How Can We Develop
Critical Thinkers?
“Everything flows.” (Panta rei.)
(Brookfield, S.D. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers, Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco.)
Model critical thinking:
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Clarity
Consistency
Openness
Communicativeness
Specificity
Accessibility
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Critical thinkers (1)
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reject standardized formats for problem
solving
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consider a range of related and divergent
fields
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take multiple perspectives on a problem
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view the world as relative and contextual
rather than universal and absolute
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Critical thinkers (2)
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view the world as relative and contextual
rather than universal and absolute
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frequently use trial-and-error methods in
their experimentation with alternative
approaches
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have a future orientation
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have trust in their own judgment
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Techniques for
Imagining Alternatives
 Brainstorming
 Envisioning Alternative
Futures
 Developing Preferred Scenarios
 Futures Invention
 Esthetic Triggers
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Brainstorming
is an exercise in structured
spontaneity:
Actively thinking of as many
varied, even outrageous, ideas
as you can
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Brainstorming rules
• the most outrages ideas may
contain kernels of truths that can be
extracted in the process of analysis
• as many ideas as possible (quantity
=> quality)
• build upon, integrate and develop
upon ideas already voiced =>
analysis
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Envisioning Alternative
Futures:
Creating in one’s mind an image
of the desired future
organizational state that can
serve as a guide to interim
strategies, decisions and
behaviors
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Critical thinking comprises
two interrelated processes
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(1) Identifying and challenging assumptions
(2) Imagining and exploring alternatives
Note that, what frequently happens is that one
process occurs without the other: critical of the
assumptions not stopping to suggest alternatives; or,
inventing multiple alternatives without stopping to
analyze critically the assumptions underlying these.
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Critical thinking is a
continuous process composed
of alternating phases of
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reflecting on a problem or theme
testing new solutions, strategies, or
methods on the basis of that reflection
reflecting on the success of these actions in
particular contexts, and
further honing, refining, and adapting these
actions according to alternative contexts
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The central point:
Thinking is an action
The action phases of critical
thinking may be
– internal (mental) or
– external (behavioral)
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More about Critical Thinking
• Processes of critical thinking are personspecific
• Emotions are central to critical thinking
• Intrinsic and extrinsic reasons for thinking
critically are both important
• Critical insight often occurs unexpectedly
• Peer support is crucial to thinking
critically
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Facilitating Critical Thinking
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There is no standard model of
facilitating critical thinking
 Diversity in methods and materials is
necessary
 Perfection is impossible
 Learner satisfaction is not the sole
aim of critical thinking
 Risk taking is important
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Modeling Risk Taking
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Risk taking is essential in the process of
critical thinking; specific to the context
For example, ...
the ability to make informed departures
from the script of a carefully planned
lesson
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Modeling Assumption Analysis
Critically analyzing assumptions is
one of the most difficult of all
capacities to model, since it entails a
willingness to scrutinize one’s
existing givens - an activity that can
frequently be threatening and anxiety
- producing
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Atmosphere of Trust
Building an atmosphere of trust
between teacher and students
• the teacher models openness, honesty,
and integrity
• students sense that the teacher’s word
can be relied upon; that she is not
attempting to keep from them
information about informal
organizational norms or prejudices
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Developing critical Thinking
as Learning Conversation
• Good conversations are reciprocal
and involving
• The course of good conversation
cannot be anticipated
• Good conversations entail diversity
and disagreement
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Critical thinking is
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a productive and positive activity
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a process, not an outcome
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triggered by positive as well as
negative events
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emotive as well as rational
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Manifestations of critical
thinking vary according to the
context in which occurs
Example:
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Components of critical thinking
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Identifying and challenging assumptions
is central to critical thinking
 Challenging the importance of context
is crucial to critical thinking
 Critical thinkers try to imagine and
explore alternatives
 Imagining and exploring alternatives
leads to reflective skepticism
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Learning Contract (750i) Mode of Alternative Assessment
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A title for the project
A statement of purposes and objectives
A description of resources (for example, experts, colleagues, books,
videos, computer software, internet)
A summary of methods (for example, literature reviews, interviews,
questionnaires, observations)
A specification of criteria for assessment
A specification of indicators for judging whether or not these criteria
have been met
A description of data collection techniques by which evaluative
evidence will be collected
A self-evaluation
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