Crystallized Knowledge (Gc)
The breadth and depth of
acquired knowledge of a culture
& the effective application of this
knowledge.
Language Development (LD)
The understanding and
application of words,
sentences, and paragraphs in
spoken native language.
List Comp
Oral Expression
Math Calc
Writing
Reading Fluency
Math Reasoning
Broad Area of Cognitive
Processing
Narrow Ability
Basic Reading
Reading Comp
Broad/Narrow Cognitive Processes with Link to Achievement* and Interventions
Interventions
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Lexical Knowledge (VL)
The extent vocabulary can be
understood in terms of
correct word meanings.
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Listening Ability (LS)
The ability to listen and
understand oral
communication.
General Information (KO)
The range of general
knowledge.
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Creating a language rich environment (Hart & Risley, 2003)
Reading aloud to the child (Adams, 1990)
Intentional explicit word instruction (National Reading Panel, 2000)
Provide visual representation of the information using semantic maps (Sinatra et
al., 1985)
Independent word-learning strategies (Context clues, using reference tools,
instruction in morphology) (National Reading Panel, 2000)
Directed vocabulary thinking activity to learn to uses context to infer the meaning
of words (Graves, 2000)
Frequent exposure and practice with words (Hart & Risley, 2003)
Increased time spent reading (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1991)
Direct instruction in morphology (Carlisle, 2004)
Use relevant computer programs (Davidson, Elcock, & Noyes, 1996)
Creating a language rich environment (Hart & Risley, 2003)
Reading aloud to the child (Adams, 1990)
Intentional explicit word instruction (National Reading Panel, 2000)
Provide visual representation of the information using semantic maps (Sinatra et
al., 1985)
Independent word-learning strategies (Context clues, using reference tools,
instruction in morphology) (National Reading Panel, 2000)
Directed vocabulary thinking activity to learn to uses context to infer the meaning
of words (Graves, 2000)
Frequent exposure and practice with words (Hart & Risley, 2003)
Increased time spent reading (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1991)
Direct instruction in morphology (Carlisle, 2004)
Use relevant computer programs (Davidson, Elcock, & Noyes, 1996)
Pre-teach vocabulary and symbols. Especially in ways that promote connection to
the learners’ experience and prior knowledge
Highlight how complex terms, expressions, or equations are composed of simpler
words or symbols
Embed support for vocabulary and symbols within the text
Early exposure to language (Moats, 2001)
Reading aloud to the child (Adams, 1990)
Direct instruction in vocabulary (Beck & McKeown, 2001)
Directed vocabulary thinking (Graves, 2000)
Outline provided of key points in lectures or oral instruction (Wallach & Butler,
1994)
Fluid Reasoning (Gf)
The ability to use and engage in
various mental operations when
faced with a relatively novel task
that cannot be performed
automatically.
Induction (I)
The ability to discover the
underlying characteristics that
govern a problem or set of
materials.
General Sequential Reas (RG)
The ability to reason and draw
conclusions from general
conditions to the specific.
Quantitative Reasoning (RQ)
Ability to inductively (I)
and/or deductively (RG)
reason with concepts
involving math.
List Comp
Oral Expression
Math Calc
Writing
Reading Fluency
Math Reasoning
Broad Area of Cognitive
Processing
Narrow Ability
Basic Reading
Reading Comp
Broad/Narrow Cognitive Processes with Link to Achievement* and Interventions
Interventions
• Make meaningful associations by using graphic organizers to help arrange the
information conceptually and link new information to known information
(Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001)
• Teach students to compare new concepts to previously learned concepts using
analogies, metaphors, or similes (Greenleaf, 2005)
• Teach metacognitive and problem-solving strategies (Manning & Payne, 1996)
• Use teacher demonstrations with think-aloud procedure followed by guided
practice with feedback (Klauer, Willmes, & Phye, 2002)
• Use experiential learning (Sousa, 1998)
• Use instruction that combines physical activities with problem-solving tasks
(Kandel & Squire, 2000)
• Teach student to use self-questioning techniques, identify main ideas and
themes, classify and categorize objects, attend to organizational cues, and
implement strategies (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996)
• Provide repeated opportunities to sort and classify objects (Quinn, 2004)
• Develop skills in categorization and drawing conclusions, that involve connecting
new concepts to prior knowledge, that use demonstration, guided practice, and
feedback (Klaur, Willmes, & Phye, 2002)
• Provide repeated opportunities to sort and classify objects (Quinn, 2004)
• Develop skills in categorization and drawing conclusions, that involve connecting
new concepts to prior knowledge, that use demonstration, guided practice, and
feedback (Klaur, Willmes, & Phye, 2002)
• Provide cooperative learning groups and reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown,
1984)
• Provide repeated opportunities to sort and classify objects (Quinn, 2004)
• Develop skills in categorization and drawing conclusions, that involve connecting
new concepts to prior knowledge, that use demonstration, guided practice, and
feedback (Klaur, Willmes, & Phye, 2002)
• Provide cooperative learning groups and reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown,
1984)
• Developing number sense (Griffin, 1998)
• Use of manipulatives (Butler, Miller, Crehan, Babbitt, & Pierce, 2003)
• Sequential direct instruction (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003)
Visual Processing (Gv)
The ability to generate, store,
retrieve, and transform visual
images.
Spatial Relations (SR)
The ability to rapidly perceive
and manipulate visual
patterns or to maintain
orientation with respect to
objects in space.
Visualization (Vz)
The ability to mentally
imagine, manipulate or
transform objects or visual
patterns and to predict how
they would appear under
altered conditions.
Visual Memory (MV)
The ability to form and store a
mental image of a visual
shape and then recognize or
recall it later.
Closure Speed (CS)
The ability to quickly identify
a familiar meaningful visual
object from vague, partially
obscured, or disconnected
visual stimuli, without
knowing in advance what the
object is.
List Comp
Oral Expression
Math Calc
Writing
Reading Fluency
Math Reasoning
Broad Area of Cognitive
Processing
Narrow Ability
Basic Reading
Reading Comp
Broad/Narrow Cognitive Processes with Link to Achievement* and Interventions
Interventions
• Provide interventions that are designed to develop the ability to discriminate
visual features, mentally manipulate visual images, match and recall visual
information (Greenleaf, Wells-Papanek, 2005)
• Employ multisensory teaching methods (Williams, Richman, & Yarbrough, 1992)
• Use verbal labeling to describe visual forms as they are manipulated and
represented spatially (Kibel, 1992)
• Use interventions that are verbal, concrete, systematic, and reinforce
organization and structure (Fletcher et al., 1995)
• Enlarging print materials
• Reducing the amount of visual information seen at one time
• Provide tools to support visual tracking
• Making use of color coding
• Using auditory modalities to compensate for limitations in visual memory
• Use language to describe visual information
• Read written directions aloud
• Break assignments into clear, concise steps
• Give examples and point out the important details of visual information
• Draw attention to the part of the picture that contains information for a particular
question
• Allow student to write answers on the same sheet of paper as the question
• Provide paper for writing and math work that has darker or raised lines to make
boundaries more distinct
• Use a ruler as a reading guide
• Highlight or color code important information
• Before writing letters or essays. Create an outline to simplify and organize ideas
• Provide descriptions (text or spoken) for all images, graphics, video, or animations
• Use touch equivalents (tactile graphics or objects of reference) for key visuals that
represent concepts
• Provide physical objects and spatial models to convey perspective or interaction
• Provide auditory cues for key concepts and transitions in visual information
• Give examples and point out the important details of visual information
• Draw attention to the part of the picture that contains information for a particular
question
List Comp
Oral Expression
Math Calc
Writing
Reading Fluency
Math Reasoning
Broad Area of Cognitive
Processing
Narrow Ability
Basic Reading
Reading Comp
Broad/Narrow Cognitive Processes with Link to Achievement* and Interventions
Interventions
Spatial Scanning (SS)
The ability to quickly and
accurately visually explore a
wide or complicated spatial
field or pattern and identify a
particular path through the
visual field.
Flexibility of Closure (CF)
The ability to identify a visual
figure or pattern embedded in
a distracting or disguised
visual pattern, when knowing
in advance what the pattern
is.
Orthographic processing
The ability to recognize words
by their letter patterns and to
apply the alphabetic principle
to print.
Short-Term Memory (Gsm)
The ability to apprehend & hold
information in immediate
awareness & then use it within a
few seconds.
Memory Span (MS)
The ability to attend to and
immediately recall temporally
ordered elements in correct
order after a single
presentation.
Working Memory (MW)
Ability to temporarily store
and perform a set of cognitive
operations on information
that requires divided
attention and the
management of the limited
capacity resources of shortterm memory.
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Keep oral directions short and simple
Ask student to paraphrase directions to ensure understanding
Provide visual cues for the directions or steps to be followed
Spend time studying and rehearsing information
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Teach mnemonics to aid recall (Wolfe, 2001)
Rehearsal of information to be remembered (Squire & Schacter, 2003)
Use chunking or grouping strategies (Dehn, 2008)
Practice, Review, and specific instruction in memory strategies (Buchel, Coull, &
Friston, 1999)
• Teach the student how to chunk information which allows then to group related
items into units, making the information more manageable to understand, store,
and recall. (Hardiman, 2003)
• Rehearsal of information to be remembered (Squire & Schacter, 2003)
• Use chunking or grouping strategies (Dehn, 2008)
Processing Speed (Gs)
The ability to automatically and
fluently perform relatively easy
or over-learned cognitive tasks,
especially when high mental
efficiency (i.e., attention and
focused concentration) is
required.
List Comp
Oral Expression
Math Calc
Writing
Reading Fluency
Math Reasoning
Broad Area of Cognitive
Processing
Narrow Ability
Basic Reading
Reading Comp
Broad/Narrow Cognitive Processes with Link to Achievement* and Interventions
Evidence-Based Interventions
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Perceptual Speed (P)
Ability to rapidly and
accurately search, compare
and identify visual elements
presented side-by-side or
separated in a visual field.
Rate-of-Test-Taking (R9)
Ability to rapidly perform
tests which are relatively easy
or over learned (require very
simple decisions).
Number Facility (N)
Ability to rapidly and
accurately perform basic
arithmetic.
Speed of Reasoning (RE)
Speed or fluency in
performing tasks (e.g.,
quickness in generating as
many possible rules,
solutions, etc., to a problem)
in a limited time.
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Extending time
Reducing the quantity of work required
Break large assignments into two or more component assignments
Eliminating or limiting copying activities
Increase “wait” times after questions are asked and after responses are given
Provide copy of notes rather than requiring student to copy from the board in a
limited time
Build the student’s efficiency in completing work through building automaticity.
Provide timed activities to build speed and automaticity with basic skills.
Emphasize accuracy rather than speed.
Provide a scribe or voice-to-text software to record answers to accommodate for
slow writing fluency.
Use formats with reduced written output formats (e.g. multiple choice, true/false,
fill in the blank to accommodate for slow writing fluency.
Repetitive practice, speed drills, and computer games that require the student to
make decisions quickly (Mahncke, Bronstone, & Merzenich, 2006)
• Repetitive practice, speed drills, and computer games that require the student to
make decisions quickly (Mahncke, Bronstone, & Merzenich, 2006)
• Repetitive practice, speed drills, and computer games that require the student to
make decisions quickly (Mahncke, Bronstone, & Merzenich, 2006)
• Repetitive practice, speed drills, and computer games that require the student to
make decisions quickly (Mahncke, Bronstone, & Merzenich, 2006)
Long-term Retrieval (Glr)
The ability to store new
information & fluently retrieve
stored information through
association.
Learning Abilities (L1)
General learning rate.
Ideational Fluency (FI)
Ability to rapidly produce a
series of ideas, words, or
phrases related to a specific
condition/object.
Figural Fluency (FF)
Ability to rapidly draw or
sketch as many things as
possible when presented with
a non-meaningful visual
stimulus.
Naming Facility (NA)
Ability to produce names for
concepts rapidly.
Free Recall Memory (M6)
Ability to recall as many
unrelated items as possible, in
any order, after a large
collection of items is
presented.
Meaningful Memory (MM)
Ability to recall a set of items
where there is a meaningful
relation between the items or
the items create a meaningful
story or connected discourse.
Associative Memory (MA)
Ability to recall one part of a
previously learned but
unrelated pair of items when
the other part is presented.
List Comp
Oral Expression
Math Calc
Writing
Reading Fluency
Math Reasoning
Broad Area of Cognitive
Processing
Narrow Ability
Basic Reading
Reading Comp
Broad/Narrow Cognitive Processes with Link to Achievement* and Interventions
Evidence-Based Interventions
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Keep oral directions short and simple
Ask student to paraphrase directions to ensure understanding
Provide visual cues for the directions or steps to be followed
Spend time studying and rehearsing information
• Oral Elaboration (Wolfe, 2001)
• Oral Elaboration (Wolfe, 2001)
• Oral Elaboration (Wolfe, 2001)
• Anchor instruction by linking to & activating relevant prior knowledge (e.g., using
visual imagery, concept anchoring, or concept mastery routines)
• Pre-teach critical prerequisite concepts through demonstration or models
• Bridge concepts with relevant analogies and metaphors
• Make explicit cross-curricular connections (e.g., teaching literacy strategies in
social studies classroom)
• Provide overlearning, practice beyond mastery (Squire & Schacter, 2003)
• Use the keyword method by associating new words to visual imagesto aid recall
of word meanings and learn new vocabulary (Mastropieri, 1988)
• Make meaningful associations by using graphic organizers to help arrange the
information conceptually and link new information to known information
(Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001)
• Use visual representations (Greenleaf & Wells-Papanek, 2005)
• Teach mnemonics to aid recall (Wolfe, 2001)
• Rehearsal of information to be remembered (Squire & Schacter, 2003)
• Demonstration plus a permanent model is effective in mastering computational
mathematics (Smith & Rivera, 1989)
• Use techniques that activate the emotional center of the brain by using humor,
drama, or movement (Leamnson, 2000)
Auditory Processing (Ga)
The ability to notice, compare,
discriminate and distinguish
distinct and separate sounds.
Phonetic Coding: Analysis
(PC:A) The ability to segment
larger units of speech sounds
into smaller units of speech
sounds.
Phonetic Coding: Syn (PC:S)
The ability to blend smaller
units of speech together into
larger units of speech.
Speech/ Sound Discrim
(US/U3) The ability to detect
differences in speech sounds
under conditions of little
distraction or distortion.
Sound Localization (UL) The
ability to localize heard
sounds.
List Comp
Oral Expression
Math Calc
Writing
Reading Fluency
Math Reasoning
Broad Area of Cognitive
Processing
Narrow Ability
Basic Reading
Reading Comp
Broad/Narrow Cognitive Processes with Link to Achievement* and Interventions
Evidence-Based Interventions
For young children:
• Early exposure to sounds, music, rhythms, & language (Strickland, 1991)
• Reading aloud to the child (Adams, 1990)
• Providing opportunities for exploration and manipulation of sounds, words, and
language (Adams, 1990)
• Daily practice with language (Bridge, Winograd, & Haley, 1983)
For older children:
• Explicit, systematic instruction in phonics (National Reading Panel, 2000)
• Use decodable text for daily practice (Meyer & Felton, 1999)
• Use books on tape to increase exposure to the sounds of language (Carbo, 1989)
For young children:
• Early exposure to sounds, music, rhythms, & language (Strickland, 1991)
• Reading aloud to the child (Adams, 1990)
• Providing opportunities for exploration and manipulation of sounds, words, and
language (Adams, 1990)
• Daily practice with language (Bridge, Winograd, & Haley, 1983)
For older children:
• Explicit, systematic instruction in phonics (National Reading Panel, 2000)
• Use decodable text for daily practice (Meyer & Felton, 1999)
• Increase exposure to the sounds of language using books on tape(Carbo, 1989)
• Structure learning environment to reduce distracting noise (Bellis, 2003)
• Increase ability to selectively attend to relevant auditory stimuli (Bellis, 2003)
• Maintain low noise level (Zentall, 1983)
• Seat student close to source of auditory information (Zentall, 1983)
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Structure learning environment to reduce distracting noise (Bellis, 2003)
Increase ability to selectively attend to relevant auditory stimuli (Bellis, 2003)
Maintain low noise level (Zentall, 1983)
Seat student close to source of auditory information (Zentall, 1983)
Resistance to Aud Stim
Distortion (UR) The ability to
understand speech that has
been distorted in one or more
ways.
*Links to achievement are based on information from Essentials of Cross-Battery Assessment, Second Edition (2007)