Who is happy?
• Suppose you have self-report happiness ratings and
“objective” demographic information about a large
sample of Americans. Demographic information
includes “factual” information about age, income, sex,
race, level of education, status of job, ratings of
physical attractiveness, geographic region, and size of
city in the U.S. where they lived, marital status, status
of residence (own a home or rent), age of children (if
any), and religious affiliation/church attendance (if any).
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•1. Make a list of demographic variables (at least 4) that
you think would describe the happiest people in the
sample.
•2. Make a list of demographic variables (at least 4) that
you think would describe the least happy people in the
sample.
•3. Why do you believe the demographic variables you
picked would influence a person’s level of happiness and
distinguish between the happiest and least happy people?
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Happiness and the Facts of Life
Early survey research
& bottom-up theories of well-being:
A. Bottom-Up theories – Situational Determinants (State)
- Happiness is state of fulfilled needs - unhappiness unfulfilled
- All human have basic needs - like all living organisms (Maslow)
- More needs that are met – more satisfied/happy
B. Why are some people happier than others?
State explanation: Accumulation of “Advantages”
More positive events & experiences during day, week, life
Happy marriage, good job, attractive, educated, healthy, fun hobbies, spend
life pursuing….do they matter?
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I. Demographics & Well-being Research
- Only 8-15% or so of differences in happiness between people
associated with demographic differences. (extreme poverty
exception)
- No age, class, income, level of education, race, etc.…happier than
others.
- Contradicts beliefs about life stages and life events
Adolescence & Old Age
College or Post-graduate Life
Turning points – empty nest & mid-life crisis
Despite widespread beliefs to the contrary:
No stage of life is happier or unhappier than another.
Most events have less emotional impact than we think.
Christmas effect - not as exciting as thought
I will die effect = not as bad as thought
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II. Beliefs: Affective Forecasting
Do we know what will make us happy in advance?
Examples of exaggerated expectations?
Compare people’s predictions about effect of event to
people’s actual responses to events.
A. Impact Bias – consistent exaggerated predictions
about intensity and duration of emotion.
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Things will be wonderful once:
Get tenured, spring break comes, graduate
from college, get a good job, build the new
house, get married, etc….
I will just die if:
Romance fails, get divorced, lose my job, get
a C in this class.
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Positive events: more disappointment - not
turn out quite as well as thought.
Negative events: more relief - not turn out
as bad as thought.
Bottom line: never know…could be good
could be a bust.
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B. Research
- Tenure does not increase happiness.
- Older people not less happy than younger.
- Californians not happier or more satisfied with life
than Midwesterners despite belief among both &
despite greater satisfaction with weather in
California.
- Location & physical characteristics of dorms unrelated
to satisfaction despite staying up all night to hear
dorm assignment.
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C. Explanations for Impact Bias
1.
Focalism – restrict attention to event in question and ignore
consequences and context of event – e.g., new job versus
leaving friends and hassles of finding place to live etc….
2. Immune Neglect – failure to appreciate our resilience in face of
negative events – e.g., supportive friends.
3. Focusing Illusion – make a summary judgment about entire issue
or event by only looking at single or few features of the event.
Too much weight to too few aspects – e.g., weather & dorm
location.
4. Isolation Effect - Cancel out, don’t consider what event or issue
has in common that may be most important – e.g., friends in
dorm, quality of school, job opportunities, relationships.
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How should we think about future emotional events?
Can we know in advance what will make us happy?
Assume impact bias true - (not that events have no important
impact)
Are most of our strong emotions connected to the anticipation of an
event rather than the event itself?
Is imagination stronger than reality?
What effect, function or value (positive or negative) do our
anticipated future emotional reactions play in the present?
Would you want to reduce or eliminate the impact bias?
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What attitude might put impact of events in line with
reality?
Lower expectations
Never-know attitude - keep open mind
Avoid prejudging events
Live more in present rather than future
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III. Paradox of Aging
Stability of Well-Being Across the Lifespan
How can happiness be so stable when so much
changes?
Teenagers – whole life ahead versus elderly – most
life behind.
No age is the happiest…no age the unhappiest.
“Paradox of Aging”- happiness despite declines.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Explanations
1. Genetic temperament
2. Frequency & intensity of emotions
Teens versus elderly - simple averaging.
Mellowing of emotions with age – constant
versus big swings.
Experience of emotions differs, but overall
happiness – same.
3. Balance of positive & negative emotions
Negative emotions – decline with age.
Positive emotions, mixed but don’t change or
only a little.
Intensity declines.
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4. Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Time left in life and selection of goals, activities, regulation of
emotions. When are you young? When are you old? Focus?
Research supporting socioemotional selectivity theory:
- Elderly do not disengage, not depressed, anxious, etc….
- Maximize positive/minimize negative - quirks.
- Elderly more investment in fewer relationships…people you
can count on…(consequence of time left).
- Not interested in new friends, getting ahead, dominating
others. Enjoy being unplugged from rat race.
- Less conflict more satisfaction in marriage than younger adults.
- Better at emotional regulation…not overly excited about events,
let go of negative emotions.
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IV. Paradox of Gender and Happiness
Paradox of Gender –emotional life of men and women very different
yet similar levels of overall happiness and life satisfaction.
A. Differences
Women – higher rates of internalizing mood disorders: anxiety &
depression. Differences show up by early adolescence.
Higher frequency & intensity of emotional experience and expression
than men. More reactive to emotional events.
Men – higher externalizing emotions, anger, drug abuse, physical
aggression. Less expressive of emotions.
Women express – men repress.
Aggression – mixed…men more physical but women more
relational aggression…conclusion depends on how define
aggression.
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B. How Explain Apparent Paradox
1. Surveys average out women’s intense positive & negative.
• Women are more “emotional” – in any given survey very happy
may cancel out unhappy.
2. Gender stereotypes – people affirm that women emotional men
not.
• Differences in expression more apparent than real? I.e.,
experience emotions as “supposed” to rather than actually do?
• Research: On-line versus recall of emotional experiences.
Greater gender differences in recall…few for on-line. How recall
affected by stereotypes of how “supposed” to have reacted.
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3. Eudaimonic View
Women “healthier” in measures of positive growth and
relationships.
• Emotionality does not suggest “unhealthy.” Co-existence of
strengths and weaknesses.
Men not as strong in relationships – less sensitive and empathetic.
• Diminished social well-being compared to women.
Emotionality & positive relationships…connected?
• Insensitivity of men – less emotional life?
• Sensitivity of women – more emotional life – more vulnerable to
emotions of others?
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V. Marriage & Happiness
One demographic that matters – (quality critical)
A. Survey research: Marriage one of strongest
predictors of happiness.
- Americans & Europeans – married people on average
happier than never-marrieds, divorced, separated, or
widowed.
- Myers: 40% of married say very happy versus 26%
never-married.
- Majority say happy; spouse is best friend and would
marry same person again.
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B. Benefits of Marriage
1. Fundamental human need – Baumesiter belongingness.
Like food & water… nutrient for life…caring
relationship.
2. Friendship, social support, mental health.
Sharing life’s burdens, affection in times of crisis
- end of marriage major link to negative outcomes.
Isolated & lonely higher rates of distress &
mental illness.
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Benefits - continued
3. Married enjoy better physical & emotional health (men
especially).
4. Marriage quality critical –
Drug abuse, conflict, abuse, affairs, jealousy, dominance,
defensiveness, resentment, emotional neglect, etc., linked to
unhappiness and distress.
“Bad marriage worse than no marriage at all.”
C. Which came first – happiness or marriage?
Happy people more desirable partners.. more likely to get married?
Selection effects – some evidence, but small…
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D. Adaptation to Marriage…
Does the Honeymoon Last?
Lucas, Clark, Georgellis, & Diener
- 15 year study of 24,000 people - Germany
- Measured:
Pre- and post-marriage levels of happiness & happiness
every year for 15 years. Pre- and post-happiness of
widows.
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- Found:
Small boast in happiness after marriage (one tenth on 11-pt.
scale.
This small gain faded in subsequent years of
marriage.
Widowed showed long-term decreases in happiness –
rebounded but not to pre-widow levels.
Strong individual differences (wash-out effect):
About 50% of married increased long-term levels of
happiness.
About 50% were far less happy.
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Hedonic Leveling
- Most satisfied people had least positive reaction to getting married
and most negative reaction to divorce & widowhood.
Happy person has less to gain from marriage and most to lose.
- Unhappy people had strongest positive reactions to marriage and
less negative to divorce & widowhood.
Unhappy people benefit most from marriage and suffer less from
widowhood and divorce.
Overall effect: hedonic leveling
Differences in impact of marriage/death in population “leveled” by
initial differences in happiness. Big individual difference effects
leveled or washed out of overall averages.
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Eudaimonic View
-Too much focus on happiness in marriage.
Health more important – healthy marriages involve
conflict necessary for growth & development, i.e.,
willingness to be unhappy.
Unhappiness at one point in time leads to greater
happiness later.
Health & happiness not the same thing.
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VI. Other Facts
- Physical & Mental Health
Poor mental health always connected with
unhappiness - e.g., depression.
Physical health if extreme, terminal, long-term
Self-reported health and well-being r =.32
But adaptation…objective condition & subjective
evaluation r =.16
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Other Facts
Unemployment
Potential to produce long-term decreases in well-being.
IQ & Education
Smart people happier…no.
Education…small positive advantage..more education-happier.
Effect caused by increased job satisfaction…get better job that is
more personally expressive.
Religion
90-95% of Americans believe in God or higher power.
67% go to church or synagogue.
Small positive correlation between religion and happiness.
Moderate to strong with physical health and longevity.
Social and inner support.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
More Facts
Race, Ethnicity & Stigma
•
Unhappy victims of stereotypes, prejudice, and stigma?
•
African Americans – somewhat lower levels of happiness, but still in
positive range happy – no differences in self-esteem.
•
Studies from children to adults.
•
Differences due to economic inequality and higher poverty rates not
race per se.
•
Asian, Hispanic, & Native Americans do have lower self-esteem than
whites or blacks???
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.