Chapter 8
Motivation
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Lecture outline
• The nature of motivation
• Need theories
• Cognitive theories
• Reinforcement theory
• Social learning theory
• The human resource management
framework
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The nature of motivation
Motivation is the force energising or
giving direction to behaviour.
It is a complex interaction of
behaviours, needs, rewards and
reinforcement and cognitive activities.
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The nature of motivation
ability X motivation X environmental
conditions
=
performance
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Need theories
Hierarchy-of-needs theory (Maslow)
Argues that individual needs form a five-level
hierarchy.
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Hierarchy of needs
Self-actualisation
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
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Need theories
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Argues that hygiene factors are necessary to
keep workers from feeling dissatisfied, but
only motivators can lead workers to feel
satisfied and motivated.
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Need theories
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
• Hygiene factors
Factors seeming to make individuals feel
dissatisfied with their jobs
• Motivators
Factors seeming to make individuals feel satisfied
with their jobs
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Need theories
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
• Hygiene factors
- Pay
- Working conditions
- Supervisors
- Company policies
- Fringe benefits
These factors help prevent dissatisfaction.
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Need theories
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
• Motivators
- Achievement
- Responsibility
- Work itself
- Recognition
- Growth
- Advancement
These factors promote satisfaction.
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Need theories
ERG theory (Alderfer)
Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory,
which argues that there are three levels of
individual needs.
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Need theories
ERG theory (Alderfer)
• Existence needs
Material and physiological desires
• Relatedness needs
Need to be accepted and to interact
• Growth needs
Need for creativity and productive impact
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Need theories
Acquired-needs theory (McClelland)
Argues that our needs are acquired or learned on
the basis of our life experiences.
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Need theories
Acquired-needs theory (McClelland)
• Need for achievement
Desire to accomplish challenging tasks
• Need for affiliation
Desire to have warm, friendly relationships
• Need for power
Desire to influence and control
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Cognitive theories
Expectancy theory (Vroom)
Argues that we consider three main issues (effortperformance, performance-outcome and valence)
before we expend effort necessary to perform at a
given level.
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Cognitive theories
Expectancy theory (Vroom)
• Effort-performance expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our efforts will
lead to the required level of performance.
• Performance-outcome expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our successful
performance will lead to desired outcomes.
• Valence
Our assessment of anticipated value of various
outcomes or rewards.
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Cognitive theories
Equity theory (Adams)
Argues that we prefer situations of balance, or
equity.
Implications for managers:
–
–
Communication essential to assess equity/inequity
perceptions in employees
Complementary to expectancy theory
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Cognitive theories
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory [technique] works by focusing
attention and action, mobilising effort, increasing
persistence, and encouraging the development of
strategy to achieve goals.
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Reinforcement theory
Argues that our behaviour can be
explained by consequences in the
environment.
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Reinforcement theory
Types of reinforcement:
• Positive
Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to
encourage desired behaviour. Use of shaping.
• Negative
Uses unpleasant stimuli so that an individual will
engage in the desired behaviour to stop the
stimuli.
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Reinforcement theory
Types of reinforcement (contd):
• Extinction
Stopping previously available positive outcomes
from a behaviour to decrease the behaviour.
• Punishment
Providing negative consequences to decrease or
discourage a behaviour.
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Reinforcement schedules
Fixed interval:
given on fixed time
schedule. Uneven
responses; extinction
rapid if reinforcement
late, or stops
Fixed ratio:
given after fixed number
of cases of desired behaviour.
High response rates, rapid
extinguishment if stopped
even temporarily
Variable interval:
given on variable or
random time basis.
High, steady
response rate, slow
extinguishment
if stopped
Variable ratio:
given on variable or
random frequency
of behaviour basis.
High response rate,
very slow extinguishment
Using
reinforcement
theory:
encourage desired
behaviour, be clear
on what is desired.
Use variable interval
& variable ratio
reinforcement.
Punish moderately
severely & promptly.
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Social learning theory
Social learning theory (Bandura)
Argues that learning occurs through continuous
reciprocal interaction of our behaviours, various
personal factors and environmental forces.
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Social learning theory
Learning occurs by continuous
interaction between our behaviours,
personal factors and environmental
forces.
3 related processes:
• Symbolic processes
• Self-control/regulation
• Vicarious learning
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Motivation and strategic
HRM
Human resource management (HRM)
Those management functions concerned with
attracting, maintaining and developing people in
the employment relationship.
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The HRM framework
Theories of HRM
• Proactive approach, link to strategic
planning & cultural change
• View of people as capital, not cost
• Possibility of mutually beneficial
relationship between stakeholders
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Establishing the
employment relationship
Job analysis
The systematic collecting and recording of
information about the purpose of a job, its major
duties, the conditions under which it is performed,
the required contacts with others and the
knowledge, skills and abilities needed to perform
it effectively.
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Establishing the
employment relationship
Recruitment
The process of finding and attracting job
candidates capable of effectively filling job
vacancies.
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Establishing the
employment relationship
• Selection process:
The decision-making system used to identify which job
applicants are best suited to the vacant position.
• Reliability:
The degree to which the decision process will measure the
same thing consistently.
• Validity:
Whether the decision process actually measures what it
sets out to measure.
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Maintaining the relationship
• Remuneration/benefits
The financial payment to employees for their work.
• Training
The process of equipping people with skills and
competencies.
• Development
Broad preparation of employee for future opportunities
through the acquisition of new knowledge or skills.
• Performance management/appraisal
Judgmental assessment of employee performance.
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HRIS, Internet, intranets and
extranets
• HRIS
Human Resource Information System
• Internet
Global connection of computer servers through which users
can access stored information from their PCs
• Intranets
Closed networks of information databases and systems
within an organisation
• Extranets
Closed networks of information systems between
organisations
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The future of work
• Fewer core employees
• Increased part-time, casual and
temporary staff
• Teleworking
• Temporary agency work, short-term
labour hires, on-call and contract
workers
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Terminating the relationship
• Retrenchment
The forced termination of the employment relationship due
to financial, technological or organisational circumstances.
• Redundancy
A forced termination of the employment relationship
resulting from the permanent deletion of specific positions.
• Dismissal
Occurs when the employer gives the required notice to
terminate the employment relationship.
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Corporate responsibility
The human resource challenge:
Achieving a balance of profit in conjunction with
socially responsible practices
HRM helps shape behaviour in
organisations and promotes motivation.
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Lecture summary
• Understanding motivation: ability, environment and
•
•
•
•
performance
Need theories: Maslow, Herzberg, ERG,
McClelland’s acquired needs
Cognitive theories: expectancy, equity, goal setting
Reinforcement theory: positive and negative
reinforcement, extinction and punishment
HRM: aligning with organisational goals–
establishing, maintaining and managing the
employment relationship
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