Social-Learning
Approach
Albert Bandura
ICSP254 Theories of Personality
Albert Bandura
• Like Skinner, Bandura focuses on overt behavior rather than
on needs, traits, drives, or defense mechanisms.
• Unlike Skinner, Bandura allows for internal cognitive variables
that mediate between stimulus and response
• Bandura observed human subjects in social setting
Social Learning Theory
• We cannot expect data from experiments that involve no
social interactions because few people truly function in social
isolation
• Observational learning – learning new responses by observing
the behavior of other people
• Vicarious reinforcement – by observing the behavior of other
people and the consequences of that behavior
Social Learning Theory (2)
• Internal cognition or thought process can influence
observational learning
• We do not automatically initiate behaviors we see other
people displaying.
• Our cognition mediate between the stimuli and target
behavior i.e., to decide whether it’s worth it
Agenda
Observational Learning
Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification
Modeling as Basis of Observational Learning
• Learning occur through observation or example, rather than
solely by direct reinforcement
• Operant conditioning is inefficient and dangerous way to
learn skills such as swimming or driving
Modeling
• Modeling – behavioral modification technique involves
observing the behavior of others (the “model”) and
participating with them in performing the desired behaviors
• Intensity of aggressive behavior remained the same in the
subjects whether the model was seen live, on tv, or as cartoon
character
Disinhibition
• Research shows that behaviors a person usually suppresses
may be performed more readily under influence of a model
• Disinhibition – the weakening of inhibitions or constraints by
observing the behavior of a model
• Ex. People in a crowd may start breaking down windows
(physical aggression) that they would never perform when
alone
Effect of Society’s Models
• Much behavior – good and bad, normal and abnormal – is learned
by imitating the behavior of other people.
• Bandura is concerned about type of society that provides the wrong
models for its children like violent behavior on facebook Live
• Children also acquired non-rational fears through modeling. A child
sees parent nervous around strangers will easily adopt the anxieties
and carry them into adulthood.
• Of course, positive behaviors such as courage and optimism also
learned through modeling as well
Modeling Situation
Characteristic of
Models
• Similar to us
• Model > no
model
• Same age
• Same sex
• Status/prestige
• Simple behavior
> complex
Characteristic of
Observer
• Low self
confidence >
high
• Reinforced
(rewarded) for
imitating
Reward Consequence
• Meaningful
reward
• See model
being rewarded
or punished
Agenda
Observational Learning
Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification
Process of Observational Learning
Attention Processes
• Observational learning will not occur unless subject pays attention to the
model
Variables that influence attentional process:
• Age, sex, status, and degree of similarity between model and subject
• Celebrity models, experts, and those who appear confident and
attractive command greater attention and imitation
• Observer’s cognitive and perceptual skills
• Value of behavior being modeled
• Modeled behavior that produces positive or negative consequences >
neutral outcomes)
Retention Process
• We must be able to remember model’s behaviors in order to
repeat it later
• To retain, we must encode it and represent it symbolically
• We retain information in two ways:
1. imaginal internal representation (mental picture)
2. verbal system (can be rehearsed silently)
Production Process
• Translating imaginal/verbal symbolic representation into overt
behavior
• Initially will be clumsy
• Practice and receiving feedback is needed to produce
smooth performance of behavior
Incentive and Motivational Processes
• We will not do behavior without incentive
• When incentive available, observation is more quickly translated
into action. Incentive also influence attentional and retention
process
• Incentive to learn is influenced by our anticipation of reinforcement
or punishment
• Other factors such as loud sound, bright lights, exciting videos may
capture our interest even without incentive
Agenda
Observational Learning
Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification
The Self
• In Bandura’s theory, the self is not some psychic agent that
determines or cause behavior
• Self is a set of cognitive processes and structures concerned
with thought and perception.
• Two important aspects of Self are self-reinforcement and selfefficacy
Self-Reinforcement
• Self-Reinforcement – we set personal standards of behavior.
We reward ourselves for meeting expectations and punish
ourselves for our failures
• Self-reinforcements can be tangible like new shoes or
emotional such as satisfaction from a job well done
• Self-punishment can be expressed in shame, guilt, or
depression
• Continuing process of self-reinforcement regulates much of
our behavior
Self-Reinforcement
• People who set unrealistic standards (who observed and
learned from unusually talented and successful models) may
continue to try to meet those excessively high expectations
despite repeated failures
• Emotionally they may punish self with feelings of worthlessness
and depression
• Which can lead to self-destructive behaviors
Self-Efficacy
• Self-efficacy – our feeling of adequacy, efficiency, and
competence in coping with life
• Meeting our own performance standards enhances self-efficacy,
failure to meet and maintain them reduces it
• Low in self-efficacy -> feel helpless, unable to exercise control over
life, any efforts is useless, give up when initial attempt is ineffective
as they encounter obstacles
• Low self-efficacy destroys motivation, lower aspirations, interfere
with cognitive abilities, and negatively affect physical health
Self Efficacy (2)
• High in self-efficacy -> believe they can deal effectively with
events and situations, expect to succeed so persevere, high
level performance, view difficulties as challenges, seek new
situations, reduces fear of failures,
• “Power of believing you can”
Sources of Information about Self-Efficacy
• Our judgment about our self-efficacy based on 4 sources:
Performance
Attainment
Previous
success
Vicarious
Experiences
See success
“If they can do it,
so can I”
Verbal
Persuasion
“You can
do it”
Physiological
and Emo
Arousal
How aroused to
judge ability to
cope
Conditions that increase self-efficacy
1. Expose to success experiences by arranging reachable goals
increases performance attainment
2. Expose to appropriate models who perform successfully to
enhance vicarious success experience
3. Provide verbal persuasion to increase belief that they have ability
to perform successfully
4. Strengthening physiological arousal through proper diet, stress
reduction, and exercise programs increases strength, stamina, and
ability to cope
Agenda
Observational Learning
Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification
Childhood
• Infancy, modeling is limited to immediate imitation
• Not yet developed cognitive ability for imaginal and verbal
representation systems needed to imitate behavior some time
after observing it
• Model behaviors repeat several times
• Must be within infant’s range of sensorimotor development
• Age 2, can begin imitating some time after (vs. immediately)
Childhood (2)
• Reinforcements changed with age (younger – physical stimuli
like food, affection, punishment, older – approval)
• Self-efficacy develops gradually centered on parents
• Gender Differences
High self-efficacy men = warn relationships with fathers. Mothers
were demanding and pressure for high achievement
High self-efficacy women = pressure from fathers for high
achievement
Childhood (3)
• Birth order and gender of siblings play a role in development
of self-efficacy
• Teachers and peers become important, children rate their
own competence in term’s of teacher’s evaluations and
peers’ performances
Adolescence
• Transitional experiences
• Must establish new competencies and appraisals of their
abilities
• Success of this stage depends on level of self-efficacy
established during childhood years
Adulthood
Young Adulthood
• Adjustments such as marriage, parent, career
• High self-efficacy is necessary for successful outcomes
• Research shows women high in self-efficacy about parenting
skills experience less stress and promote self-efficacy in children.
Middle Ages
• People re-evaluate careers, families, and social lives and find
new opportunities for enhancing our self-efficacy
Old Age
• Difficult with declining mental and physical abilities
• Lowering self-efficacy affect physical/mental functions
• Self-efficacy is crucial factor in determining success or failure
throughout entire life span
Agenda
Observational Learning
Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification
Behavior Modification
• Bandura’s goal in developing his theory was to modify or
change learned behaviors that society considers undesirable
or abnormal
Fears and Phobias
• Modeling techniques to eliminate fears
• Children who were afraid of dogs observe a child of same age
playing with a dog
• Guided participation – watch a live model and then participate
with the model
• Ex. Subjects watch a live model handles snake from outside room.
Then subject enters the room with model. Then wearing gloves and
touched the snake. Eventually touch snake without gloves
Fears and Phobias
• Covert modeling – subjects are instructed to imagine a model
coping with the feared stimulus.
• Overcoming fears can expends their environment (e.g., real
estate agent can show more houses after eliminating fear of
snakes) and increase a person’s self-efficacy
Advantages of Modeling
• Can edit to relevant part, can replay, can be used with
groups to save time, improved self-efficacy
Anxiety
• Fear of Medical Treatment
Child scheduled for surgery that had never been in hosp before
shows modeling film effective in reducing anxiety
• Test Anxiety
Exam does not reflect true knowledge due to test anxiety
Modeling ways to deal with test anxiety
Ethical Issues
• Behavioral modification exploits people, manipulating and
controlling them against their will
• Bandura argued that client has self-awareness and actually
increase personal freedom (i.e., people afraid to leave house
are not truly free)
Questions about Human Nature
Past
Present
• Past or Present?
Childhood learning important (self-efficacy
est in childhood)
• Free Will or Determinism?
Free Will
Determinism
Nature
Nurture
Behavior controlled by person through
cognitive process and by environment
through external social situations called
reciprocal determinism
• Nature or Nurture?
Behaviors are learned
Questions about Human Nature
Uniqueness
Universality
• Unique or Universal?
Learning takes place in the same manner
• Equilibrium or Growth?
Equilibrium
Growth
Able to grow as childhood learned
behaviors can be unlearned later in life
• Optimism or Pessimism?
Optimism
Pessimism
Notion of self-directed behavior
represents optimistic view