Boyer, 2003); early and regular meetings (Cassady et al, 2003)

Individual contracts and clear roles to reduce anxiety (Boyer, 2003)

Training (Single & Single, 2005), instruction and practice on the use of technology (Phillon, 2003); training
that is mandatory (rather than optional) increases involvement, satisfaction and benefits (Kasprisin et al,
2003)

E-training (that is, training provided in an online environment) that is focused on:
o identification of potential benefits and outcomes
o alignment of program goals with participant expectations
o establishment of expectation and parameter of mentor-protégé relationship
(Kasprisin et al, 2003)

A need to be able to ‘measure’ involvement, through:
o Number of emails exchanged between mentor and protégé
o Level of comfort and satisfaction on aspects of the e-mentoring experience
o How the mentoring experience affected the protégés
(Kasprisin et al, 2003)

Participant characteristics for effective involvement in e-mentoring:
o willingness of participants
o access to and ability to utilise equipment and resource
o positive attitude of conversation as a community of learners
(Price & Chen, 2003)

Mentors assigned to mentees based on geographical proximity to allow for geographically-based gatherings
for networking purposes and working with peers (Cassady et al, 2003)

Online mentors should seek to foster the same democratic environment as in face-to-face mentoring – that
is, to take the initial lead, then hand over to their protégés while providing support (Kealy & Mullen, 2003,
p. 10)

Email-based models, rather than online conferencing or online forums: email allowed students to get more
direct advice and for tutors to respond more quickly (Hawkridge, 2003)

Moderator or facilitator – required, particularly for peer-mentoring models (Hawkridge, 2002), and to direct
discussion and frame the learning (Boyer, 2003); and to facilitate communication (French, 2004)

Use of videos or two-way video conferencing allowed for ‘technologically-mediated observations of distant
classrooms’ or ‘virtual field experience’ that made it possible for (1) mentors to observe novice teachers
while teaching and give feedback (Phillon, 2003; French, 2004), and (2) novice teachers to observe
experienced teachers teaching (Phillon, 2003).
Problems to watch out for
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
23 | P a g e
Other than problems already covered in the section ‘Mentoring in Early Childhood Contexts’, there are problems
that are unique to e-mentoring, such as:

The immediacy of feedback possible via internet, email and e-chat raises unrealistic expectations for rapid
feedback. As well, electronic availability of the mentor outside of the academic environment encourages a
demand for counseling on matters outside of academic/professional development concerns. Thus,
technology means that ‘mentoring roles have become intensified and redefined’ (Kealy & Mullen, 2003, p.
9).

E-mentoring is not a substitute for face-to-face/traditional forms of mentoring. As noted above, e-mentoring
is not a panacea, nor an inexpensive version of face-to-face mentoring, and should only be provided when
face-to-face mentoring is not available, feasible or appropriate (Single & Single, 2005). Dyadic mentoring
is still necessary/useful, as students need to have mentors who know them well enough to advocate for
them and write detailed letters of recommendation (Packard, 2003).

E-mentoring can succeed only when there were adequate programmatic supports to facilitate establishment
and maintenance of the mentoring process (Single & Single, 2005).
Benefits of e-mentoring
E-mentoring provides the same forms of benefits as face-to-face mentoring, such as information, psychosocial and
instrumental benefits. In addition, e-mentoring may provide the following benefits:

‘Near instant contact’ is possible and contributes to, and is valuable in, the ‘caring and managing’ of mentees
(Hawkridge, 2003)

Preservice teachers who may not have exposure to diverse student populations due to the physical distance
of such schools, are able to be mentored through ‘virtual field experience’ providing them with access to
these diverse student cohorts (Phillon, 2003)

Flexible contact time, flexible location, and availability of resources for different needs (Price & Chen, 2003)

May reach a cohort who would not normally participate in formal face-to-face mentoring (Cassady et al,
2003; Single & Single, 2005),

E-mentoring does not need to rely on traditional mentoring models; e-mentoring includes communal or
group mentoring (Single & Single, 2005).
The nature of the mentoring process in an online context
French (2004) conducted a doctoral research project that looked specifically at the process of mentoring in an
online context. Her research question was ‘What is the nature of the mentoring process in an online context?’ For
her study, French examined a program that offered graduates of a university teacher preparation program access
to a mentor through a facilitated private email list. French analysed the email exchanges of six ‘teams’ (dyads) of
which she was facilitator, over the course of one semester. Her study aims were to (1) examine the process of
meaning-making as manifested in the online talk of mentor-mentee pairs; and (2) explore mentoring as a joint
activity in which participants constructed shared meaning. Her findings are presented below.
French noted the following characteristics of e-mentoring (or online mentoring, as she prefers to call it):

Asynchronous communication solved the problem of face-to-face mentoring in finding a mutually suitable
time

Informal speech discourses were used in a text-based medium (email)
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
24 | P a g e

E-mentoring allowed mentors time to formulate and reflect; yet the time between responses was minimised

Electronic conversational narratives were characterised by their flexible, fluid and purposive nature – these
worked because the mentor and mentee shared a body of knowledge (as teachers, and from previous email
conversations)

Online mentoring supports the statement-to-statement (or moment-to-moment) reflective process on issues
that teachers think are important.
French noted that teachers discussed many of the same issues as identified in face-to-face mentoring (such as
classroom management techniques, behaviour of students as a group, teaching materials, current and future
teaching assignments), but focused much of their talk on storytelling – that is, much of the problems they posed
were told as ‘stories’. Although the storytelling was text-based, the structure was not formal (as in traditional written
discourse) but in more informal conversational forms. These narratives (or stories) were fluid and reflected the
purposes they served, which included:

Relating
o Phatic – building and strengthening the interpersonal relationship between mentor and mentee
(‘social talk’).
o Grounding – grounding the communication between mentor and mentee, affirming common
understandings which assist in building a shared set of knowledge.

Illustrating

Venting

Reflecting.
Figure 2 shows a diagram of French’s conceptualisation of these electronic narratives (French, 2004, p.111):
Figure 2: French’s (2004) conceptualisation of the purposes of narratives in e-mentoring exchanges
French analysed exchanges, which could be very short or could go on for months, and derived the following typical
sequence of exchanges between mentor and mentee:

A teacher (often the mentee) telling a problem in the form of a story

Mentee and mentor examining one or more of the aspects of the problem posed in the story

In the case of a mentee posing a reflective statement at the end of the story, the mentor extending the
reflection, shifting back and forth between different aspects of issues.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
25 | P a g e
French was able to distinguish reflective narratives from the non-reflective narratives which include illustrating,
venting, relating (as shown in Figure 2) because of the couplet (narrative + reflective statement at the end). The
ending reflective statement was meant as a ‘reflective bid’ to the mentor, who would then respond with a reflective
response. Thus reflection was a collaborative process. French noticed that reflective exchanges were almost
exclusively initiated by the protégés and grounded in the problems they were facing. However, she noted that not
much critical reflection occurred during e-mentoring, which led her to conclude that e-mentoring is not a suitable
context for this type of reflection. Critical reflection calls for questioning of the underlying assumptions (for example,
the received / perceived goals and practices of one’s profession) on why the problem being discussed is considered
a problem at all. French concluded that e-mentoring is good for pragmatic (practical) support with day-to-day
problems during the ‘survival years’ of the novice teacher, and could improve practice, but it is not the context for
deep (critical) reflection on underlying assumptions (theories) regarding practice.
Finally, French suggests the following components for an e-mentoring program:

Shared understanding or shared knowledge base is needed for coherent communication – this must be
preceded by introductions

There is a need for facilitators within the program to help and encourage participants to continue
communicating with each other, especially after a length of time has elapsed between exchanges

If distance is the motive for using e-mentoring, then video could be added to allow mentors to observe the
novice teacher and provide feedback (which is not possible in a totally text-based mentoring context).
3.
EXPLORING MENTORING WITHIN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD FIELD IN
VICTORIA: INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVES
The focus of this section of the report is on the information gained from field work undertaken to uncover and
map the mentoring initiatives currently in operation across Victoria.
3.1
Methodology
In order to map the mentoring initiatives across the state of Victoria, regional DEECD staff were contacted to assist
in the identification of these programs. Leads were then followed up via phone and/or email contact and an
appointment was made for an interview. Interviews were conducted over the phone or face-to-face, and in some
cases as far away as Bendigo. Interviews often led to the identification of further contacts and programs which
were also included in the data collection phase. Early childhood student teachers at both Victoria University and
Deakin University were asked whether they knew of any programs which they may have come across when on
placements in children’s services. Mentees and Mentors attending the Professional Mentoring Program for Early
Childhood Teachers (run by Victoria University and Deakin University) were also asked for any leads, and any
relevant information that was written on their application forms for the program was followed up. Members of the
Mentoring Project Team also fed in information of possible contacts or contacted their networks for further
information.
Any information publicly available was accessed to provide as detailed a picture as possible of each initiative.
Unfortunately, access to some reports/materials was restricted due to confidentiality requirements, and some
documents that were to be made publicly available did not eventuate.
Overall, of the nine DEECD regions only two were not forthcoming with information, despite numerous attempts to
make contact. However, it was felt that with the dearth of information collected on mentoring initiatives in all other
regions, it would be sufficient and representative across the state.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
26 | P a g e
3.2
Summarising the initiatives
The mentoring initiatives currently in operation across Victoria vary in many aspects such as the number and makeup of members, aims and expectations, purpose, infrastructure, program features, procedures, perceived benefits,
and the factors impeding the reach or longevity of each. Some initiatives are geographically located close to
members, whilst others are located in only one place across the state. This section of the report will summarise
these aspects. It is however worth noting here that of the programs discussed, only three were specifically geared
towards new graduate teachers.
Aims
For the three programs initiated for new to the profession early childhood teachers, two held the aim of better
equipping these new teachers, assisting them to acquire the necessary skills to manage kindergarten services
effectively. These two initiatives saw themselves as being able to further enhance the skills and knowledge that
the teachers had developed during their training, taking a more focused approach to helping them understand the
complexities of managing a service. These programmes were designed as complementing what was seen as the
‘theoretical’ knowledge gained from pre-service teacher preparation courses with what one coordinator described
as ‘the actual practical knowledge and the day-to-day’. According to one coordinator of a program targeting new
teachers, graduates could be expected to have the basic teaching skills in working with children, but struggled with
the challenges of leadership and running a service:
“… Probably, second year in, we realised they [new graduates] were coming in with a significant
shortage in skills in relation to dealing with the complexities of looking after a kindergarten service.
Certainly, their skills and abilities in dealing with the children were quite up to standards, but it’s in
relation to all the additional tasks that are involved – family relationship building, dealing with
committees, and all that sort of stuff [such as] filling out a variety of departmental information,
completing their anticipated data/ confirmed data, transition statements (they knew about them, but
what did they look like, time involved, completing them), the skills in building relationships with the
families to get those statements completed correctly. So, I guess, furthering their knowledge and
understanding as they go, allowing time for effective thinking, generally, the nuts and bolts of looking
after a stand-alone kindergarten service. They come out of university with 4 weeks’ field work in the
last year, versus walking in and having the responsibility of managing the other staff at the service…
… So they’re not only coming out [to the centres/services] as just early education teachers but also
as leaders/ supervisors of other staff – which could be quite challenging especially if an assistant
has been in the service for a significant number of years and has built quite significant relationships
with the community that they’re in and also the other staff members – there can be some issues
involved with that. So, we identified that some of the graduates who were coming to us didn’t have
any idea [about] what’s involved [in running a service].”
The other initiative specially designed for new to the profession or professionally isolated early childhood teachers
was built on increasing early childhood teachers’ access to mentoring relationships which were focused around
pedagogical discussions and developing effective practice.
All other initiatives included either all early childhood teachers in local services, or cross-sectorial membership,
with aims that sought to increase knowledge of working with vulnerable children, support the implementation of the
current changes experienced by the early childhood field, provide professional support, to run a forum where issues
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
27 | P a g e
and topics of interest or concern could be discussed, document effective practice, or to improve outcomes for
children.
Purpose
Reasons for the existence of these groups include the ability to cover what has not been covered during initial
teacher training, to provide mentoring through linking into a network rather than on an individual basis, a way to
support and value staff, to disseminate information, to lift the quality of services and implementation of the VEYLDF
and the NQS, to offer a space where discussion about topical, localized issues can be shared, to trace children
and families across services, to offer personalised support with practice issues such as planning and setting the
environment, and to offer a network where those working across the sector can come together and work towards
better outcomes for children and families. For one group, the reason for its inception was to support work with
vulnerable children, as staff were not engaging with the associated written professional learning materials.
Features of the Initiatives
Three mentoring initiatives had recruitment processes for members but these all related to teachers new to the
early childhood profession. One of these programs was very distinctive as the mentees, once accepted, taught
alongside experienced teachers and did not have their own groups of children to teach. This is more of an
apprenticeship model with the mentees being guaranteed a full teaching position the following year:
“…we want to give them that year of practical, on-the-job foundation. And then following that, the
year after, we can then appoint [them to] a role in a kindergarten, having their own group as such.
But in the mentoring year [first year] they haven’t actually got their own group, they’d be partnering
with another teacher, they’re co-teaching a group. There’s also some scenarios where they float
around our services. So they may have a term at one particular service, and then another term at
another, so they’re getting to see a range of practices and on-the-job skills from quite different
teachers.”
As mentioned previously, some groups had a cross sectorial membership whereas others were restricted to early
childhood teachers only. In fact, five of the fourteen initiatives charted in this report had cross-sectorial
membership. The choice of membership was closely tied to the aims, philosophy and reasons for the group.
All initiatives had either a designated facilitator or someone who drove or championed the program. This varied
from a paid designated position to a task that someone took responsibility for without receiving acknowledgement
in their workload. For all these programs, mentors were recruited by their experience in the early childhood field.
One program did differ to this rule by choosing mentors not on years of experience but by whether or not the person
was deemed an ‘effective communicator’. Some of the initiatives offered support to mentors through meetings or
on-line forums. For one mentor the role of staff appraisal was incorporated into her mentoring role. Only two of the
programs held training for the designated mentors/coaches.
Some type of regular contact was a feature of all mentoring initiatives, however this varied across programs. The
variations included individual phone conversations and emails, contact on demand, while other programs
scheduled contact such as monthly for the life of the initiative.
One mentor described what she saw as the value of email and phone contact:
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
28 | P a g e
“I think the ability to email, [make] phone calls, make sure you’re available – it means that little things
don’t become big things. Even though it might be more ideal if you’re out there more frequently in
the centres, the way the technology works, we can actually keep in contact without actually physically
being there all the time.”
Face-to-face meetings were a popular choice of how these programs operated, with the meetings varying from
one annual meeting, one meeting per term, to meetings every couple of weeks. Some of these meetings had guest
speakers, while others concentrated on airing and addressing issues raised by members. Meeting times were
either set (day or night), or varied so that all members had the opportunity to attend at some time. These meetings
were often facilitated by the mentor or facilitator; however, one group alternated the venues and roles between the
group members.
Site visits to centres also appeared as features of some programs and varied from one annual visit, one per term,
or every 6-8 weeks, and could include observations, modelling practice and behaviours, and/or discussions about
practice and the implementation of the VEYLDF and the NQS. One manager described how it was left to the
mentor’s discretion as to how to best use their allocated time:
“…there are weeks when she won’t have any face-to-face contact with any of the centres, but every
third week, she would use up more than five hours to formally visit one of the centres/services in the
cluster, meet with the kindergarten teachers and other staff, and provide assistance. Each
service/centre is visited at least once a year. Otherwise, the mentor is always available to all staff
by phone, email, or through informal meetings at a mutually agreed time.”
On-line forums were part of some programs, and for one initiative it was the complete mode of contact and
communication. A sample online conversation is included below:
Hey there,
I have a little dilemma.
We have “inherited” a bag of barbies!
I NEVER INTENDED FOR THEM TO BE USED!
However I was a little dismayed when I observed them dumped yes dumped in the middle of a mat and as you
can imagine surrounded by girls - girls only making “beautiful” comments!
now I might need a little help here to articulate my dislike of barbie play to colleagues..on the basis of gender
bias, inclusion etc etc etc!
or do I use it as a teaching tool??
any ideas??
K
I am wondering if you could use an idea from Marie, I saw that she had printed pictures and laminated them of
famous places around the world and in central Australia etc. She took photographs of the children, laminated
them and put them on little pieces of wood, and then encouraged the children to take their friends to exciting
places. I was wondering if the Barbies might like to go camping at Uluru, or diving in the Barrier Reef, or climb
the Eiffel Tower, what would they need to take, passports, plane tickets, Hotels etc. I am wondering if the Barbies
can be partners in some excellent learning.
Love J
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
29 | P a g e
Hi J,
Quick question. I wanted to know if anyone could recommend a certain brand of clay. I use clay all the time but
as I have some children creating more detailed sculptures, I need clay that won't fall apart when for example a
child adds a trunk to an elephants head!
Thank you, Beata
Re Barbies:
K, have you read Miriam Giugni's Chapter 12 in Insights (Fleet, Patterson & Robertson, 2006)? Very briefly,
Giugni (an EC educator) documented girls' play with Barbies and found that issues around femininity, identity,
cultural capital, body image, and power were evident. Documentation made these issues visible, to the children
and adults. Other authors in Insights discuss how documentation can be used as a tool for troubling dominant
discourses held in the wider community.
It may not be a comfortable ride but I think it could be one that is very worthwhile.
Re Clay:
Clay, being a natural product, varies from batch to batch, even if you buy the same brand. I mainly use 'paper
clay,' a clay that has paper mixed through it. I find paper clay to be easy to manage in the classroom context, and
it is less prone bits falling off as the models dry. However, the key to avoiding bits falling off is ensuring that prior
to joining, both surfaces are roughened up. I provide toothbrushes for this. Once the two pieces have been
joined, smooth the edges of one piece over the other, using thumbs. This should ensure a strong join.
Penny
Dedicated websites were attached to some programs with forums built into the websites. Two programs had
resources, one of which was a generic set of resources that all members received, and the other provided
resources ‘as required’. A major perceived benefit to members of on-line programmes was having an early
childhood network to belong to, without the need to travel for meetings. The Moderator of one forum noted that:
There is quite a bit of networking that happens within the group…. it is a particular interest in something or
knowledge about something, you know, somebody knows how to get rainwater tanks, or somebody
knows how to get a bilge pump, or somebody knows where to get butterflies, and we would put general
information on, but they can talk to the person who actually has that information, and get it directly as they
need.
Infrastructure
The infrastructure of each initiative varied from the in-kind position of facilitator, having some type of recognition in
workload, to a paid, designated position varying from 3 hrs. per week, 5 hrs. per week, 6.75 hrs. per week, to fulltime (Local Government funded). One established program alternated the roles and responsibilities between group
members as this was all in-kind with no funding attached to support the group’s existence. For three of the
mentoring programs contractors delivered the programs funded by the DEECD. In some local council and Cluster
Manager programs mentoring was part of position descriptions so there was no extra financial entitlement to this
role. In one program the mentees were paid a graduate teacher wage and the mentor received no remuneration,
however, they did have another teacher with whom to share their workload. This was paid by the local council and
ensured a continuing workforce for their own kindergartens. One council shouldered the cost of providing informal
mentoring to new teachers as part of the cost of providing the services:
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
30 | P a g e
“As far as the cost is concerned, we weigh up the cost of these graduates failing, not being able to
maintain a position in our organisation versus the cost of getting somebody in a few hours a week
to give them a hand. We kind of took that cost on the chin, we’ve got no formal arrangements, and
if the money runs out then we stop. So it’s a bit of a catch-22, and we do risk leaving those graduates
quite vulnerable, we have got some families in some of our communities that have extremely high
expectations, and we’ve got staff in some service [who have been there] for a number of years and
very skilled and experienced and if that staff goes – for one reason or another – we replace them
with a graduate, it’s quite a daunting process for that individual, so I guess we have to put a few of
those considerations together when we look into what we do.”
Gate Keepers
There was a mix of initiatives that did and did not have gate-keepers. In one program kindergarten co-ordinators
acted as gate-keepers. For the fully on-line forum initiative the moderator acted in this role. Entry into the other
programs was mediated by the criteria set for entry which was dictated by the DEECD (i.e. Children’s Services
Advisors and Quality Improvement and Learning Transition Managers in regions) for programs they funded, by the
fact that they are sector specific or location specific (geographical or by cluster), or determined by local council (in
consultation with the teachers themselves and feedback from families).
Limitations / factors impeding reach or longevity
Across all the mentoring initiatives there were a number of factors that impacted on the programs, either limiting
their reach or their longevity. For programs that were funded there were cessation dates. Some initiatives were
restricted in scope (size – on-line forum only could cater for 200 places due to a technical limit; only available to
centre staff of cluster managers; geographic location; sector type; or to identified centre staff). Without a clear
purpose one new program may struggle to continue and build into the future. For some initiatives not being seen
as a formal program, or not really considered as mentoring could jeopardize their long-term future.
Participation in most initiatives was voluntary and this caused a fluctuation in numbers especially where meetings
were held outside of paid work hours. Teachers found it difficult to attend meetings due to a lack of time. One
coordinator described the difficulties faced by teachers wanting to attend meetings that were held on weekday
afternoons:
“Not for the fact that they don’t want to come, but that they haven’t got the resources… A lot of people
talk about offering financial resources but I think the relief just isn’t there. Especially with the new
framework that’s been put in place now, they have so much extra to do outside of their normal work
hours – this [mentoring group] is just probably another ‘something else’. I think for everyone working
[in childcare], how do we make things available for people without putting too much pressure on them
and their lack of resources, really. So, like I said, it’s all right to say, ‘I can financially compensate or
something [for the relief teacher]’ but then there’s no relief teacher – that’s the problem.”
Another coordinator expressed her frustration with the difficulties of running a network programme when potential
but busy participants did not want to come to ‘another meeting’:
“I think it has the potential. It absolutely has the potential. If people who were a bit more enthusiastic
came along, it definitely has the potential. Council was providing myself, a preschool teacher, and
my other colleagues – there’s good qualified people there from whom they could gather information
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
31 | P a g e
from and get support and mentoring from but it just wasn’t really cutting it… It would have been great
if we could have had more members.”
In the programs where a mentor/facilitator was funded this was often for insufficient hours than was needed to
undertake the complex role and to cover all centre locations. One Mentor who was paid for her work, noted the
voluntary nature of much of the mentoring that happens in early childhood:
“The unpaid rate in Early Childhood is high and you always work a lot more hours than you are paid
for….so it is nice [to be paid]… I feel that it is a bit of a recognition of the fact that I have been doing
some of this work, that it is recognized, that yes, it is time consuming, and I am now able to offer
more to staff. I mean, I tried to do as much as I could before, but I mean I am not any saint or
anything, I mean, obviously my centre’s work came first, and I have a family, and all of that… I can’t
really justify spending my whole life supporting others without it being part of my paid work.”
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
32 | P a g e
4.
WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
In addition to the findings of this review of mentoring programs in Victoria, the following discussion will also consider
some preliminary findings of the Statewide Professional Mentoring Program for Early Childhood Teachers
(SWPMP), as well as referring to Deakin University’s Master of Teaching Internship program.
Recent models of mentoring describe a communities of learners approach, focused on both experienced and
novice members engaging in ongoing learning (Nolan, Morrissey & Dumenden, 2013). In regard to recent
graduates, the focus is on beginning teachers’ agency, competency and reflective practice. The mentoring
relationship is regarded as crucial, as well as the resource of time, and training and support for mentors.
This research found a variety of forms of mentoring happening in Victoria. These ranged from structured and
relatively well-resourced programs integrated into formal employment arrangements, to spontaneous coming
together in on-line discussions. In addition, both mentoring program participants and coordinators saw mentoring
as taking a range of different forms and having a variety of objectives. A common theme from both coordinators
and participants’ in the various programs, was that mentoring was important for both beginning and experienced
early childhood teachers, as well as other professionals, especially in a time of major reforms. A few of the
programs were specifically targeted at newly graduated teachers. While it was considered that these beginning
teachers “knew the children’s stuff—because that’s what they’ve been taught”, they were seen as particularly
needing support in developing skills in the day-to-day running and management of a centre. Coordinators of those
programs targeted at new graduates, also perceived working with families as a challenge for these teachers.
While several of the programs have been, or are in the process of being evaluated, the majority have not undergone
formal evaluation processes. It needs to be acknowledged that the dominant voices in this report are of those who
ran the programs, either as managers, or session coordinators, coaches, etc. Only occasionally have the
researchers been able to access feedback from participants, either mentees or mentors. This means that reports
on successes and challenges of the programs are from a certain perspective, as is the identification of mentoring
needs and program aims. An example is the emphasis in the programs for graduate teachers’ on developing skills
in ‘running the centre’, based on an assumption that the fundamentals of teaching practice and working with
children ‘have been learnt’ at university. It is interesting to compare the assumption that mentoring in basic teaching
practice is not a priority for new graduates, with some preliminary findings from one of the programs where a formal
evaluation has occurred, where participating mentees were surveyed on their expectations of the program and
what they hoped to gain from it. While there was some mention of looking for support in developing practical skills
in running centres, overwhelmingly mentees were looking for support in developing their teaching practice, working
with families, and meeting the challenges of recent reforms.
Many of the networks run by local councils, cluster managements, etc., while providing opportunities for
networking, information sharing, and discussion of ideas, at the same time also supported management functions.
For example, participants in one initiative which encompassed a range of early childhood professionals as
members, identified their reasons for attending group meetings as including: being able to talk about Maternal and
Child Health cases; establishing a network for monitoring children and families; and being able to find out in
advance the number of childcare places needed the following year. Thus it seems that the meetings for this group
were focused on other aspects apart and not solely on mentoring processes.
There were several programs where mentoring was associated in some way with processes other than mentoring
support, including monitoring or appraisal by management. One programme employed a senior teacher to take on
both mentoring and appraisal roles. In another program, participants were identified as new teachers who were
‘not coping’, based on discussions with the teachers themselves, and feedback from families and committees.
While these may have been effective and efficient ways of rolling out these programs, maximizing the use of limited
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
33 | P a g e
resources, it is pertinent to consider whether it is better to ensure some distance between management processes
of monitoring and program evaluation, and mentoring activities. Comments from two of the participants in one
group suggest that without that distance, mentoring can be perceived as intimidating and perhaps seen in part as
an evaluative activity by management:
“One feels less intimidated in networking meetings than in a one-to-one mentoring situation where
the mentor comes to the centre to do the mentoring”
“Networking meetings are less threatening than formal mentoring arrangements”
It is interesting to contrast these comments with participant feedback from another program, where preliminary
evaluation data indicated that mentees valued mentor visits to their centres as a highly supportive practice. A
number also remarked that they appreciated being able to discuss issues with someone outside of their own centre,
who had no links to their workplace.
The programs reviewed in this research used a range of structures to provide mentoring. They ranged from
‘democratic’ networks of practitioners, who made decisions on their own organisation and agendas, through to
management-instituted arrangements, including employment conditions. Different strategies and approaches were
also used, from open on-line discussions to informal meetings and discussion, to instructional coaching. Decisionmaking about mentoring goals, and even about participation itself, also varied. Some programs were voluntary,
some open to all. In others, participants were selected on the basis of certain criteria, or were required to participate
in mentoring.
One of the principles for a successful mentoring program identified in the literature is that each mentoring
relationship is unique, and that mentoring programs should allow for individualised mentoring in order to fit each
participant’s developmental needs. It is useful to remember this when looking at different mentoring programs. For
example, one programme involved quite directive instructional strategies, in a centre-based program in low socioeconomic areas. One of the coaches commented that:
“It’s more than just mentoring because I’m there a lot of the time—modelling behaviour, modelling
practice for educators….so that they can learn to use that in the service with the children…[I am]
influencing and changing the educators’ practice: ‘Do what I am doing’.”
The project team described a number of positive changes in services that participated in this program (formal
findings from this project have not yet been released). However, the approaches of that program are quite different
from those used in another programme, which was based on voluntary, individual participation where teachers
applied to the program, rather than the program being centre-based. Mentees were required to develop their own
goals, to be achieved through an action research project. Mentors were encouraged to support mentees through
this process by encouraging them to build on their own particular strengths, engage in reflective practice, and
develop individual approaches to teaching based on their own pedagogical philosophies and values. Preliminary
findings from the evaluation of this project across two cohorts of participants indicated a high level of satisfaction
from both mentees and mentors.
The literature has identified the mentoring relationship to be of crucial importance, particularly in mentoring
programs for beginning teachers. The literature has also identified that the provision of time as a resource is
essential for successful mentoring. This is reflected in the comments of many of those running mentoring programs
in Victoria, where teachers’ busy workloads and lack of time impeded the success of mentoring programs,
particularly those involving network meetings requiring teachers to attend outside of their working hours. One
facilitator described the challenges she faced:
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
34 | P a g e
“..to actually get people there was like drawing teeth….and they weren’t really forming any network
bonds….Because they were just so busy already. The thing I heard all the time was: ‘It’s just another
meeting Rita. Why do I have to come to another meeting?’”
The challenge of resourcing mentoring was a common theme across all programs. Even the comparatively wellresourced programmes faced limitations and an uncertain future. In addition, one of the most consistent messages
coming through was a reluctance to continue the provision of unpaid or uncompensated informal mentoring on the
part of coordinators and practitioners, in the interests of work-life balance. One possible approach that may assist
in addressing this issue is the integration of a mentoring component in staff roles that provides time, reward or
compensation. For example, in one program, the Kindergarten Coordinators accepted a mentoring role as part of
their job. The employment of a new graduate teacher to work alongside an experienced teacher in centres, gave
more time for both to engage in mentoring activity. In this way, the extra duty of mentoring for the experienced
teacher was compensated for by the support of having a graduate teacher to share the teaching responsibilities.
A similar system of compensation works for teachers who agree to take on the mentoring of a pre-service teacher
as part of Deakin University’s Master of Teaching Internship program. In this program, the pre-service intern
teacher takes on responsibility for a half teaching load, freeing up the mentor teacher to do other things, and
compensating for the time required in the mentoring processes of the internship. This program has been
enthusiastically received by participating centres, with mentor teachers keen to continue taking interns.
The literature indicates that training and support for mentors is crucial for successful mentoring. It could also be
asked whether mentoring, either as a mentor, mentee, or member of a community of learners, should be regarded
as an integral component of a teacher’s role, not as a burdensome addition to their existing workload, but as an
important responsibility with an appropriate allocation of time and resources. Most teachers already informally
undertake mentoring, such as for student teachers on professional experience placement, working with new
teachers at their centres, or as educational leaders. Most, however, receive no training or support to undertake
these roles, and we have little knowledge of how effectively they undertake them.
Research shows that effective mentoring reduces teacher attrition and enhances outcomes for children. We could
regard teachers’ professional lives as moving along a mentoring continuum, from being mentored as a pre-service
and graduating teacher, to eventually becoming experienced mentor teachers themselves. Identifying the changing
mentoring needs and roles of teachers, and providing resources to support them through these career stages, may
be a profitable investment. The new mandated role of educational leader in every centre may also provide an
opportunity for establishing mentoring as an essential activity for early childhood professionals, and for developing
mentoring skills in experienced practitioners.
Following are some questions for consideration, arising from the research into mentoring programs in Victoria:

How can the mentoring needs of beginning teachers best be identified and met?

Should mentoring always be based on a mentee’s self-identified goals, or is there a place for goals imposed
by management, regulatory authorities, etc.?

Can ill-devised mentoring programs actually create negative outcomes, such as by: undermining mentee
confidence in their own competence; ‘tagging’ program participants as incompetent or ‘not coping’;
encouraging the adoption of ‘quick fixes’ or ‘one-size-fits-all’ solutions?

Regarding programs where graduate teachers are employed as ‘assistants’ (albeit with teacher salaries),
would this program better support graduate teacher identity by reframing the program as collaborative team
teaching (which often appears to be what happens anyway), with the graduate identified as a teacher?

How might mentoring of pre-service teachers, such as in professional experience programs and internships,
fit with a conception of mentoring as an essential activity for early childhood professionals? What part might
higher education institutions play in mentoring for early childhood professionals in Victoria?
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
35 | P a g e
5.
REFERENCES
Akerling G.S. & Quilan, K.M. (2001). Strengthening collegiality to enhance teaching, research, and scholarly
practice: an untapped resource for faculty development. To Improve the Academy: Resources for Faculty,
Instructional and Organisational Development, Vol. 19, pp. 306-321.
Angelique, H., Kyle, K. & Taylor, E. (2002). Mentors and muses: new strategies for academic success. Innovative
Higher Education, Vol. 26, No. 3, p. 95.
Beaunae, C. (2009). Teachers’ perceptions of interpersonal mentoring relationships in one early childhood
mentoring program. Unpublished dissertation, University of Florida.
Boaz, A., Ashby, D. & Young, K. (2002). Systematic reviews: What have they got to offer evidence based policy
and practice? London: ESRC Centre for Evidence Based Policy.
Boyer, L. & Lee, C. (2001). Converting challenges to success: supporting a new teacher of students with autism.
Journal of Special Education, Vol. 35, pp. 75-83.
Boyer, N.R. (2003). Leaders mentoring leaders: unveiling role identity in an international online environment.
Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 25-41.
Buysse, V., Sparkman, K.L., & Wesley, P.W. (2003). Communities of practice: connecting what we know with what
we do. Exceptional Children, Vo. 69, No. 3, pp. 263-277.
Cassady, J.C., Mucherach, W. & Hoffman, N. (2003). Meeting the need: delivering quality child-care education on
the web. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 27-35.
Certo, J. (2005a). Support, challenge and the two-way street: perceptions of a beginning second grade teacher
and her quality mentor. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 3-21.
Certo, J. (2005b). Support and challenge in mentoring: a case study of beginning teachers and their mentors.
Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, Vol. 26, No. 4, pp. 395-421.
Clark, S.K. & Byrnes, D. (2012). Through the eyes of the novice teacher: perceptions of mentoring support.
Teacher Development, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 43-54.
Colley, Helen (2002). A ‘rough guide’ to the history of mentoring from a Marxist feminist perspective. Journal of
Education for Teaching, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 257-273.
Davis, D. & Higdon, K. (2008). The effects of mentoring/induction support on beginning teachers’ practices in early
elementary classrooms (K-3). Journal of Research in Childhood Education, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 261-274.
Da Ros, D. & Swick, K.J. (1995). The socialization of beginning teachers. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher
Education, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 13-17.
De Janasz, S.C. & Sullivan, S.E. (2004). Multiple mentoring in academe: developing the professional network.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 64, No. 2, pp. 263-283.
Deutsch, F.M. & Tong, T.L. (2011). Work-to-school mentoring: childcare center directors and teachers’ return to
school. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 157-177.
Elliott, E. (2004). Building a partnership through collaboration, reflection, dialogue. Journal of Early Childhood
Teacher Education, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 247-255.
Feiman-Nemser, S. (2001). Helping novices learn to teach: lessons from an exemplary support teacher. Journal
of Teacher Education, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 17-30.
French, K.D. (2004). An examination of email-based novice teacher mentoring: proposing a practitioner-oriented
model of online reflection. Unpublished dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
Gallagher, P.A., Abbott-Shim, M. & VandeWiele, L. (2011a). An evaluation of the Individualised Learning
Intervention: a mentoring program for Early Childhood teachers. NHSA Dialog: A Research-to-Practice Journal
for the Early Childhood Field, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 57-74.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
36 | P a g e
Gallagher, P.A., Abbott-Shim, M. & VandeWiele, L. (2011b). Head Start mentor teachers impact child outcomes
in protégé teachers’ classrooms. NHSA Dialog: A Research-to-Practice Journal for the Early Childhood Field, Vol.
14, No. 2, pp. 75-78.
Hawkridge, D. (2003). The human in the machine: reflections on mentoring at the British Open University.
Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 15-24.
Heung-Ling, Y. (2003). Mentoring student-teacher case studies. Early Child Development and Care, Vol. 173,
No. 1, pp. 33-41.
Holloway, J.H. (2001). The benefits of mentoring. Educational Leadership, May 2001, pp. 85-86.
Jacelon, C.S., Zucker, D.M., Staccarini, J., Henneman, E.A. (2003). Peer mentoring for tenure-track faculty.
Journal of Professional Nursing, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 335-338.
Kasprisin, C. A., Single, P.B., Single, R.M., & Muller, C.B. (2003). Building a better bridge: testing e-training to
improve e-mentoring programmes in higher education. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11,
No. 1, pp. 67-78.
Katz, L.G. (1977). Talk with teachers. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Kealy, W.A. & Mullen, C.A. (2003). Guest editors’ introduction: at the nexus of mentoring and technology.
Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 3-13.
Lindgren, U. (2005). Experiences of beginning teachers in a school-based mentoring program in Sweden.
Educational Studies, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 251-263.
LoCasale-Crouch, J., Davis, M., Wiens, P., Pianta, R. (2012). The role of the mentor in supporting new teachers:
associations with self-efficacy, reflection and quality. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 20,
No. 3, pp. 303-323.
Mayer, D. & Nolan, A. (2008) Supporting early childhood early career teachers: Recommendations. Foundation
of Graduates in Early Childhood Studies, Victoria.
McCormick, K.M., & Brennan, S. (2001). Mentoring the new professional in interdisciplinary early childhood
education: The Kentucky Teacher Internship Program. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, Vol. 21, No.
3, pp. 131-149.
Mitchell, L. & Cubey, P. (2003). Characteristics of professional development linked to enhanced pedagogy and
children’s learning in early childhood settings: Best Evidence Synthesis. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Education.
Moir, E., & Gless, J. (2001). Quality induction: an investment in teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, Vol.28,
pp. 109-114.
Nolan, A., Morrissey, A., & Dumenden, I. (2013). Expectations of mentoring in a time of change: views of new and
professionally isolated early childhood teachers in Victoria, Australia. Early Years: An International Journal of
Research and Development, Vol.33, No 2, pp. 109-114.
Oakley, A. (2002). Social science and evidence-based everything: the case of education. Educational Review,
Vol. 54, No 3, pp. 277-286.
Orland, L. (2001). Reading a mentoring situation: one aspect of learning to mentor. Teaching and Teacher
Education, Vol. 17, pp. 75-88.
Orland-Barak, L. & Rachamin, M. (2009). Simultaneous reflections by video in a second-order action researchmentoring model: lessons for the mentor and the mentee. Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary
Perspectives, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 601-613.
Packard, B.W. (2003). Web-based mentoring: challenging traditional models to increase women’s access.
Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 53-65.
Pavia, L., Nissen, J., Hawkins, C., Monroe, M.E., & Filimon-Demyen, D. (2003). Mentoring Early Childhood
professionals. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 250-260.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
37 | P a g e
Pawson, R. (2001). Evidence based policy: I: In search for a method. London: ESRC Centre for Evidence Based
Policy.
Pawson, R. (2002). Evidence based policy: the promise of ‘realist synthesis’. Evaluation, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 340358.
Phillon, J. (2003). Can technology offer a means of mentoring pre-service teachers about diversity? Mentoring
and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 43-52.
Pierce, G. (2001). Developing new faculty: an evolving program. To Improve the Faculty: Resources for Faculty,
Instructional and Organisational Development, Vol. 25, No. 327-344.
Price, M.A. & Chen, H. (2003). Promises and challenges: exploring a collaborative telementoring programme in a
preservice teacher education programme. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp.
105-117.
Puig, V.I. & & Recchia, S.L. (2008). The Early Childhood Professional Mentoring Group: a forum for parallel
learning. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, Vol. 29, pp. 340-354.
Roberts, Andy (2000). Mentoring revisited: A phenomenological reading of the literature. Mentoring and Tutoring:
Partnership in Learning, Vol 8, No 2, pp. 145-170.
Rowley, J.B. (1999). The good mentor. Educational Leadership, May 1999, pp. 20-22.
Ryan, S. & Hornbeck, A. (2009). Mentoring for Quality Improvement: a case study of a mentor teacher in the
Reform Process. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 79-96.
Sinclair, C. (2003). Mentoring online about mentoring: possibilities and practice. Mentoring and Tutoring:
Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 79-94.
Single, P.B. & Single, R. (2005). E-mentoring for social equity: review of research to inform program development.
Mentoring and Tutoring, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 301-320.
Smith, J.O., Whitman, J.S., Grant, P.A., Stanutz, A., Russett, J.A., & Rankin, K. (2001). Peer networking as a
dynamic approach to supporting new faculty. Innovative Higher Education, Vol. 25, No. 3, p. 197.
Solesbury, W. (2001). Evidence based policy: whence it came and where it’s going. London: ESRC Centre for
Evidence Based Policy and Practice.
Sorcinelli, M.D., & Yun, J. (2007). From mentor to mentoring networks: mentoring in the new academy. Change:
The Magazine of Higher Learning, Vol. 39, No. 6, pp. 58-61.
Stanulis, R.N. & Russell, D. (2000). “Jumping in”: trust and communication in mentoring student teachers.
Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 16, pp. 65-80.
Van Emmerik, I.J.H. (2004). The more you can get the better: mentoring constellations and intrinsic career
success. Career Development International, Vol. 9. No. 6/7, p. 578.
Wasburn, M.H. (2007). Mentoring women faculty: an instrumental case study of strategic collaboration. Mentoring
and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 57-72.
Uttley, C.M. & Horm, D.M. (2008). Mentoring in Early Childhood Professional Development: Evaluation of the
Rhode Island Child Development Specialist Apprenticeship Program. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher
Education, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 237-252.
Whitehead, J. (1995). Mentoring. British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 129-133.
Witte, M.M. & Wolf, S.E. (2003). Infusing mentoring and technology within graduate courses: Reflections in
practice. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 95-103.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
38 | P a g e
6.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Empirical research on mentoring in Early Childhood Contexts
APPENDIX B: Empirical research on mentoring in Schools
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
39 | P a g e
APPENDIX A: Empirical research on mentoring in Early Childhood Contexts
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
Stanulis & Russell, 2000,
”Jumping in”: trust and
communication in
mentoring student
teachers
EC and schools – the
context is an alternative
Master’s Program for
students with Bachelor’s in
areas other than
education. The course
involved a year-long
placement, which provided
a field-based preparation
for teaching, in which the
teachers had leadership
roles in developing and
maintaining the program.
The supervising teacher
during placements is
reconceptualised as
‘mentor’ – to indicate
classroom teachers as
partners with the university
in teacher education, as
well as conceptualising the
teacher as mentor in the
sense of guide, with the
assumption that ‘guided
learning to teach is face-toface, close to the
classroom work’ (FeimanNemser & Rosaen, 1997:
7). Also incorporated the
research of Roth, Rosaen
& Lanier (1988) on the
mentor-teacher.
The data is from the pilot
of the alternative Master’s
Program. Data from two
mentoring pairs (in second
and third grades) are
included in the article, part
of the pilot program’s
cohort which included 20
students – 11 in middle
school and 9 in EC – and
their mentor-teachers.
The process of mentoring
required that trust be
established in the
mentoring relationship.
The year-long mentoring
provided the space for this
to happen.
Also, the idea of ‘mutual
mentoring’ where there is
a collaborative effort by
university- and schoolbased participants in the
process of mentoring
The program included:
(1) a school-based
program coordinator to
help facilitate interactions
between schools and
universities, (2) mentor
workshops and support
meetings; (3) monthly
coordination meetings
between teacher- and
student-representatives;
(4) individual meeting with
mentors for feedback at the
end of the year.
One important finding was
that mentors need
mentoring, too, and a
support group.
Yes, but must take into
account that data on only
2 dyads were included in
the paper
Pavia et al, 2003,
Mentoring Early Childhood
professionals
EC
Katz (1977) notes that
beginning teachers are in
‘survival mode’ in the
classroom and anxious
about her ability to meet
challenges and realities.
During this stage, they
need support,
understanding,
encouragement, comfort
and guidance. These
needs can be met by
connecting the beginning
teacher with an
experienced teacher (a
mentor).
12 participants (6 mentors
and 6 protégés) in a 9month period of a special
project; all participants
were female
The goal of the project was
to examine mentor-protégé
relationships through the
voices of the participants
To get an insider’s view of
the mentoring experience
so as to offer strategies for
the enhancement of
professional development
of beginning and
experienced teachers
Mentors appreciated
having a meeting of
mentors only – mentors
saw it as a forum for an
exchange of ideas
Mentors noted that being
mentors enhanced their
- Initial orientation meeting
for mentors and protégés
at which the project team
explained the mentoring
project and information
packets were distributed
- planned opportunities for
mentor-protégé contact
included: 4 focus group
meetings, 2 meetings of
local professional
organisation and larger EC
community
- 3 small group meetings of
mentors only and protégés
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
40 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Mentoring is a reciprocal
process (Black & Puckett,
1996; Hargreaves & Fullan,
2000).
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
perceptions of their own
professional identities
Protégés also appreciated
protégé only meetings – to
discuss and share
concerns regarding
working with children
Protégés also appreciated
being able to visit their
mentor’s classroom, which
provided insights into
organising the EC
environment and
developing the curriculum.
However, there was
difficulty in finding the time
to meet or contact each
other because of time
constraints or
geographical distance,
protégés felt pressured to
be in the project and have
a problem ready for the
mentor to ‘solve’; mentors
were cautious about being
know-it-alls or imposing
themselves or their style
on the protégés.
Also, there was a
perception among mentorprotégé dyads that they
had different working
experiences – type of
program, socio-economic
status of families served.
only (conducted during
focus group meetings)
- Project team determined
the agenda and topics for
all meetings; speakers
were invited to the 2
community meetings and 2
of the focus group
meetings
- Mentor and protégé pairs
were encouraged to
contact each other
throughout the course of
the 9-month project
- However, except for one
pair, the mentor-protégé
dyads did not work. The
study concludes that the
pairing of individuals in a
close relationship, such as
a mentoring relationship,
requires expertise. Group
meetings prior to the
mentoring should allow for
a more natural pairing.
Close proximity
(geographically) between
mentors and protégés
would allow for the
development of successful
relationships.
Funds should also be
available for time release
to allow for mentors and
protégés to meet.
Included in synthesis?
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
41 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Heung-Ling, 2003,
Mentoring student-teacher
case studies
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
EC (Hong Kong)
Theoretical framework
The key to successful
mentoring lies in the
mentor/mentee
relationship.
Buber (1970), “in the
beginning is the relation” –
i.e., the essence of
Overview of research
evidence
4 Kindergarten Principals
and 4 student-teachers in
Hong Kong
In-service initial teacher
education program known
as the Qualified
Kindergarten Teacher
(QKT) program in Hong
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Pre-arranged pairing of
mentor-protégé dyads
were also factor in
hindering the building of
relationships, such as
incompatibilities due to
responsibilities,
philosophies, personalities
and life stages.
The term ‘protégé’ was
resented by the protégés
because they all had
qualifications – they
thought the mentoring
should be thought of as
sharing and supportive;
protégés were concerned
about the unequal roles
and perceived this to be a
barrier to building
relationships; they thought
they should be viewed as
peers who could also
provide, as well as
receive, support.
Sensitivity to the terms
used in the program would
also allow for a more
successful program
(protégés didn’t like the
term).
Goals should be
established by both
participants in the
mentoring process to
provide direction and
purpose.
Mentors need training and
ongoing support for their
roles.
A third party may be
necessary to provide the
link between mentor and
protégé and facilitate the
development of a
relationship.
Each mentoring
relationship has a unique
pattern. Therefore
mentoring programs should
be individualised in order to
fit with participants’
developmental needs.
The study was meant to
explore the dimensions of
mentoring that hindered or
facilitated the mentoring
process (see column on
right for outcomes)
Relationship-building is
critical in the mentoring
process.
Dimensions that sustain an
effective mentoring
relationship include:
- a high comfort level
Included in synthesis?
Yes – adding to theory
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
42 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
mentoring lies in the
relationship.
Overview of research
evidence
Kong. The Principals were
asked to advise and
support the studentteachers and to mentor
them, but not to assess the
students’ progress.
Data included in-depth
interviews, Principals’
supervisory records and
student-teachers’ journal
writings
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
- respect
- trust
- openness
- encouragement
- ongoing support
- regular communication
- mentor’s expertise
- level of commitment
- time availability
The above dimensions are
inter-related – that is, the
mentee’s belief in the
expertise of the mentor
probably contributes to the
mentee’s comfort level with
his/her mentor.
Mentoring relationships are
grounded in close personal
interaction. The mentoring
relationship doesn’t end,
but changes over time to
peer or partner.
Mentoring relationships
need to attend to the
emotional aspects and not
only to the intellectual
dimensions.
Both mentors and mentees
need preparation for the
mentoring process so that
they can be aware of the
complexity of an authentic
mentoring relationship.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
43 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Cassady, Mucherach &
Hoffman, 2003, Meeting
the need: delivering quality
child-care education on
the web
Delivery of a Child
Development Associate
Certificate through an
online course – identifying
the efficacy of mentoring
within the online learning
framework
A modified Fischer &
Krause-Eheart (1991)
model for delivering course
content via the web,
incorporating: structured,
yet flexible, formal
educational content; (2)
adequate technical
infrastructure and support;
(3) attending to the social
and emotional needs of the
learner; (4) establishing a
professional support
network for the students.
With regard to the 4th factor
above, mentoring is
provided to guide the
student through the course.
Burke & Miles (2002) note
that effective mentoring for
online students happens
when mentors and
mentees engage in
frequent email or phone
communication, as well as
arranging face-to-face
meetings.
Study was a pilot program
for the online delivery of
the Child Care Learning
(CCL) program (delivered
2001-2002). Involved 57
mentees and 22 mentors.
All participants were
female.
The intended outcome
was to reach a cohort of
students who could not
normally enrol in an oncampus course. The pilot
online program was fairly
successful with 40 out of
57 completing the course
(30% dropout rate).
Mentors needed to be
actively working in a childcare setting, had to have
an Associate’s degree in
EC, and enrolled in a
course on mentoring and
leadership. Mentors were
not involved in grading
(assessing) the students so
as to keep them as a
resource and support
system. One mentor was
assigned to several
mentees based on
geographical location –
ideally; geographicallybased gatherings (for
networking purposes,
working with peers) could
be facilitated through the
mentor. Early and regular
meetings between mentor
and mentee helped
establish a support system
for the mentee.
Mentor training had to be
completed prior to actually
becoming a mentor.
Particularly important was
the development of mentor
skills – i.e., experienced
practitioners are not
necessarily ready/skilled to
help someone develop
professionally. Mentoring
is an integral component to
online learning programs;
Included in synthesis?
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
44 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
therefore mentor training is
also a critical component.
Success of the mentormentee relationship was
facilitated by both having
an understanding of the
role of the mentor.
Therefore, there had to a
clear definition of roles and
responsibilities.
Elliott, 2004, Building a
partnership through
collaboration, reflection,
dialogue
Early Childhood (Reggio
Emilia Approach) –
preservice teacher and
mentoring teachers during
a year-long internship
Mentoring of lessexperienced teachers
supported collaborative
dialogue, partnership
building, and reflection
about personal
philosophies of education
as a means for
professional development
(Jones & Vesilind, 1996).
Mentoring beginning
teachers helps in teacher
retention.
Study conducted over one
semester; 6 sets of
mentor-mentees recruited
for the study (kinder to
third grade); participants
recruited from preservice
teachers in teacher
preparation program at a
large US southeastern
university; preservice
teachers were Master’s
degree students in a yearlong student internship
experience; mentoring
teachers were the
teachers paired with the
preservice teachers in an
elementary school
placement site.
The study was meant to
understand and interpret
the process of being
mentored.
Collaboration and
reflection influenced
classroom activities.
Having a colleague in the
classroom allowed a
sharing of ideas that would
not have happened
otherwise.
- Team teaching
- Collaborative dialogue
sessions to discuss beliefs,
ideas, ideals, role of the
teacher
- Reflective practice
- Action research project
provided opportunity for
reflection and collaborative
dialogue between mentor
and mentee; also
emphasised the
importance of theory
- Experienced teachers
guiding the professional
development of beginning
teachers
Yes
Ryan & Hornbeck, 2004,
Mentoring for quality
improvement: a case study
of a mentor teacher in the
reform process
EC - a case study of a
‘mentor teacher’ helping
child care teachers in
implementing the
High/Scope curriculum.
The role of mentor teacher
(or officially, master
teacher) was mandated by
The mentor as change
agent in instructional
reform efforts – that is,
mentors, in the form of
local curriculum specialists
and or staff developers,
assist with the
Follows one mentor
teacher in her work of
helping preschool teachers
implement reform
initiatives
Study data included time
diaries, interviews and
The mentor-teacher in this
study did not have the
necessary experience in
working with children (she
worked with adults as a
staff developer) and
therefore did not have the
experiential base from
Reform initiatives cannot
be top-down. Teachers
must have ownership of
the change process. In
putting a mentor teacher in
the role of helping teachers
adopt reform initiatives in
their classrooms, the
Yes, seems like this form
of mentoring is equivalent
to the concept of
‘coaching’ in the DEECD
and WMR programs
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
45 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Davis & Higdon, 2008, The
effects of mentoring/
induction support on
beginning teachers’
practices in early
elementary classrooms (K3)
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
a 1998 NJ Supreme Court
decision to facilitate quality
improvement in preschools
for the 30 poorest school
districts in NJ
implementation of
initiatives
documents collected
during fieldwork.
Teachers being mentored
are not beginning/novice
teachers.
which to draw examples
and ideas to model to
teachers how they might
adapt the curriculum
reform to their own
classroom contexts.
Some teachers had more
teaching experience than
the teacher-mentor and
therefore resisted the
changes she suggested.
mentor-teacher is put in the
impossible position of
getting the teachers to buy
into, and act on, proposals
in which their perspectives
were not considered.
Policy makers must
structure opportunities for
interaction and
communication with
teachers about intended
reform initiatives.
The study suggests that
the field of EC education
needs to create a culture of
instructional leadership
within the preschool sector,
with a dual focus: (1) to
support the current
workforce in building on
their experience with
formal education, and (2)
develop a group of teacher
leaders (through training)
that recognises the
specialised expertise
necessary to facilitate
reform.
Early elementary (K-3)
The need for induction
support during the first
years of teaching: the
greatest predictor of
student success/ outcomes
is ‘teacher quality’, and
induction support has been
shown to improve ‘teacher
quality’.
Ten participants were
purposively selected for
the study. They included
first-year early elementary
(K-3) teachers from four
districts. They were fully
qualified teachers who
were also doing a Master’s
degree at a university,
The study was meant to
examine the influence of a
school/university induction
program in beginning
teachers’ development in
early elementary
classrooms, and focuses
on:
Mentors attended weekly
mentor training seminars.
Mentors were freed from
their classroom
responsibilities and were
therefore available to
provide ‘just in time’
assistance to their mentees
on-site. That is, mentors
Included in synthesis?
Yes, shows how effective
fulltime, onsite mentoring
support is for the
beginning/ first year
teacher
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
46 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Pugia & Recchia, 2008,
The Early Childhood
Professional Mentoring
Group: a forum for parallel
learning
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
EC – The Early Childhood
Professional Mentoring
Group (ECPMG) was
established to develop a
forum of support for recent
graduates of a Masters
program for EC and EC
Special Education as a
Theoretical framework
“A tradition of isolation and
a myth of self-sufficiency
perpetuated within the
teaching profession (Little,
1990) contribute to new
teachers’ feelings of
disillusionment and
inadequacy and make the
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
supported by a tuition
scholarship and fellowship
in lieu of a teacher’s salary
(they are called ‘Teacher
Fellows’) – that is,
participants were
beginning (first year)
teachers who were also
undertaking postgraduate
studies.
Five teachers were
provided on-site mentors
(teachers who had been
released from their
classroom responsibilities);
five were not mentored onsite but were provided with
mentors after school or as
needed (control group or
Non-Teacher Fellows).
Teacher Fellows study and
practice research-based
strategies, analyse videos
of their teaching,
conducted an inquiry
project in their classrooms
and have peer-coaching
sessions with their
mentors.
(1) effects of mentoring/
induction support on
beginning teachers’
classroom practices
(2) types and frequency of
mentoring/ induction
support beginning
teachers received
(3) effects of mentoring/
induction in teacher
retention.
The authors/ researchers
conclude that the
induction/ mentoring
received by Teacher
Fellows had a positive
influence on each of the 3
areas above (as compared
to the Non Teacher
Fellows).
were able to provide ‘real
time’ support at the time it
was needed. These
fulltime mentors also
provided more follow-up
support or coaching.
See first 2 columns.
Participants were invited
from graduates of the
Masters program. In the
first year, the participants
were all females between
The researchers, who
were also the paper’s
authors and co-facilitators
of the ECPMG, wanted to
investigate the novice
teachers’ experience of
transitioning to teaching
(or transition into the field)
- Attendance may be
required to assure group
consistency, although this
could change the nature of
the group, from ‘choice’ to
‘obligation’
- The costs to facilitators of
planning and carrying out
Included in synthesis?
Yes, particularly the
negative effects on the
program of the lack of
obligation by participants
to come to meetings
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
47 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Uttley & Horm, 2008,
Mentoring in Early
Childhood Professional
Development: Evaluation
of the Rhode Island Child
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
response to graduates’
experience of a lack of
support in the field.
act of reaching out for help
even more
challenging…Concerned
that they may be ‘found
out’ or viewed as
incompetent or
unprepared, novice
teachers are hesitant to
seek out assistance from
more experienced
colleagues around them.”
(p. 341)
The ECPMG was
developed because some
new teachers identify their
university professors and
supervisors as ‘safe’
sources of support.
the ages of 23-40, with a
majority in their mid-20s.
Two authors were cofacilitators of the program:
one doctoral student
instructor/student teaching
supervisor, and one EC
professor/program
coordinator.
Monthly meetings at the
uni with 1-10 participants,
averaging 4. Notes from
the meetings were
distributed to all
graduates/possible
participants.
and to identify the most
important issues to
examine and measure
regarding teacher
effectiveness.
Because of the sporadic
attendance of participants,
the researchers did not get
the outcome they wanted,
although they concluded
that the group did provide
a ‘safe’ place for its
members.
group meetings and
documenting reflections
didn’t seem worthwhile due
to the small attendance at
each meeting, and
sporadic attendance by
participants (which resulted
in the researchers not
being able to answer
issues with regard to
transition that they were
asking (see column on
left).
- It was challenging for
many 1st year teachers to
attend the meetings,
despite their intentions and
interest, and despite the
facilitators’ attempts to
accommodate schedules
and interests; 2nd and 3rd
year teachers had more
consistent attendance –
this may mean that 1st year
teachers may benefit from
another format.
- A mentoring model with
no pressure or obligation
from participants to
participate made it difficult
to follow individuals over
time.
Early Childhood – the
Rhode Island Child
Development Specialist
Apprenticeship Program
(RICDSAP) is a
The apprentice-mentor
model served as the
foundation for RICDSAP (a
2-year program).
The paper contains 2
studies: (1) a study of the
program goals, (2) a study
of the apprentice-mentor
relationships.
Mentoring was expected to
produce higher levels of
satisfaction for both
mentors and apprentices
(mentees). Study results
Mentors were required to
complete one college (uni)
course, ‘Supervision in
Early Childhood Settings’
at the University of Rhode
Included in synthesis?
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
48 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Development Specialist
Apprenticeship Program
professional development
apprenticeship program for
EC educators.
The presence of a mentor
in the classroom impacts
satisfaction levels for both
mentor and mentee
(Jones, 2002; Heung-Ling,
2003)
First cohort had 56
participants comprising of:
21 apprentices, 20
mentors and 15 directors,
situated in 20 classrooms
across 15 centres. All
participants were female
(typical of the field) and
mostly white (not typical in
the field). Through
attrition, the final sample
size of the study was 14
apprentices and 16
mentors.
showed the mentors in the
‘satisfied’ category while
apprentices were in the
‘neutral’ category.
Apprentices were
generally overwhelmed by
the combination of study,
work and family
commitments, while
mentors were less so
(being older and having
less family commitments,
as well as having less
study requirements).
Study concludes that the
apprentice-mentor model
is a successful strategy for
inducting early career
professionals into EC.
Island. The course is
designed to develop
supervisory and
management skills as well
as to function as an
effective mentor, coach or
guide. Mentors were also
required to participate in
monthly ‘Mentor Support
Groups’ facilitated by the
course instructor.
Higher levels of satisfaction
in the mentors and
mentees happened when
they worked in the same
classroom and worked with
the same-age children.
Beaunae, 2009, Teachers’
perceptions of
interpersonal mentoring
relationships in on early
childhood mentoring
program (PhD
dissertation)
EC
The effectiveness of
mentoring for professional
development in an
education setting is
contingent on the quality of
the interpersonal
relationship between
mentor and mentee;
A successful mentoring
relationship is one in which
the mentor and mentee
have sustained positive
interactions.
Looked at the
interpersonal mentoring
relationships of 6 EC
teachers (3 mentormentee dyads) in an inclass mentoring program
for professional
development in a
university based EC centre
Setting was a universitybased child care centre
Mentoring program was
teacher-initiated and
implement: it started with
one newly-hired teacher
asking for a mentor to
familiarise her with the
centre. The centre
catered for children with
disabilities, so mentoring
was needed for newlyhired teachers and
beginning teachers,
particularly those who had
no experience of working
Interpersonal mentoring
relationships are influenced
strongly by 4 aspects of the
EC environment: physical,
professional, social and
emotional environments;
and influenced weakly by
personal characteristics.
Physical environment
consists of:
(1) classroom structure
(2) presence and
immediate needs of young
children
(3) proximity of mentors to
mentees
Included in synthesis?
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
49 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
with children with
disabilities.
There were ‘form letters’
for mentors and mentees.
Mentoring activities
included:
- a tour of the buildings
- introductions to all staff
- review employee
handbook,
accident/incident report
procedures, parent
handbook, the centre’s
philosophy and mission
statements
- mentee shadows the
mentor for a few hours
- regularly scheduled
meetings between mentor
and mentee
- mentor available to
answer questions and
concerns
- mentor to make the new
employee welcomed and
values
- mentor acts as advocate
or advisor for mentee
when mentee is faced with
challenges in the
classroom, with the
children, and other
teachers.
(4) time schedules
Professional environment:
(1) formal mentoring
(2) informal mentoring
(3) mentor experience
(4) mentor training program
(5) reciprocal professional
relationships
(6) teacher turnover
Social environment:
(1) communication
(2) connecting with others
(3) friendship opportunity
Emotional environment:
(1) comfortable
relationships
(2) helping relationships
(3) supportive relationships
Personal characteristics:
(1) individual attitudes
(2) personality traits
Included in synthesis?
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
50 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Deutsch & Tong, 2011,
Work-to-school mentoring:
childcare centre directors
and teachers’ return to
school
EC centre directors
mentoring staff on
pursuing higher education
EC is a field traditionally
staffed by females who are
not highly qualified and
lowly paid. Pursuing more
qualifications is the key to
getting more pay. The
study tried to find out
whether centre directors
were influential in
mentoring their staff to
pursue higher education
through educational and
instrumental mentoring
(that is, providing the
logistics on how to go
about pursuing higher
qualifications, e.g., getting
scholarships).
The difference between
educational- and careermentoring: educational
mentoring resulted in more
staff attending college (uni)
courses while career
mentoring resulted in less
attendance.
78 centre-directors were
interviewed. However, the
study is correlational and
therefore cannot determine
causal relationships.
See left column
See right column
Gallagher, Abbott-Shim &
VandeWiele, 2011a, An
evaluation of the
Individualized Learning
Intervention: a mentoring
program for early
childhood teachers
And
Gallagher, Abbott-Shim &
VandeWiele, 2011b, Head
Start mentor teachers
EC – the Individualized
Learning Intervention (ILI)
is a mentoring program for
early childhood teachers
that is meant to combat
the shortage and high
turnover rates of EC
teachers
ILI is built upon adult selfdirected learning
experiences, the
collaborative support of
others, and teacher
development.
Theories of adult
development by Levinson
(1978) and Mezirow
(1991), the centrality of
self-directedness in the
16 mentors and 16 protégé
teachers in Head Start
classrooms were selected
for participation in the
study.
Mentors and protégés
were matched based on
classroom geographic
proximity and professional
compatibility.
The study is an attempt to
link the development of
teachers through
mentoring to outcomes for
children. The researchers
hypothesised that
mentoring would result in
greater gains in child
developmental outcomes
that those children in
classrooms where their
Critical to the success of a
mentoring program are:
(1) mentor training
(2) support for the mentors
(3) mentors were
reimbursed for any
expenses they incurred in
the process of mentoring
(this is seen as a
Included in synthesis?
Yes, for the idea that
supervisors (centre
directors/ managers) are
ideally situated to mentor
employees mentoring
program.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
51 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
impact child outcomes in
protégé teachers
classrooms
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
adult learning process
(Brookfield, 1986), and the
collaboration and support
from peers, instructors and
resource people in adult
learning (Knowles, 1975;
Brookfield, 1986)
The emphasis of mentoring
is on building a trusting
relationship with the
protégé, deepening the
protégé’s knowledge and
conceptual understanding,
promoting a sense of self
and purposefulness, and
increasing intentional
application of newly
acquired knowledge to
teachers’ skills.
Participant-pairs were then
randomly assigned to the
‘treatment’ or ‘control’
condition.
In the ‘treatment’ condition,
mentors participated in the
ILI, which consists of:
(1) 50-hour mentor
seminar (a series of 2-day
seminars over a 4-month
period)
(2) ongoing mentoring of
protégés by mentors
throughout the school year
(3) support for mentors by
a Mentor Coordinator
The study is part of multisite evaluation of Head
Start quality improvement
interventions.
teachers did not receive
mentoring.
Children’s developmental
outcomes were measured
using the Family and Child
Experiences Survey
(FACES): Child
Assessment Battery. The
study shows
improvements for child
outcomes for those in
classrooms where the
teacher was mentored.
Children in the ‘control’
classrooms showed
decline in social
functioning by the end of
the year. This suggests
support is required for
inexperienced teachers to
prevent decline in the
classroom environment
over the course of the
year.
Other perceived benefits
were:
(1) mentors mentioned
helping, supporting,
listening, getting to know
others, accomplishing
goals as benefits
(2) protégés mentioned
improvement of classroom
environment through new
ideas and better methods
as benefits.
recognition of their
service).
Mentor and protégé
teachers observed each
other’s classrooms, and
discussed personal beliefs
and how to put these
beliefs into practice.
Suggestions for
improvement of the
program:
(1) initial communication
and information – mentors
suggested to make sure
that protégés understood
why they were selected for
the program
(2) group meetings to relay
information
(3) more time for the group
of mentors and protégés to
meet
(4) protégé-only meetings
Included in synthesis?
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
52 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
Challenges were:
(1) finding the time to meet
and observe and time to
maintain their own
responsibilities
(2) mentor realising her
own personal faults
(3) protégés feeling the
pressure to perform.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
53 | P a g e
APPENDIX B: Empirical research on mentoring in Schools
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Feiman-Nemser, 2001,
Helping novices learn to
teach: lessons from an
exemplary support teacher
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Schools - Michigan, USA
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Educative mentoring
(Feiman-Nemser, 1998) –
builds on Dewey’s (1938)
concept of educative
experiences, which are
experiences that promote
future growth and lead to
richer subsequent
experiences.
Educative mentoring is in
contrast to more
conventional approaches
that emphasize situational
adjustment, technical
advice and emotional
support (Little, 1990). The
promise of mentoring lies
not in easing novices’ entry
into teaching, but in
helping them confront
difficult problems of
practice and use their
teaching as a site for
learning.
Follows the mentoring
activities of one
particularly thoughtful
mentor (Pete Frazer) as
an example of what is
possible (rather than what
is probable).
Data is based on 10 hours
of interview data, 10 hours
of observational data
gathered over 4 visits in 2
years.
To understand the
mentoring work of
thoughtful mentors;
To understand the ‘insides’
of their mentoring and its
influence on novices and
their teaching;
To develop and
understand mentoring as
an educational practice.
- Mentor as co-thinker,
rather than expert, by
engaging in ‘productive
consultations’: to know
what beginning teachers
are thinking about an
issue.
- Mentor as an ‘educational
companion’ to novices,
offering personal support
and professional
perspectives tailored to
individual needs and
purposes.
Strategies in mentoring:
- finding openings: finding
fruitful topics salient to the
novice and lead to basic
issues that all teachers
think about;
- pinpointing problems:
using the notion that
problems are constructed
rather than given, problems
must be pinpointed or
identified;
- noticing signs of growth:
specific feedback about
individual
accomplishments, unique
strengths and needs,
rather than general praise;
Included in synthesis?
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
54 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
- focusing on the learning
of the children;
- reinforcing on
understanding of theory;
- giving living examples of
one person’s ways of
teaching;
- modelling wondering
about teaching.
Mentors (support teachers)
need to undergo training so
as to:
- learn how to support
beginning teachers
- learn to be more direct
- broaden ideas about
teaching children
Holloway, 2001, The
benefits of mentoring
Schools – California, USA
Orland, 2001, Reading a
mentoring situation: one
aspect of learning to
mentor
Schools – Israel
Mentoring of teachers of
English as a Foreign
Language in Israel who
Cites two model mentoring
programs: the California
Formative Assessment
and Support Systems for
Teachers (CFASST) and
Pathwise (a formal
induction process
developed by the
Education Testing Service
for prospective teachers
and their mentors)
The idea of teachers as
teacher educators and
moving more of teacher
education into field settings
Follows one mentor (of
Anglo-Saxon background)
in Israel as she mentors
14 teachers of English as
The study is meant to
shed light on the process
of learning to mentor as it
develops over time – the
Prospective mentors need
to undergo training that
includes:
- professional development
about the mentoring
process
- understanding what is
expected of them as
mentors
- support and opportunities
to discuss ideas, problems
and solutions with other
mentors
Yes, but only for its
synthesis of the benefits of
mentoring for the mentors
The meaning of ‘reading a
mentoring situation’ (as
described by the mentor) –
its use an organising
Yes, for its perspective on
a start (experienced,
exemplar) teacher
mentoring experienced
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
55 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Certo, 2005a, Support,
challenge and the two-way
street: perceptions of a
beginning second grade
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
are from a Russian
background by a star
teacher of English.
Follows on mentor
involved in a
comprehensive
intervention that involved
the entire educational
system in 30 localities in
Israel, selected because of
low educational
achievement and high
dropout rates
(schools) and assigning
roles to school teachers as
teacher educators,
supervisors and mentors in
those settings.
a Foreign Language, both
novice and experienced,
from both elementary and
high school, to teach in a
holistic manner. Many of
the teachers are new
Russian immigrants, who
arrived in Israel as
experienced teachers of
English in Russia, but
using Grammar
Translation approaches in
streamed classes
according to students’
achievements.
The mentoring program
became an intervention
project geared towards
inducting immigrant
teachers into the school
system in Israel to use
communicative
approaches to teaching
English and to work in
collaboration, or reflecting
on their practices, in the
company of peers.
character, process and
consequences of
mentoring from the
perspective of the mentor
and in relation to their
occupational contexts.
Followed two mentors over
their entire first year of
mentoring, but only one
mentor’s data is reported
in this paper.
metaphor to describe the
forms and meanings of
learning to mentor.
‘Reading a mentoring
situation’ entails 5 themes:
(1) transferring the
mentor’s assumptions as a
teacher to the mentoring
context;
(2) comparing different
mentoring contexts;
(3) analysing how systemic
conditions affect
mentoring;
(4) developing awareness
of how the mentor’s own
educational views
influences her mentoring
agenda; and
(5) analysing how
interpersonal,
organisational and
professional aspects of the
mentoring context operate
integratively.
The transition from
experienced teacher to a
mentor of teachers is
similar to the
developmental stages of a
novice teacher.
teachers who need
‘coaching’ to improve their
practice (useful for
analysis/ evaluation of
Victorian coaching
programs
Elementary (primary)
school – Virginia, USA
A case study of one
mentoring dyad: a
Daloz (1988, 1999):
support is the act of
‘holding’ or providing a
safe space where the
Case study is extracted
from a larger study of
beginning elementary
For teacher-mentors to
learn from this case study;
for teacher-educators,
policy-makers,
Support provided by
mentor to the mentee
included:
Yes – what the process of
mentoring entails
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
56 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
teacher and her quality
mentor
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
beginning teacher and her
mentor – both secondgrade teachers in an urban
elementary school in
Virginia, USA
beginning teacher can
contact the mentor with
fundamental trust;
challenge is giving
resources that raise
questions about beginning
teachers’ views and invite
them to entertain
alternatives.
teachers and their
mentors.
Data - interviews
conducted with mentor
and mentee 3 times
(September, December
and February of the US
school year); mentee
journal
Analysis – activities
divided into: supportive,
challenging or twoway/reciprocal (each party
learning and taking ideas
from each other)
administrators and
prospective mentors to
become aware of the
tremendous amount of
time, energy and requisite
skills are required to
become a quality mentor.
- checking in (e.g., asking
at the end of the day, “How
was your day?”
- listening
- reassuring
- providing information,e.g.,
nuances of curriculum and
instruction, explanations of
rules, expectations and
procedures, and systemwide policies
- providing structure – e.g.,
managing workload and
paperwork
- mentor sharing
instructional resources and
supplies with mentee
Challenges include:
- planning together
- developing assessments
- inviting experimentation
- providing insight and
feedback
- questioning/ encouraging
reflection
Two-way street (reciprocal
learning):
- mentoring contributes to
the mentor’s own
professional development,
- reduces feelings of
isolation for the mentor
Included in synthesis?
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
57 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
- triggers reflection of the
mentor’s own practice
- mentor also learns from
the protege
The dyad referred to a
mentorship handbook to
guide their mentoring
process in terms of target
goals.
Certo, 2005b, Support and
challenge in mentoring: a
case study of beginning
elementary teachers and
their mentors
Elementary (primary)
schools – Virginia, USA
Involved first year teachers
Daloz’ support and
challenge model (1999):
support means
keeping the protégé
where they are in
their development
(not pushing them to
develop or grow) and
includes listening,
providing structure,
answering questions
and serving as
advocate
challenge means
challenging the
protégé to think or
act differently about
teaching, and
includes giving them
facts and
observations, insights
and perceptions, and
theories and
interpretations that
raise questions about
their current views
Case study design that
involved in-depth
interviews with three pairs
of beginning elementary
school teachers and their
mentors (3 interviews over
6 months). Participants
were selected based on
which pairings were likely
to be successful.
Mentoring had to have a
formal mentorship plan
and the mentor had at
least 2 days of training.
To a certain extent, yes.
That is, in the 3 cases,
there was the potential for
mentoring to foster
effective teaching through
multiple activities. There
was also some ‘challenge’
and not just ‘support’
during the mentoring.
Mentor training programs
should include developing
mentor questioning skills
and encouraging reflection
in beginning teachers.
Mentoring programs should
also include time for
beginning teachers to
observe their mentors –
i.e., inclusion of ‘modelling’
as a mentoring activity.
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
58 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Lindgren, 2005,
Experiences of beginning
teachers in a school-based
mentoring program in
Sweden
Schools –Sweden
In Sweden, mentoring for
beginning teachers has
been ‘a frequent feature of
support since 2001’
Research conducted in
Umea, northern Sweden,
which has had a mentoring
program for new teachers
since 2001
Theoretical framework
Mentoring as a transition
from student-teacher
(preservice) to being a
teacher
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Data taken from the 2002
cohort.
25 newly-recruited
teachers were offered a
mentor, but were not
obligated to receive
mentoring. Pupils of these
teachers were aged 7-16.
Only 10 out of the 25 were
selected to be interviewed
for this study. Only 7
actually participated (5
women and 2 men).
Mentors were experienced
teachers, trained for
mentoring by a course in a
university for a half-year.
Dyads were expected to
meet once a week or
every other week during
the school year, with
additional mentor and
mentee group meetings.
Interviews with teachers
were conducted four
times: at beginning and
end of school year, and
twice during the year.
Only the last interview is
included as data in the
paper.
To find the most apparent
effects of mentoring from
the participants’
perspective.
Mentees recommended the
following improvements for
future mentoring programs:
(1) the aim of the
mentoring must be clearly
defined for all participants
(2) mentors must be wholeheartedly motivated
(3) mentees must take
responsibility for a
productive mentorship
(4) mentor discussions
must address mentees’
concerns
Researchers noted that
pedagogical discussions
occurred to a low degree –
future mentoring programs
must emphasise
educational discussions.
A facilitator is needed to
oversee the mentees’
mentoring experience to
ensure there are no
communication problems
between mentor and
mentee.
Mentees reported positive
results overall – both
professionally and
personally – and would
recommend mentoring to
other teachers.
Awareness of goals and
expectations should
Included in synthesis?
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
59 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
facilitate the mentoring
process.
Orland-Barak & Rachamin,
2009, Simultaneous
reflections by video in a
second-order actionresearch-mentoring model:
lessons for the mentor and
the mentee
Schools (elementary) –
Israel
Draws from the literature
on reflection, mentoring,
and the use of video: an
action research –
mentoring model for
mentoring student
teachers.
Reflective practice as a
component of teacher
education (Korthagen,
1995; Orland-Barak &
Yinon, 207; Van Manen,
1991)
Video offers a mode of
‘delayed reflection’ – with
an opportunity for
detachment from the
immediate experience,
which allows for a deeper
analysis and reflection
(Eraut, 1995)
Two levels of video-taping
used:
- Video-taping of mentee
during teaching – used for
reflection during mentoring
session
- Video-taping of
mentoring session – used
to prompt mentor to reflect
on her mentoring practices
Data also included:
- transcribed mentoring
conversations
- journals by both mentor
and mentee
- observations of the
mentee while teaching
-video recording of the
mentee while teaching
- interviews with the
mentee
The study examined the
forms and meaning that
reflection on learning takes
through the use of different
forms of reflection, in
particular, the use of
video:
- reflections on learning to
teach (for the mentee)
- reflections on learning to
mentor (for the mentor)
- Reflective mentoring
allows the mentee to shape
her own process of
mentored learning (i.e.,
empower the mentee to
shape her own learning)
- Reflective mentoring
means combining guidance
with facilitation
- Reflective mentoring
extends the mentors’ cycle
of learning
-Reflective learning
allowed for reciprocal
learning
- There are reciprocal
connections between
learning to teach and
learning to mentor (a
double loop)
- Video as a reflective tool
allowed for new angles of
observation into learning to
teach and learning to
mentor
- Video allows for critical
self-examination
Yes – on the use of video
as a tool for reflective
teaching and reflective
mentoring
Clark & Byrnes, 2012,
Through the eyes of the
novice teacher:
perceptions of mentoring
support
Schools (elementary) – a
Rocky Mountain state,
USA
In the Rocky Mountains, it
is mandated that all novice
Socio-cultural theory
(Vygotsky, 1978) – on how
adults develop
professional knowledge:
knowledge is not merely
transmitted from one
Of the target group of
teachers (n=341, first-year
elementary teachers in a
larger study), 136
participated in the
Mentoring Support Survey,
There were 2 research
questions investigated:
(1) The study was meant
to investigate the types of
mentoring support
received by novice
Most frequent support
provided were also most
helpful:
(1) mentor being a good
listener
Yes, in particular that
beginning teachers
appreciate emotional
mentoring support (such
as a listening ear and
encouragement during
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
60 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
teachers are assigned to a
mentor
person to another but is
socially constructed
through interactions with
other individuals, and
through the use of cultural
tools, artefacts and
experiences.
Also based on theories of
transformational leadership
(Kouzes & Posner, 2008) –
that is, transformational
administrators (school
principals) must put in
place resources that
support the transformation.
Overview of research
evidence
which asked questions
regarding their first year
experience. The
respondents were 75%
female and 84% white.
(The authors noted that
the length of the survey
instrument and busyness
of new teachers
contributed to the low
participation rate.)
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
teachers. The survey
asked the teachers what
support they received and
to rate the effectiveness of
these supports. See
findings in column on right.
(2) Also investigated was
the helpfulness of
supportive administrators
of the mentoring program
(the ones who provided
resources in the school to
support mentoring, e.g.,
release time for common
planning and
mentor/mentee
observations).
(2) mentor encouraging the
novice teacher during
times of self-doubt.
Mentor-modelled
professional behaviour
when communicating with
parents – rated helpful but
only 76% of novices
received this type of
support.
Mentoring activities rated
helpful but least likely to
occur:
(1) assistance with
teaching content and
planning units
(2) providing a bridge to
existing school culture
(3) modelling effective
techniques of instruction
Least helpful and least
likely to occur:
1) encouragement to selfassess teaching practices
2) modelling reflective
teaching by examining and
questioning teaching
practices.
The findings suggest that
novice teachers may find
emotional support and
direct information and
assistance more useful
than engaging in reflective
self-doubt) than reflective
conversations about
practices. This probably
reflects the fact that
teachers are in ‘survival
mode’ during their first
year, and their need to be
socialised into the
profession.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
61 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
conversations with their
mentors.
As to research question
(2), novice teachers
perceived their
experiences with mentors
were more likely to occur
and more helpful if there
were administrative
support for the mentoring
program, which included:
(1) common planning time
for mentor and mentee
(2) release time for
observation.
Common planning time is
more important than
release time.
LoCasale-Crouch, Davis,
Wiens & Pianta, 2012, The
role of the mentor in
supporting new teachers:
associations with selfefficacy, reflection and
quality
Schools – two school
districts in Florida, USA in
partnership with a
southeastern university
Explores the role of the
mentor in the induction
experiences of novice
teachers. Here, induction
means a ‘professional
development intervention
designed to systematically
train and support teachers
in their first years in the
classroom’ (p. 304).
Data was collected in
2005-06.
Participants included 77
novice teachers and 11
mentors.
The findings indicate that
mentoring-based induction
Positive outcomes for
teacher retention and
development came from:
1. Novice teacher
spending time with a
mentor – the more
time spent with a
mentor, the better the
outcomes, although
the authors caution
that it is important to
know the ‘what’ that
happens during these
interactions (i.e.,
more work is needed
to measure the ‘what’
that occurs between
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
62 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
programs results in less
teacher turnover and
enhanced teacher selfefficacy and reflection.
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
mentors and
mentees).
2. Mentor
characteristics –
teaching the same
grade or content as
the novice teacher –
positively relate to the
novice teachers’
sense of support and
instructional support
3. Full-time mentors are
able to support their
novice teachers
better than part-time
mentors, although
this may be due to
issues of training and
support for part-time
mentors.
4. Novice teachers who
felt supported in their
relationship with their
mentor (this is directly
related to mentoring
time and quality of
relationship between
mentor and mentee)
reported higher levels
of self-efficacy and
reflection. ‘Intensity’
of relationship needs
to be looked into
further.
The authors note that
school-culture context and
novice teachers’ strengths
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
63 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes;
were they achieved?
Principles/components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
and stressors should also
be looked into further to
determine the
effectiveness of
mentoring/induction
programs.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
64 | P a g e
APPENDIX C: E-mentoring
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Kealy & Mullen, 2003,
Guest editors’ introduction:
At the nexus of mentoring
and technology
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Multiple – main context
explored is in the use of
technology in mentoring.
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Introduces the papers
included in the special
issue of the journal
‘Mentoring and Tutoring’.
The papers discuss
Hawkridge’s metaphor of
‘the human in the
machine’. The Editors
note that despite the
authors’ use of ‘tutor’ or
‘coaching’ interchangeably
with ‘mentor’ and
‘mentoring’, they all
‘generally portray an active
relationship and helping
process for promoting
reflection, skills
development, personal
and professional
development, and
satisfaction with learning’
(pp. 5-6).
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Whether mentoring is
conducted face-to-face or
online, both models must
be learner-focused and
support a flexible approach
to individual development
(p. 8). Thus, technology
must support individualised
learning.
Some of the technological
innovations reported in the
issue include Hawkridge’s
electronic café and Boyer’s
small learning communities
(p. 8). ‘The distant mentors
of tomorrow will not only
need to pioneer original
ways of defining and
expressing the roles of
“mentor” and “protégé”,
they will also need to
devise imaginative ways to
encourage peer
collaboration” (p. 8).
However, the immediacy of
feedback possible via
internet, email and e-chat
raises unrealistic
expectations for rapid
feedback. As well,
electronic availability of the
mentor outside of the
academic environment
encourages a demand for
counselling on matters
Included in synthesis?
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
65 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
outside of academic/PD
concerns. Thus,
technology means that
‘mentoring roles have
become intensified and
redefined’ (p. 9).
Online mentors should
seek to foster the same
democratic environment as
in face-to-face mentoring that is, take the initial lead,
then hand over to their
protégés while providing
support (p. 10).
Finally, for e-mentoring to
succeed, technical support
is crucial (p. 11).
Hawkridge, 2003, The
human in the machine
British Open University’s
distance education system
Here, the ‘human in the
machine’ refers to the
mentor (borrowing from
Koestler’s ‘The ghost in
the machine’).
The author uses the terms
‘mentor’ (in its American
usage) and ‘tutor’ (in its
British usage)
interchangeably in terms of
distance education offered
by the British Open
University.
Email was more
successfully used by
students and tutors than
the ‘online workbook’ (a
conferencing system’
where students posted
their answers to the study
guides) or café (an online
forum where students
could drop in informally).
Email allowed students to
get more direct advice and
for tutors to respond more
quickly (p. 19).
The mentor/tutor as emoderator where peerlearning is the focus - i.e.,
students discussing,
collaborating and
Yes, but to a limited extent
as most of the material is
in ‘mentoring’ or ‘tutoring’
students through a course
of distance/online
education – not the kind of
‘mentoring’ that this lit
review is intending to
cover.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
66 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
exchange information with
other students (p. 19).
The Salmon e-mentoring
model – a 5-stage ementoring model
(described in detail in
pages 20-21).
The best of what
technology can offer for ementoring: ‘near instant
contact is valuable in
“caring and managing”’ of
students/mentees (p. 22).
Boyer, 2003, Leaders
mentoring leaders:
unveiling role identity in an
international online
environment
Online graduate leadership
program – specifically, the
International School
Connection Program at the
University of Florida, which
offered both Masters and
PhD options
The article tries to answer
the question: “What does
the role of a leader look
like in an online
environment given the
structural elements of
mentorship and academic
coursework?” (p. 28)
Data is based on an online
leadership program
consisting of 5 learning
communities, each with a
‘process leader’ who acted
as ‘mentors’ to 6-8
members.
The program consisted of:
-
a week-long, face-toface conference
before the start of the
course
-
web-based
instruction (the main
focus of the program)
-
a once-a-year faceto-face planning and
learning encounter
-
individual learning
contracts (as a
means for
personalising
instruction and to
increase the selfdirected nature of the
program)
-
questions introduced
every 2 weeks to
As above, ‘mentoring’ here
is used in the sense of
‘tutoring’ (helping students
with an online course)
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
67 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
direct discussion and
frame the learning.
In the online courses, the
‘program leader’ or
‘mentor’ has the role of
‘online facilitator’ whilst the
traditional roles of “editorial
and publishing, knowledge
owner, and content
contributor/author” belong
to the instructor (p. 27).
However, in the actual
implementation of the
program, these two roles –
mentor/program leader
and instructor – conflicted
in the curriculum they
offered to the participants,
resulting in a ‘power
struggle’ and the offer of
different sets of curricula
(pp. 34-35). This in turn
led participants to question
the expectations of the
program, resulting in an
overall lack of program
engagement.
The paper concludes that
in cyberspace, leaders
(whether program leaders,
or instructors, or
participants who had a
leadership role in their own
organisations) find it
difficult to ‘identify their
function, objectives and
relevance’ (p. 36). That is,
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
68 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
in the online/virtual world,
leadership roles “must be
explicitly communicated to
reduce frustration and
maximize clarity” (p. 37).
[Note: Page 38 of the
paper has detailed
suggestions to make
online programs more
successful.]
Phillon, 2003, Can
technology offer a means
of mentoring pre-service
teachers about diversity?
Schools – this is about a
Purdue University initiative
to give primarily white preservice teachers a chance
to interact with culturally
diverse student
populations, and be
mentored by master
teachers experienced with
teaching diverse students,
through two-way video
conferencing, i.e.,
‘technologically-mediated
observations of distant
classrooms’ (p. 44) or
‘virtual field experience (p.
45).
Works on the
conceptualisation of
‘mentoring’ as ‘comentoring’ – a ‘synergistic
process … in which
participants mentor each
other and all participants
grow and change’ (p. 44).
In short, co-mentoring (or
building a co-mentoring
community) through videoconferencing.
Participants of the program
included: teachereducators, teachers, preservice students and
elementary (primary)
students.
The program consisted of:
-
Instruction and
practice on the
technology to be
used by Purdue
University students
-
Instruction and
practice on the
technology to be
used by the primary
school students
-
A trip to the school by
the pre-service
teachers to meet with
the principal,
teachers, and
students in the class;
this trip is integral to
developing a sense
of community and
facilitating the virtual
interactions
-
Pre-service teachers
write journals and
other projects based
on the virtual
Somewhat – it shows what
is possible with technology
linking pre-service
teachers in universities
with remote schools
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
69 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
classroom
observations
-
Pre-service teachers
teach lessons during
the virtual field
experience
Co-mentoring occurs in the
sense that pre-service
teachers are able to
observe (virtually)
experienced teachers
during class. As well, preservice teachers are
‘mentored’ on diverse
student populations
through ‘virtual field
experience’ that they
would otherwise not have
due to the physical
distance of such schools
from Purdue University.
Packard, 2003, ‘Webbased mentoring:
challenging traditional
models to increase
women’s access’
Women college
(university) students
taking up science courses
– the need to increase
their access to women
mentors in the sciences,
wherever they may be
geographically located
Does not really present
any research evidence –
rather, presents the
lessons learnt from the
project (see Packard &
Hudgings, 2002).
Looks at the ‘role model
mentoring hybrid’ and
‘networking model of
mentoring’ (as opposed to
the dyadic/one-on-one
mentoring model) and the
use of technology to
facilitate these mentoring
models.
Argues for networking as a
form of mentoring: ‘The
shift is in how we define
mentoring. By placing
emphasis on deriving
mentoring functions, with
Yes, includes a good
summary of the literature
on the networking model of
mentoring, i.e., multiple
mentors instead of the
one-on-one mentor model
(see page 58).
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
70 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
less focus on the
relationship or means by
which mentoring occurs,
calling these alternatives
“mentoring” is not difficult
to do’ (p. 60). Benefits to
the student involved in
‘alternative’ modes of
mentoring include: psychosocial support, rolemodelling and career
functions (exploring career
and lifestyles of
professionals).
Also argues that rolemodelling (derived through
‘observational learning’) is
a distinct function of
mentoring, separate from
psycho-social support and
career functions (p. 61).
Caveat: dyadic mentoring
is still necessary/useful, as
college/uni students need
to have mentors who know
them well enough to
advocate for them and
write detailed letters of
recommendation.
Kasprisin et al, 2003,
Building a better bridge:
testing e-training to
improve e-mentoring
programmes in higher
education
Reports on MentorNet, an
e-mentoring program that
matches women
undergraduate students in
engineering and science
majors with industry
professionals
The paper focuses on the
use of e-training programs
to improve the success
rate of e-mentoring
programs.
Participants for the study
were from the 2001-02
cohort of the MentorNet
Argues that training
enhances the benefits of
face-to-face mentoring and
hypothesises that etraining will do the same
for e-mentoring.
E-training (training
provided in an online
Yes, for measures of
levels of involvement,
satisfaction and benefits in
participating in an ementoring program.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
71 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
program (400 students,
undergraduates only,
enrolled in Science,
Technology, Engineering
and Maths majors).
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
environment) for ementoring focused on
expectation management.
Key elements of e-training
were:
-
To identify the
potential benefits and
outcomes from
participation
-
To align program
goals and participant
expectations
-
To establish
expectations and
parameters of
mentor-protégé
relationships
Measures of involvement:
-
Number of emails
exchanged between
mentor and protégé
-
Level of comfort and
satisfaction on
aspects of the ementoring experience
-
How the MentorNet
experience affected
them – in terms of
self-confidence to
succeed in chosen
field, on whether they
would enjoy working
and pursue working
in chosen field
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
72 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
Concludes that mandatory
training (as opposed to
optional training) increases
the involvement,
satisfaction and benefits
associated with
participation in e-mentoring
programs.
Sinclair, 2003, Mentoring
online about mentoring:
possibilities and practice
This is about an online
course on the concept of
mentoring and being a
mentor to early career
teachers (‘early career
teachers’ include student
teachers and teachers
during their first 3 years of
practice).
Witte & Wolf, 2003,
Infusing mentoring and
technology within graduate
courses
Mentoring in the context of
supporting adult learners
in a large university
enrolled in technologysupported courses; focus
is on the instructor as
mentor
Price & Chen, 2003,
‘Exploring a collaborative
telementoring programme
in a preservice teacher
education programme’
Tele-mentoring in the
context of teacher
education – ‘a vision of
telementoring that went
unrealised’
Participants were 7
practicing teachers (parttime students) who were
learning about mentoring,
and their professor (who is
the author of the paper).
Data (used to analyse the
existence of a mentoring
relationship) included webbased discussions, emails
and course evaluations.
Difficult to assess from the
paper how online
mentoring can be
implemented because it
mixed (conflated) the
results of online learning
(students learning about
mentoring) and online
mentoring (students being
mentors to early career
teachers).
Adult learning models; the
article defines mentoring
as ‘a process used to
guide and facilitate a
learner’s educational
growth’ (p. 96) and
specifically separates it
from the instructor role.
Yes, but rather tangentially
– see comment on left.
No, not a very helpful
article as it mostly
describes what went on in
3 courses offered through
WebCT.
Intended outcomes:
-
flexible contact time
-
flexible location
-
available resources
to differing needs
Not achieved – see column
to the right
A virtual triad of
mentorship involving the
novice/ preservice teacher,
the veteran teacher in the
classroom, and the teacher
educator in the university –
allows for a continuum of
professional growth. The
traditional problem with
Yes, useful to know what
can go wrong.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
73 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
forming this triad is the
scheduling of collaborative
time – which the authors
hope can be solved
through telementoring.
However, problems to do
with technology and
support prevented the idea
from being realised.
Elements identified for an
effective telementoring
program:
-
willingness of
participants
-
access to and ability
to utilise equipment
and resource
-
positive attitude of
conversation as a
community of
learners
See also (in Appendix 1 – EC):
Cassady, Mucherach & Hoffman, 2003, Meeting the need: delivering quality child-care education on the web
French, 2004, An
examination of emailbased novice teacher
mentoring: proposing an
practitioner-oriented model
of online reflection
WINGS (Welcoming
Interns and Novices with
Guidance and Support)
Online, a program
designed to offer
graduates of the University
of Texas Austin ‘protégé
driven just-in-time support’
Socio-cultural perspective
– where knowledge is
viewed as socially
constructed through joint
activity in a particular
cultural, historical and
institutional setting
(Wersch, 1991).
Also Vygotsky (1978),
Bruner (1990) and Wells
(1999)
The online program was
offered to the university’s
teacher preparation
program graduates.
Novices who chose to
participate were offered
the opportunity to select an
experienced teacher
mentor with whom they
could communicate via a
facilitated private email list.
To answer the research
questions:
Big question: What is the
nature of the mentoring
process in an online
context?
Secondary questions:
(1) How is
mentoring
enacted in the
talk taking place
between
Findings indicated that
teachers, who discussed
many of the same issues
as identified in face-to-face
mentoring (such as
classroom management
techniques, behaviour of
students as a group,
teaching materials, current
and future teaching
assignments), focused
much of their talk on
Yes – this is the most
useful paper on the topic
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
74 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
The teams included in the
study communicated with
each other for at least one
semester.
Author/researcher was the
facilitator for the 6 teams
included in the study (emic
perspective).
Data consisted of email
exchanges between 6
mentors and their
protégés, and applications
before being matched.
mentors and
protégés in an
online context?
(2) To what
degree, in what
ways, and to
what effect is
reflective talk
incorporated in
the talk taking
place between
mentors and
protégés in an
online context?
The study aimed to:
storytelling. Although the
storytelling was text-based,
the structure was not
formal (as in traditional
written discourse) but in
conversational narratives.
Narratives were fluid and
reflected the purposes they
served, which included:
relating; illustrating;
venting; reflecting
Reflective exchanges were
almost exclusively initiated
by the protégés and
grounded in the problems
they were facing.
Typical sequence of
exchanges involved:
-
-
examine the process
of meaning-making
as manifested in the
online talk of mentormentee pairs;
explore mentoring as
a joint activity in
which participants
constructed shared
meaning
-
teachers’ telling of a
story
-
examination of one or
more of the aspects
posed
Included in synthesis?
-
mentors’ extension of
the reflection, shifting
back and forth
between different
aspects of issues
Online mentoring
characterised by
-
asynchronous
communication
(which solved the
problem of face-toface mentoring in
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
75 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
finding a mutually
suitable time)
-
informal speech
discourses in a textbased medium
(email)
-
allowed mentors the
time to formulate and
reflect, yet time
between responses
was minimised
-
electronic
conversational
narratives were
characterised by their
flexible, fluid and
purposive nature –
these worked
because the mentor
and mentee shared a
body of knowledge
(as teachers, and
previous email
conversations)
-
reflective narratives
were distinguished
from the other forms
because of the
couplet narrative +
reflective statement
at the end; this was
meant as ‘reflective
bid’ to the mentor,
who would then
respond with a
reflective response –
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
76 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
this is a collaborative
process
However, not much critical
reflection occurred (here,
critical reflection is defined
as in seeing as
problematic the goals and
practices of one’s
profession) – researcher
concludes that online
mentoring is not suitable
for this type of reflection.
Also, online mentoring is
good for pragmatic support
during the ‘survival years’
of the novice teacher, but
not for deep reflection. It
could work for improving
practice.
Online mentoring supports
the statement-to-statement
(or moment-to-moment)
reflective process on
issues that teachers think
are important.
If distance is the motive for
using online mentoring,
video could be added to
allow mentors to observe
the novice teacher and
provide feedback (this is
not possible on totally textbased mentoring).
Further suggestions:
-
shared
understanding
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
77 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
(needed for coherent
communication) must
be preceded by
introductions
-
Single & Single, 2005, Ementoring for social equity:
review of research to
inform program
development
This is a lit review of
research on e-mentoring
for research conducted
from the mid-1990s to
2005 and included journal
articles, reports, and book
chapters on implemented
e-mentoring programs.
E-mentoring could level
the playing field by
providing mentoring to
those who would
otherwise be left out of
informal mentoring
networks
Focused only on
structured (formal) ementoring programs.
Research has shown that,
like face-to-face
mentoring, e-mentoring
succeeded only when
there were programmatic
supports to facilitate
establishment and
maintenance.
the need for a
facilitator to help and
encourage
participants to
continue
communicating with
each other
Results of the lit review:
(1) e-mentoring is not a
panacea, nor an
inexpensive version of
face-to-face mentoring – it
should only be done when
face-to-face mentoring isn’t
available, feasible or
appropriate
(2) an alternative mode of
mentoring that facilitates
the expansion of mentoring
opportunities
(3) benefits from ementoring were the same
as mentoring:
informational,
psychosocial, and
instrumental
Two additional benefits of
e-mentoring:
(1) impartiality
Yes
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
78 | P a g e
Author(s), year, title of
article/ chapter/ book
Mentoring context (EC or
other)
Theoretical framework
Overview of research
evidence
Intended outcomes; were
they achieved?
Practices/ components
as suggested by the
paper that can inform the
development of effective
mentoring programs
Included in synthesis?
(2) inter-organisational
connections facilitated by
electronic communications
E-mentoring program
features such as training,
coaching and group
mentoring enhanced
participant involvement.
E-mentoring requires
ready access to
technology.
E-mentoring does not need
to rely on traditional
mentoring models; ementoring models include
communal or group ementoring.
PUBLIC COPY - MENTORING FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS RESEARCH REPORT 2012
79 | P a g e