Improved Ash Treatment
Survey on Synergies for Improved Ash Treatment
at Several Bavarian Waste-to-Energy Plants
1.
Approach ......................................................................................................306
2.
Survey of current ash treatment solutions ...............................................306
2.1.
Bottom ash quantities and specifications .................................................306
2.2.
Potential applications of bottom ashes .....................................................308
2.3.
Metal separation and use of reclaimed metals ........................................309
3.
New developments ......................................................................................310
4.
Legal framework..........................................................................................313
5.
Overview of Bavarian Waste-to-Energy plants .......................................314
5.1.
Metal recovery .............................................................................................314
5.2.
Current use of the mineralic bottom ash fraction in Bavaria ...............315
6.
Conclusions and recommendations .........................................................315
7.
References ....................................................................................................315
State-of-the-art Waste-to-Energy plants are reducing the volume of municipal and
commercial waste as well as generating electric power and district heating. This survey
concentrates on bottom ash treatment and utilization from a wet discharge process all
Bavarian Waste-to-Energy – WtE – plants have in common. Minimum treatment of
the bottom ash focusses on removing ferrous and non-ferrous metals as well producing
materials mainly for roadbuilding purposes. The non-organic tailings from this process
are usually landfilled whereas the organic residues are fed back into the incineration
process. Due to the limited landfill volumes available and rising costs the feasibility of
an improved ash treatment was studied for 8 Bavarian WtE plants with respect to costs,
possible co-operations, available landfill volume and material markets.
The bottom ash treatment in Bavaria follows different concepts partly operating on-site
treatment facilities, partly assigning specialized subcontractors. Therefore the quality
of the secondary materials generated, may vary significantly.
The main focus of current research, development and optimization work is to improve
the yields and qualities of the metal fractions which comprise about 12 to 15 percent
305
Waste Incineration
Karsten Wambach, Hermann Nordsieck and Wolfgang Rommel
Karsten Wambach, Hermann Nordsieck, Wolfgang Rommel
Waste Incineration
of the total weight of the bottom ashes. The main part, about 85 percent of the bottom
ash, is mineral and has to be deposited or is – after further processing – used as base
layer for landfill or road constructions. Additionally it is used as backfilling material
in mines, but this application is hardly feasible in Bavaria and requires a transport to
other federal states like Baden-Württemberg.
Forthcoming legislation like the substitute material ordinance may add further restrictions to both the utilization of bottom ashes and mineral building and construction
waste, so that bigger efforts and better treatment might be required in the future. In
this study the feasibility of the implementation of advanced ash treatment technologies
without significant modifications of the existing discharge systems of the WtE plants
is prioritized for a better cost efficiency expected.
1. Approach
The study started with the development of a questionnaire that was send to the involved 8 WtE plants to prepare an overview about the current situation at the plants, ash
volume, storage, treatment and further utilization.
New developments in bottom ash treatment were reviewed in a desk research study.
The possibilities to use the treated ashes as filler materials, base layer applications,
landfilling or even in other utilizations were included.
Additionally, the current state of stakeholder discussions on forthcoming legislation
was examined for its potential impacts on treatment requirements, on bottom ash utilization, disposal and costs. The prevailing legal environment in Germany is expected
to change because of
a) the revision of the European Waste Catalogue, which have to be implemented
and
b) forthcoming new requirements for the use of substitute construction materials.
The results are used to elaborate recommendations for an optimized medium to long
term development strategy for the WtE plants in Bavaria.
2. Survey of current ash treatment solutions
2.1. Bottom ash quantities and specifications
Almost all of the municipal solid waste generated in Bavaria is treated in the 15 WtE
plants operated by members of the Association of Waste-to-Energy Plant Operators in
Bavaria, ATAB. Including the amount of waste from other origins, being treated in
those plants the bottom ashes in 2013 added up to 613.000 tons.
From the bottom ashes approximately 10 percent is recovered in total as iron (ferrous)
scrap (Fe) and non-ferrous metal (NF) [21]. Most of the treated bottom ashes is used
306
Improved Ash Treatment
as a secondary building material on landfill sites or as a back-filler in mines. Only a
small part is used as construction aggregate. About 11 percent of the bottom ashes
generated in Bavaria are landfilled.
MSWI bottom ash mainly consists of aggregates containing a mixture of inert materials – stone, glass, ceramics –, mineral phases formed in the combustion process, salts
and metals. The composition can vary between different MSWI plants because of input
variations and differences in operating conditions. A comprehensive survey on Swiss
bottom ash composition [8] concluded that the average composition has not changed
much in the past decade. They found significant changes in the glass and metals content
only, both decreasing due to changes in municipal solid waste composition.
Fresh bottom ash contains approximately 8 percent of particles below 0.063 mm grain
size – silt and sludge. This fraction is known for leaching, because leachable compounds
of heavy metals such as lead, copper and zinc are enriched in this fraction [17]. The
fractions 0.063 to 2 mm, 2 to 6 mm and 6 to 20 mm have similar shares of 25 to 28
percent of the total composition. Particles with grain sizes exceeding 20 mm occur less
frequently, summing up to 10 percent of the bottom ash weight (Figure 1). In a wet
treatment of bottom ashes, the < 0.063 mm fraction will probably require additional
stabilization or it has to be landfilled due to a lack of application and its hazardous
potential. In the most frequently used wet discharging and subsequent dry processing
of bottom ash the silt and sludge fraction is found adhering to the larger particles of the
other fractions. During ageing of the ashes chemical reactions, setting and agglomeration take place and the small particles become part of larger aggregates. However, the
contaminants in this fraction will be dispersed onto the sand and granulate fractions,
impairing their leaching quality.
share
% dry mass
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
< 0.063
Figure 1:
0.063 - 2
2-6
grain size mm
6 - 20
>20
Fractions of bottom ash – wet sieving, compilation of different sources
307
Waste Incineration
In total, German WtE plants generate almost 5,000 kt per year of bottom ash from
which 400 kt per year of metals are recovered. [16]
Karsten Wambach, Hermann Nordsieck, Wolfgang Rommel
The bottom ash grain size distribution is important for the use as aggregates. Ideally, the
grain size has a smooth distribution, e.g. covering a range from 0.1 to 20 mm according
to (EN 13242:2008). High shares of very fine particles (< 0.063 mm), however, not only
increase the heavy metal and salt concentration but also reduce the frost resistance.
The mean share of fines, 0 to 2 mm, is approximately 40 percent as can be seen in Figure 1.
In this fraction several metals including precious metals can be found. Therefore a large interest can be observed to gain the economic recovery of these metals (see chapter 2.3 below).
Waste Incineration
2.2. Potential applications of bottom ashes
As a mineral product, bottom ash might be used to substitute natural aggregates in
various applications:
Road construction or foundation material
After metals extraction and adjusting maximum grain size, wet extracted bottom ash
has a grain size distribution that meets the specifications of construction aggregates.
The ashes can be compacted to achieve sufficient supporting power serving as base
layers for buildings or roads. To minimize potential pollution from leaching the usage
is restricted to aged bottom ash – lower leaching – covered by a non-permeable layer.
The leaching criteria are usually measured according to [20] and according to the
German Bundesbodenschutzverordnung [1].
Aggregate for concrete production
A utilisation in concrete may be limited to non-armoured concrete for the (corrosive)
salt content of bottom ashes. In addition bottom ashes may still contain some metallic
aluminium even after NF-removal. Upon long term storage the aluminium will oxidize
under volume expansion and the corrosion products will induce stress in the concrete
and cracking can occur. Therefore a prerequisite for the use in concrete is a sufficient
elimination of aluminium metal and ageing of the ash to have residual aluminium
oxidized. If both prerequisites are fulfilled – removal of salt and aluminium – bottom
ash can be successfully blended in concrete materials [6].
Legal restrictions may be present as well. According to [20] in Germany substitute
materials and recycled materials must not contaminate the environment.
Aggregate or filler in asphalt
For the same reasons as above (application in concrete), bottom ash usually is not used
as an aggregate or as filler in asphalt in Germany.
Cement production
Although according to [27] and [13] bottom ash in Italy is used for cement production, bottom ash is regarded not to be suited for that purpose because of e.g. the high
chlorine content in Germany [25]. Additionally, the threshold concentrations of heavy
metals might be exceeded.
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Improved Ash Treatment
2.3. Metal separation and use of reclaimed metals
After leaving the wet discharger a carbonation process of the bottom ash is initiated
and the forming of stable aggregates and mineral phases can be supported by ageing
of the ash for several weeks (e.g. up to 3 months) to reduce the hazardous potential
prior to further treatment [17].
Wet processing – washing – can remove leachates like sulfates and chlorides. Subsequent
wet sieving allows the removal of metals and fines in good quality. Such bottom ash
treatment might be financed by the revenues for the metals recovered.
The metal content has a significant value if it can be extracted efficiently. Basing on
prices for medium quality scrap and assuming a composition of the non-ferrous metals
fraction being similar to other WtE plants [2, 23] the metal content of the Bavarian
bottom ashes has a theoretical cumulated value of 48 million EUR (Figure 2), corresponding to 79 EUR/t of bottom ash. However, yield losses and refining costs of the
metals have to be taken into account, so that the economic optimum in most cases is
well below the theoretical maximum of the total metal extraction. Bunge [5] showed that
the economic optimum of metal extraction depends on the metal prices. At 1 SFR/kg
of reclaimed NF metals, the optimum is in the range of 30 to 50 percent recovery yield
of the NF-metals, whereas at 1.5 SFR/kg, 60 percent NF-recovery or even more might
be economically feasible.
mineral fraction
86 %
nonferrous
kt/a
0.0001
0.0013
1.6
1.5
million EUR/a
4.2
gold
2.5
19
2.3
4%
Fe
10 %
Figure 2:
0.6
silver
1.6
lnox
zinc
11.3
copper
14.2 aluminium
63
12.6
iron/steel
Amount and potential value of metals in Bavarian bottom ash
Sources: bifa results
Böni, D.: Feinstschlackenaufbereitung. ZAR Informationsveranstaltung 21.3.2012. Download: www.zar-ch.ch
Pruvost, F.: Potential for increased aluminium recovery. CEWEP-EAA-Seminar. Copenhagen: CEWEP, 2011
Metal recovery from MSWI bottom ashes is included in the BREF document on waste
incineration [9]. According to the BREF document, both the separation of iron scrap and
the separation of non-ferrous metals are part of the best available technique for the bottom
ash fraction >11 mm.
309
Waste Incineration
Ageing processes on the other hand can reduce the metal yield in conventional refining
processes and additional efforts for proper separation of metals will be required like
crushing, sifting, sensor sorting etc.
Karsten Wambach, Hermann Nordsieck, Wolfgang Rommel
New technologies allow an efficient extraction of valuable materials from aged bottom
ash in the fine fractions 0 to 11 mm and 0 to 2 mm down to a metal particle size of
about 1 mm [32]. Modern sensor based sorting with magnetic separators, eddy current
separators, optical sorting, density sorting and x-ray fluorescence separators (XRF) can
be used to optimize yields [33].
Waste Incineration
When optimizing the iron scrap recovery yield using magnetic separators, additional
weak magnetic material – magnetic iron oxides and stainless steel scrap – may be
caught and cumulated. Some stainless steel in the magnetic ferrous metal fraction can
be enriched via inductive sorting systems [14].
The iron scrap recovered usually contains mineral matter attached as impurity. The
oxides and the mineral matter attached to the scrap will cause additional slag formation in electric arc furnaces of the steel industry where oxides are not reduced during
the treatment. To account for these slags price deductions are made according to the
impurity concentration [19] or the copper content from electric motor windings – meat
balls – caught by magnetic separators. Therefore iron scrap recovered from bottom ash
should be refined at specialized plants before being fed to the steel works to achieve
better revenues.
The non-ferrous metals fraction mainly consists of a light ((partly oxidized) aluminium) and a heavy fraction (copper, zinc and alloys, tin, stainless steel, lead, silver, gold
etc.) [23]. Depending on the original bottom ash grain size fraction from which it was
separated, it can contain up to 30 percent of bottom ash. Further separation from the
bottom ash residues can be achieved by eddy current separators. The heavy fraction
can be separated from the light aluminium one, e.g. by ballistic separators or by sensor
sorting devices. This should be done at the NF scrap processing plants for economic
reasons. The separation of the metals in the heavy fraction may be carried out at the
smelter works.
Transport costs contribute significantly to the total processing costs and should be minimized. For this reason advanced metal recovery technologies could be implemented
at the WtE plants, at the bottom ash recovery plants, and the smelters. Only selected
and enriched ash fractions may be processed in another centralized treatment plant
for economic reasons.
3. New developments
The Dutch Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu and the Association of MSWI plant
operators in the Netherlands agreed on a Green Deal obliging them to find applications
for 50 percent of the bottom ash until 2017 and 100 percent until 2020 [24]. Only the
silt and sludge fraction of bottom ashes will be allowed to be landfilled in future. A little
earlier, the Swiss government changed the waste landfill directive urging MSWI plant
operators to maximize metal recovery from bottom ashes before landfilling [4]. Thus
driven by the need to recover a maximum of metals in Switzerland and to optimize
310
Improved Ash Treatment
leaching quality in the Netherlands, several new developments were initiated. At the
same time in Germany concurrent developments to improve metal recovery and to
generate a mineral product that can be used in additional applications were started.
The development of new techniques can be classified into three groups (Figure 3):
a) Advanced metals separation with conventional techniques: The bottom ash to be
treated is separated into 3 or more grain size fractions and passing eddy current
separators (ECS) separately. This has been realized at several plants [23]. The additional yield on NF metals is 1 to 1.5 percent of the bottom ash weight. According
to the economy of scale large bottom ash treatment plants can profit from this
development.
b) Use of sensor sorting technology: This allows removing residual metal particles
from the bottom ash treated by magnet separator and ECS. The concentrate can
contain significant amounts of the bottom ash and has to be further refined before
it can be used in a smelter. Non-magnetic stainless steel can be separated into an
own fraction via this process.
Disintegration of agglomerates
a) Non-specific comminution (crushing): All metal particles are liberated; however,
the mineral fraction is crushed to sand and has to be disposed of if no other specific
applications could be identified. In this case the mineral phase cannot be used as
construction material any more without further processing. Up to 2 percent additional NF metals can be recovered.
b) Selective disintegration (mechanical): Metal particles are more ductile than the
mineral matrix. Therefore the grains predominantly brake along the metal/mineral
interface. The TAR processor developed by Tartech is a special type of a vertical
impact crusher optimized for a good liberation of the metal parts without crushing
the mineral phase too much. The additional NF metal yield is estimated to be approximately 1 percent [15].
c) Specific disintegration by electric shock waves (electrodynamic fragmentation):
Electric pulse discharges follow conductive paths in an agglomerate in a water bath.
This effect can be used for specific disintegration of bottom ash agglomerates [29].
Due to the wet process the mineral phase residues are washed so that it may be
suitable for an application according to Dutch criteria. The process water has to be
treated and can be reused after removal of the fine bottom ash sludge to be deposited.
An additional yield of iron scrap of 3 percent can be obtained. The NF metals are
separated by sensor sorting; the additional yield is expected to be 2 percent after
upgrading.
311
Waste Incineration
Advanced metals separation
Figure 3:
Classification on bottom ash treatment approaches
Waste Incineration
Karsten Wambach, Hermann Nordsieck, Wolfgang Rommel
312
Improved Ash Treatment
a) Dry mechanical treatment, ballistic separator (ADR Processor): This approach is
offered by Inashco [7]. The ADR-Processor breaks the adhering forces by acceleration of the particles with a cut-off size for minerals of 2 mm. Metal particles down
to 0.5 mm are reported to be released, too. In combination with multiple grain
size ECS separation, up to approximately 1 percent additional NF metals can be
obtained. The mineral matter is split into a quite clean coarse fraction (> 2 mm,
70 percent) and a fine fraction (< 2 mm, 30 percent). The coarse fraction can be
used as an aggregate in concrete applications. Additional research is still necessary
to stabilize the fine fraction and to develop applications for it. The amount of fine
fraction seems to be dependent on the waste incinerated, e.g., if sewage sludge is
incinerated the amount of fine fraction usually rises.
b) Dry mechanical treatment, sieving at 2 mm: This technology has been developed by
former Geodur, a Swiss ash treating company [12, 31]. The fine fraction is treated
by wet processes on site to yield a metal concentrate which is treated at a central
facility. Except of the additional sieving unit at the beginning of the ash treatment
process, there is no difference to a conventional bottom ash treatment system.
Therefore this approach should also work with existing treatment plants. It aims
mainly at small particles of copper and other heavy metals not accessible to ECS
in dry ash treatment systems.
c) Wet sieving to eliminate the very fine ash fraction: This process has been tested by
MARTIN GmbH [11, 18] on an incinerator operating with oxygen enriched air. The
fine fraction was pelletized and fed back into the furnace (Syncom plus process). A
considerable amelioration of the bottom ash quality was reached.
d) Intensive washing of the bottom ash [22, 26, 28]: Several bottom ash treatment
plants have developed systems for washing the whole bottom ash or parts of it
(e.g. the fine fraction). The quality improvement achieved on the coarse bottom ash
fraction is excellent but the sand fraction (0.063 to 2 mm) reaches a lower quality
and sludge is produced, making up approximately 10 percent of the bottom ash.
The revenues of additional NF recovery may pay off for the extra expenses of the
wet process. The sludge has to be landfilled.
4. Legal framework
The prevailing legal environment in Germany is expected to change in the future due to:
• revision of the European Waste Catalogue, which is expected to be implemented
in 2016 and
• forthcoming new requirements for the use of substitute construction materials
– substitute building materials ordinance –
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Waste Incineration
Elimination of a – very – fine grain fraction
Karsten Wambach, Hermann Nordsieck, Wolfgang Rommel
The current state of draft versions and
stakeholder discussions on forthcoming
47 %
legislation was examined for its future
landfill disposal
potential impacts on treatment requi11 %
rements, on bottom ash utilization,
metals for recovery
landfill disposal and costs. The German
11 %
transposition of the revised European
other recovery
list of wastes passed the cabinet and is
5%
in the parliamentarian process now.
mine backfilling
The application of hazardous properties
16 %
(HP) criteria according to the commisfilling
sion regulation (EU) No 1357/2014 of
11 %
18 December 2014 replacing Annex
Figure 4:
Current use of Bavarian MSWI bottom III to Directive 2008/98/EC of the Euash
ropean Parliament will be mandatory.
The new hazardous class and category
codes have to be used from (EC) No 1272/2008 on the classification, labelling and
packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP regulation) – since 1 June 2015 – on a
European level. The new hazardous category codes might cause some changes in the
classification of wastes.
Waste Incineration
landfill construction
A new draft version of the substitute building materials ordinance was issued recently
and the discussions will go on. Bigger obstacles can be expected in the use of recycled
mineral building and construction materials and bigger amounts might have to be
landfilled. The bottom ashes might hardly be usable as construction materials anymore and might have to compete with huge amounts of the constructions materials
for affordable but limited landfill volumes.
5. Overview of Bavarian Waste-to-Energy plants
A questionnaire was sent to the operators of the Bavarian WtE plants to collect information about bottom ash output, quality, treatment and utilization. Most of the plants
have their ashes treated and utilized externally by third party service providers, who
may be quite efficient in the reclamation of metals. The mineral fraction is utilized as
filler or base layer material at landfill sites or is even disposed of. The plants contacted
cover about 75 percent of the total bottom ash amount produced. Therefore the answers
are regarded as quite representative.
5.1. Metal recovery
Most of the WtE plants only recover coarse ferrous scrap on site and leave the rest to
separate bottom ash processing plants separating NF-metals from various plants. The
non-ferrous metal recovery is not always optimized, summing up to about 0.75 percent
of the bottom ash produced. The amount of iron scrap is reported to be 8.7 percent.
314
Improved Ash Treatment
5.2. Current use of the mineralic bottom ash fraction in Bavaria
Only two bottom ash processing plants have access to waterway transport allowing
long distance transport at reasonable prices. Mine backfilling requires transport by
train or truck to a bottom ash treatment facility close to a former salt mine in BadenWürttemberg.
6. Conclusions and recommendations
Bavarian bottom ashes are hardly used as construction materials apart from landfill
construction today. Since all plants are currently using wet discharging processes the
recommendations for future improvements on the recovery of metals and reduction of
its hazardous potential were elaborated accounting for the special situation in Bavaria.
New developments in ash treatment offer a good potential to improve yield and quality
in metal recovery by better sifting processes in more fractions, in combination with
moderate crushing to extract metals, remove contaminants and increase yield and
quality of the products. The additional metal amounts to be extracted can be realized
by a step by step upgrade of crushing, sifting and sensor based sorting machines partly
at the WtE plants, the ash treatment companies and the smelters. A wet processing of
selected, bottom ash fractions can further reduce a hazardous potential but should
be introduced with a good eye to the resulting wastewater treatment facilities to be
installed and the landfill costs for the sludge.
Forthcoming legislation like the substitute construction material ordinance might
have a large impact on the future use of recycled building and demolition materials in
competition to the current utilization of treated bottom ashes and may even have the
potential change existing disposal paths.
7. References
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17.08.2015
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www.zar-ch.ch
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Kraftwerksnebenprodukte, MVA-Schlacken und Recycling-Baustoffe. In: Thomé-Kozmiensky,
K. J. (ed.): Mineralische Nebenprodukte und Abfälle – Aschen, Schlacken, Stäube und Baurestmassen. Neuruppin: TK Verlag Karl Thomé-Kozmiensky, 2014, pp. 117-128
[4] Bundesrat: Technische Verordnung über Abfälle (TVA). Bern, 2011
315
Waste Incineration
Figure 4 gives an overview about the current use of WtE bottom ashes in Bavaria. The
predominant share of landfill disposal or use as a landfill site construction material is
due to abundant availability of cheap natural aggregates in Bavaria and to the quite low
prices for landfilling of bottom ash. A substitution of natural aggregates in construction
projects by refined bottom ash in Bavaria is currently not competitive.
Karsten Wambach, Hermann Nordsieck, Wolfgang Rommel
[5] Bunge, R.: Wertstoffgewinnung aus KVA-Rostasche. In: Schenk, K. (ed.): KVA-Rückstände in
der Schweiz. Der Rohstoff mit Mehrwert. Bundesamt für Umwelt, Bern, 2010, p. 170-182
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2012. Gouda, Stichting CURNET, 2012
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[22] Lück, T.: Die weitergehende Aufbereitung von Müllverbrennungsschlacke nach dem Verfahren
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CEWEP, 2011
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