Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 8
AP Learning Objectives
in Chapter 8
 Motivation and Emotion
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Apply motivational concepts to behavior
Compare motivational theories
Key contributors in motivation & emotion
Biological underpinnings of motivation
Classical research in motivation
Compare theories of emotion
How culture shapes emotional expressions
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The Psychology of Motivation
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In your words, define and give an example of:
Motive
Need
Drive (not drive a car but a drive you have experienced)
Instinct
Homeostasis
Consider each of these in terms of HUMAN motivation.
Theories of Motivation
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Instinct theory
Drive-Reduction theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Optimum Arousal Approach to Motivation
Cognitive Dissonance/Cognitive Consistency (both are
related to arousal theory)
6) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
7) Carol Dweck’s Self-Theory (not in notes, p. 359 text)
8) Self-Determination Theory
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Motivation
Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs
behavior toward a goal.
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation
AP Apply motivational concepts to behavior
Motivation
 Motivation - the process by which activities are started,
directed, and continued so that physical or
psychological needs or wants are met.
 Extrinsic motivation - type of motivation in which a
person performs an action because it leads to an
outcome that is separate from or external to the
person.
 Intrinsic motivation - type of motivation in which a
person performs an action because the act itself is
rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
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LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation
AP Apply motivational concepts to behavior
Instinct Approaches to Motivation
 Instincts - the biologically determined and innate
patterns of behavior that exist in both people and
animals.
 Instinct approach - approach to motivation that assumes
people are governed by instincts similar to those of
animals.
 This is the most basic theory of human motivation and
only accounts for UNLEARNED behaviors.
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LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation
AP Compare motivational theories
Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
 Need - a requirement of some material
(such as food or water) that is essential for
survival of the organism.
 Drive - a psychological tension and physical
arousal arising when there is a need that
motivates the organism to act in order to
fulfill the need and reduce the tension.
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Drive-Reduction Theory
 Drive-reduction theory is the idea that a physiological need
creates a state of tension (a drive) that motivates and
organism to satisfy that need. Eating and drinking are drivereducing behaviors.
People experience a drive arising from a need as an unpleasant tension, so they reduce the
tension by reducing the drive. Drive-reduction relies on extrinsic motivation.
In addition, environmental incentives pull us toward a stimuli. Your hunger drive pushes you
to eat; your favorite food is a stronger incentive to eat than something that has made you sick
in the past or that doesn’t smell good to you.
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation
AP Biological underpinnings of motivation
Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
 Primary drives - those drives that involve needs of the
body such as hunger and thirst.
 Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives that are
learned through experience or conditioning, such as the
need for money or social approval.
 Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to maintain a
steady state.
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LO 8.2 Three types of needs
AP Compare motivational theories
McClelland’s
Three Types of Needs
 Need for achievement (nAch) - a need
that involves a strong desire to
succeed in attaining goals, not only
realistic ones but also challenging
ones.
 Need for affiliation (nAff) - the need
for friendly social interactions and
relationships with others.
 Need for power (nPow) - the need to
have control or influence over others.
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LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation
AP Compare motivational theories
Arousal Approach to Motivation
 Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be
unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation,
such as curiosity.
 Arousal theory - theory of motivation in which
people are said to have an optimal (best or
ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain
by increasing or decreasing stimulation.
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The Yerkes-Dodson Law
 This “law” is the theory that a degree of psychological
arousal (mental alertness) helps performance, but only to
a point.
 The optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of
the task.
 Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance.
 Our behaviors are the result of trying to maintain our
optimal level of arousal.
 We are driven to reach our optimal levels of arousal.
The Yerkes-Dodson Law Examples
Three friends are discussing the ACT test. All of them have
approximately equal levels of intelligence and knowledge. What
makes them different?
Friend A: “I don’t care about the test. I’m not going to college
anyway.”
Friend B: “I want to do well, but if I don’t, it’s not going to
permanently ruin my life. I’ll just retake it.”
Friend C: “If I don’t get a 30 or above, my life is over!”
Using the Yerkes-Dodson Law, who will most likely perform the
best?
LO 8.3
Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation
AP Compare motivational theories
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LO 8.3
Arousal incentive approaches to motivation
AP Compare motivational theories
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Our Need for Balance: Arousal
Theory
 Cognitive consistency maintains that people are motivated
think and behave in ways that meet other people’s
expectations. Example: gender roles
 Balance theory (another name for arousal theory) suggests
people need to maintain a sense of balance by keeping
consistent views and maintaining friendships with “like”
individuals to achieve a state of balance.
 Imbalance (state of disagreement) and nonbalance (state of
indifference) may cause problems within relationships.
Our Need for Balance
 The cognitive dissonance theory states that most people are
motivated (driven) to reduce imbalance and nonbalance in their lives
because they feel the need to be comfortable. Imbalance makes
people uncomfortable.
 If the resulting lack of balance may result in the end of a
relationship, people may try to ignore the problem or avoid dealing
with it.
 Why doesn’t this work? It sounds contradictory to balance theory
and arousal theory. Arousal theory is related to physiological needs,
balance is related to emotional needs, and cognitive dissonance is
related to cognitive needs. If all of these aren’t met, and the missing
ones are ignored, there is a lack of balance.
Our Need for Belonging
 Because we “crave” balance in our lives, affiliation
may become important. Most people equate balance
with belonging and having a sense of purpose.
 The desire (need) to affiliate (be a part of something
larger than oneself) is what makes people driven to
make friends, to join groups, or to participate in
activities.
 Belonging gives you a purpose that beyond your
individual self.
Our Need for Belonging
 Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate because
they cooperated with each other to hunt, to forage, to
survive.
 What makes your life meaningful? What is necessary for
your happiness?
 Why do you think our self-esteem is correlated so highly
with our sense of belonging?
 What do you think? Is technology helping or hurting your
sense of belonging?
 What do you feel like when you are ostracized?
Homeostasis: The End Game of
Arousal Theory
 Homeostasis is simply a return to normal.
 Your body has tendency to maintain a balanced or constant
internal state.
 Balancing our internal states means regulating such things as
hormone levels.
 Think of it like your home thermostat. If it’s set on 72 degrees and it
gets to 74 degrees, the air conditioner will come on. Your body
works the same way if it’s working properly. It releases the
appropriate amount of hormone or neurotransmitter when you
need it.
What’s the Difference between
Drive-Reduction and Arousal Theory?
 Each theory emphasizes something different.
 Drive-reduction focuses on removing deficits.
 Homeostasis focuses on avoiding both deficits and
surpluses.
Which do you think is more effective?
Which describes your motivational style?
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Maslow recognized that some needs take precedence over
others.
 The ultimate goal is to reach self-actualization, the need to
realize full and unique potential.
 Critics fault Maslow’s research methods because his
sample size was too small, he selected his own
participants, and he defined his own terms ambiguously.
 Also, often people do not conform to Maslow’s hierarchy.
LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation
AP Compare motivational theories
Incentive Approaches to Motivation
 Incentives - things that attract or lure people into
action.
 Incentive approaches - theories of motivation in
which behavior is explained as a response to the
external stimulus and its rewarding properties.
 Expectancy-value theories - incentive theories
that assume the actions of humans cannot be
predicted or fully understood without
understanding the beliefs, values, and the
importance that a person attaches to those
beliefs and values at any given moment in time.
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LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
AP Key contributors in motivation & emotion
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Self-actualization - according to Maslow, the point that
is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently
satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human
potential.
 Peak experiences- according to Maslow, times in a
person’s life during which self-actualization is
temporarily achieved.
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LO 8.4
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs AP Key contributors in motivation & emotion
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
AP Compare motivational theories
Self-Determination Theory of Motivation
 Self-determination theory (SDT) - theory of human
motivation in which the social context of an action has
an effect on the type of motivation existing for the
action.
 The three inborn and universal needs according to this
theory are: autonomy (need for control of one’s own
behavior and goals); competence (the need to master
challenges in one’s life); and relatedness (the need for
belonging, security, and intimacy in relationships).
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
LO 8.5
Bodily causes of hunger and social factors
AP Biological underpinnings of motivation
Hunger: Bodily Causes
 Insulin - a hormone secreted by the pancreas to control
the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body
by reducing the level of glucose in the bloodstream.
 Glucagons- hormones that are secreted by the pancreas
to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
in the body by increasing the level of glucose in the
bloodstream.
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LO 8.5
Bodily causes of hunger and social factors
AP Biological underpinnings of motivation
Hunger: Bodily Causes
 Weight set point – the particular level of
weight that the body tries to maintain.
 Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - the rate at
which the body burns energy when the
organism is resting.
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LO 8.9
Bodily causes of hunger and social factors
AP Biological underpinnings of motivation
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LO 8.5
Bodily causes of hunger and social factors
Hunger: Social Causes
 Social cues for when meals
are to be eaten.
 Cultural customs.
 Food preferences.
 Use of food as a comfort device or
escape from unpleasantness.
 Some people may respond to the
anticipation of eating by producing
an insulin response, increasing the
risk of obesity.
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LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior
Eating Problems
 Obesity - a condition in which the body weight
of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal
body weight for that person’s height (actual
percents vary across definitions).
 Anorexia nervosa - a condition in which a
person reduces eating to the point that a
weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body
weight or more occurs.
 Bulimia - a condition in which a person
develops a cycle of “binging” or overeating
enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and
“purging” or deliberately vomiting after
eating.
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LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior
AP Classic research in motivation
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LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior
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LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior
AP Biological underpinnings of motivation
Biological Factors of Eating Problems
 Leptin - a hormone that, when released into the
bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has
had enough food and reduces the appetite while
increasing the feeling of being full.
 Role of leptin in obesity.
 Genetics and obesity.
 Genetics may play a part in anorexia and bulimia, as well
as insensitivity to leptin.
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LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
Elements of Emotion
 Emotion - the “feeling”
aspect of consciousness,
characterized by a certain
physical arousal, a certain
behavior that reveals the
emotion to the outside
world, and an inner
awareness of feelings.
 Display rules - learned ways
of controlling displays of
emotion in social settings.
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LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion
AP How culture shapes emotional expression
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LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
Common Sense Theory of Emotion
 Common Sense Theory of Emotion - a stimulus leads to
an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal.
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LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
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LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon- Bard theories of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
 James-Lange theory of
emotion - theory in which
a physiological reaction
leads to the labeling of an
emotion.
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LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
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LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon- Bard theories of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
 Cannon-Bard theory of
emotion - theory in which
the physiological reaction
and the emotion are
assumed to occur at the
same time.
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LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
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LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
 Cognitive arousal theory –
theory of emotion in
which both the physical
arousal and the labeling
of that arousal based on
cues from the
environment must occur
before the emotion is
experienced.
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LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
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LO 8.9 Schacter and Singer’s classic study of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion
Schacter and Singer’s Study of Emotion
Participants who were exposed
to the “angry” man interpreted
their physical arousal as anger
Participants who were exposed to
the “happy” man interpreted their
physical arousal as happiness.
LO 8.9 Facial feedback hypothesis
AP Compare theories of emotion
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
 theory of emotion that assumes that facial
expressions provide feedback to the brain
concerning the emotion being expressed, which
in turn causes and intensifies the emotion.
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LO 8.9 Facial feedback hypothesis
AP Compare theories of emotion
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LO 8.9 Cognitive-mediational theory
AP Compare theories of emotion
Cognitive Mediational Theory
 Cognitive-mediational
theory - theory of
emotion in which a
stimulus must be
interpreted (appraised)
by a person in order to
result in a physical
response and an
emotional reaction.
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LO 8.9 Cognitive-mediational theory
AP Compare theories of emotion
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AP Compare theories of emotion
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LO 8.10 Positive psychology movement
Positive Psychology Movement
 Positive psychology
movement - a viewpoint
that recommends shifting
the focus of psychology
away from the negative
aspects to a more
positive focus on
strengths, well-being, and
the pursuit of happiness.
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