Going Beyond Traditional Career
Development Theories: Individualizing Counseling
Using Cognitive Stage and Experiential
Learning Theories
Dr. Elizabeth Fisher Turesky and Dr. Leigh Gronich Mundhenk
University of Southern Maine
Abstract
William Perry’s cognitive stage development and David Kolb’s experiential learning theories provide
complementary theoretical frameworks,
that when used with traditional career
development theories, provide a holistic
approach to career counseling. In this
article the authors explain how these
theories can be used to better understand their clients’ developmental needs
in order to individualize the career development process.
Going Beyond Traditional Career Development Theories: Individualizing
Counseling Using Cognitive Stage
and Experiential Learning Theories
During the many years that we have
been doing career development work,
we have asked ourselves why some
clients seem to be highly engaged and
self-directed in their work, while others
look to us for direction and answers.
Why do some manage the ambiguity of
the career development process well,
while others find the lack of clarity and
ambiguity unbearable? Why do some
genuinely enjoy engaging in the journey
of self-discovery, while others seem to
resist new ideas and ways of understanding themselves in the world of
work? Why do some relish the possibilities of ideas, but have difficulty making
decisions, while some want to jump
right into the decision-making process
without careful reflection? These responses seem to occur unrelated to age,
gender, and socioeconomic level. These
Dualism
situations that challenge our clients reflect cognitive attributes that may cause
them to experience stress and anxiety
when engaged in career counseling.
We have looked to existing career
development theories, particularly those
that deal with vocational personality and
environment (Holland, 1976), development (Super, 1953), and social learning
(Krumboltz, 1979) to explain these differences. These founding, well-respected theories have informed career
development practice for many years,
but they are based on thinking from the
modern industrial era and, as such,
focus primarily on the career development needs of white middle class men
in traditional organizational systems
(Savickas, 2003). Our inability to fully
understand our clients through traditional theory alone has led us to explore
the use of both cognitive stage development and experiential learning theories
to help inform our career counseling,
advising and teaching. To that end we
have found that Perry’s cognitive stage
development theory and Kolb’s experiential learning theory complement these
existing theories and provide additional
insights and perspectives into how our
diverse clients acquire and integrate career information.
Cognitive Stage Development Theory
Among the best known adult cognitive development models are
Kohlberg’s, Loevenger’s and Perry’s
(1969, 1966, 1999). In our work, we
have found Perry’s (1999) theory to be
Multiplicity
Relativism
highly useful because of its focus on
adult stage development. Cognitive
stage development theory posits that
people advance through stages of cognitive development sequentially, developmentally and predictably. Depending on
the clients’ levels, there are qualitative
differences in the way they approach
and make sense of their world. To that
end, career development professionals
should take a client’s level of cognitive
stage development into account when
counseling or advising (Knefelkamp &
Sleptiza, 1976).
William Perry, who studied the cognitive development of college students
at Harvard in the 1950’s and 1960’s,
found that students go through four
stages (with nine overlapping positions),
of intellectual and ethical development,
initially seeing knowledge as simplistic
and dualistic, and progressing to a level
where their view of the world and themselves is highly complex and contextual
and where they see knowledge as actively constructed by themselves based
on their existing cognitive structures.
He called these stages Dualism, Multiplicity, Relativism and Commitment
(Perry, 1999) as illustrated in Figure 1.
Although one might justifiably
question the generalizability of Perry’s
model to the work we do with adult
clients of both genders, researchers such
as Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and
Tarule (1986) studied women with a
wide range of ages and socioeconomic
levels and found similar developmental
stages. Knefelkamp & Sleptiza (1976),
Commitment
Figure 1.
Canadian Journal of Career Development/Revue canadienne de developpement de carriére
Volume 7, Number 2, 2008
4
Going Beyond Traditional Career Development Theories
students of Perry’s, adapted his stages
and positions to provide a model that
could be used in career development.
Use of Perry’s Theory in Career Development
In the Dualism Stage clients sees
the world in “right and wrong” terms.
Believing there is only one “right” career path for them, they rely on authorities to provide the “right” answers. In
our role as career counselors, we are
often asked by clients in this stage to
tell them which career path they ought
to follow.
Position 1: Clients rely completely
on an external authority to answer
their question, “What is the right
career for me?” and then expect the
authority to provide the “right” answer to their question. The decision
is unexamined; there is no self- processing.
Position 2: Clients begin to believe
that there can be right and wrong
career decisions, which causes them
to have anxiety. Dissonance ensues,
which causes the client to question
the counselor as the right authority.
Still engaging in dichotomous
thinking, the client has little understanding of how to make decisions.
Clients’ thinking in the Multiplicity
Stage is more cognitively complex and
they begin to realize the possibility of
making right and wrong decisions, causing considerable dissonance for them,
fearing that they will make the wrong
decision. To minimize this risk clients
rely on the counselor for help in using
the appropriate decision making
process.
Position 3: Clients come to believe
that there is an increased possibility
that they can make right or wrong
career decisions and that the
process of making good decisions
is quite complex. This creates anxiety for them. While they have seen
others find satisfying careers and
hope they can too, they have also
seen others make decisions that
have led to unsatisfying ones and
believe this can happen to them as
well. They have confidence that the
correct decision making process
will lead them to the right career.
This process consists of many ele-
ments, including examination of
their own identity. Thus, they begin
to see career decision making as a
process involving both external authorities and knowledge of self.
Position 4: Clients believe there are
several possible good choices and
use a decision making process that
weighs the factors, hoping prioritization will lead them to the right
choice. They begin to understand
the role of self in decision-making
but view the role of external influences such as the counselor, family,
the job market, and even what their
assessment tests suggest as more
important.
In the Relativism Stage, clients
move from an external to internal locus
of control (Rotter, 1966). The counselor
is no longer the authority to provide the
right answer, but rather becomes a resource. Clients see many legitimate career possibilities and use an objective
and analytical process that meets their
needs in making a decision, for which
they take responsibility.
Position 5: Clients in this stage
begin exploring, using a process
they create for themselves with the
guidance of a counselor. They
begin to use their analysis of self to
systematically examine various career possibilities. They take ownership for the decisions they make
that result from this careful analysis.
Position 6: Clients begin to experience chaos from examining all the
alternatives and realize that in order
to eliminate this chaos they must
choose, even though they do not
see themselves as ready to do so.
Knefelkamp and Sleptiza (1976)
describe this as a reflective stage
where people consider the consequences of making a decision and
confront the responsibility that goes
with doing so.
In the Commitment Stage, clients
take greater responsibility for the career
decision making process, analyzing and
synthesizing complex information. They
begin to see career choice as a commitment of self, moving initially from fear
of narrowing their choices to viewing
the decision as one that allows them to
join a new world. They begin to inte-
grate career choice as part of their selfidentity.
Position 7: Early in this position
clients fear being defined by the
role they have chosen. Later, however, they come to understand that
they themselves define their own
role and affirm their decision.
Position 8: Clients examine the
consequences, both pleasant and
unpleasant, of the commitment they
have made in their career choice.
They are challenged to reconsider
that which has led to the choice,
such as their values, to reconfirm
their self identity- who they are,
what their beliefs are, and what
they will do with their lives.
Position 9: Clients in this position
have clear knowledge of who they
are. They reach out to the outer
world, seeking out challenges in
order to widen their knowledge and
learn new things in an effort to attain their full potential.
We have found knowledge of our
clients’ stages and positions allows us to
customize our counseling approach to
allow for differences in intellectual processing and meaning making, thus allowing for more developmentally
appropriate counseling approaches.
Experiential Learning Theory
In our work with clients and students we have also seen significant differences in how they learn from their
experiences. Because career development is a learning process, we examined
how differing learning styles affect the
counseling process.
Perry (1999), Piaget (1969), Friere
(1970), Dewey (1958) and Lewin
(1951) stressed that the heart of all
learning lies in the way we process experience, in particular, our critical reflection of experience. To that end, we
have found experiential learning theory,
as developed by David Kolb, complementary to cognitive stage development
and helpful in informing our career development work. Kolb’s experiential
learning theory is consistent with
Perry’s model of how people learn,
grow and develop; both believe the ability to learn from experience is a highly
important life long skill. Experiential
learning theory posits that learning is a
Canadian Journal of Career Development/Revue canadienne de developpement de carriére
Volume 7, Number 2, 2008
Going Beyond Traditional Career Development Theories
holistic process of adaptation to the
world “whereby knowledge results from
the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (Kolb, p. 41).
The process of experiential learning depicts two dialectical modes for grasping
experience; Concrete Experience (CE)
and Abstract Conceptualization (AE),
and two dialectical modes for transforming experience; Reflective Observation (RO) and Active
Experimentation (AE). Experiential
learning theory portrays a continuous
cycle involving these four distinctive
learning modes for processing experience as depicted in figure 2. Present tangible experiences are the basis for
thoughtful reflections; in turn, these are
assimilated into essential meaning as
expressed in abstracted concepts. From
this derived meaning new implications
for action can be drawn and intentionally experimented with in the shaping of
new experiences. For holistic learning
to occur, it is necessary to go through all
of the phases of Kolb’s learning cycle.
Learning thus proceeds as a result of the
utilization of the four adaptive modes.
To be effective, learners require all
four different abilities depicted in the
experiential learning cycle model. A
learner will choose the appropriate
learning abilities needed depending
upon the specific situation. Concrete
Experience is the mode in which experi-
ences are grasped through reliance on
the tangible, felt sensing qualities of immediate experience, such as that coming
from an informational interview or the
first day on a new job. Others perceive
new information through Abstract Conceptualization, relying on conceptual
understanding, symbolic representation,
and analysis of ideas such as analyzing
and synthesizing one’s skills, interests
and values. Similarly, in transforming
dialectical modes some of us tend to reflect on our actions and carefully watch
others in the process while seeking to
understand and derive meaning from the
experience from different perspectives
in Reflective Observation. A client asking for feedback about one’s abilities or
clarifying one’s values and priorities in
life are examples of this reflective
mode. Others choose Active Experimentation where they are action oriented
and initiate or involve themselves in activities such as scheduling meetings for
informational interviews or doing an internship. While each of these dimensions is an independent mode of
grasping experience, in combination
their emphasis on the development of
learning produces the highest level of
learning (Kolb, 1984).
Truly effective learners are able to
rely flexibly on the four learning modes
in whatever combination the situation
requires of the individual. Having de-
CONCRETE EXPERIENCE
“Feeling”
ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION
“Doing”
5
veloped skills in each area, a client can
call on any one of them as needed.
While this may be the ideal, Kolb
(1976, 1984) theorized that while every
individual utilizes each mode to some
extent, each has a preferred mode of
learning resulting from the tendency to
either learn through Concrete Experience, Abstract Conceptualization, Reflective Observation or Active
Experimentation.
We believe that experiential learning theory works well in conjunction
with cognitive stage development theory and concur with William Perry’s
(1999) belief that multiple theories are
needed to explain the complexity of
human learning and meaning making.
Indeed Kolb (1984) himself felt that experiential learning theory complements
Perry’s theory of cognitive stage development.
Early theories of cognitive development, including those developed by Piaget, Kohlberg, Loevenger and Perry
presented development as a linear, sequential process. We believe one of the
major shortcomings of these theories is
that they do not explain the process of
moving from one stage to the next.
While Perry reports his findings about
college students’ experience as moving
from stages of “dualism” to “commitment”, experiential learning theory
frames the developmental process by
REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION
“Watching”
ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION
“Thinking”
Figure 2.
Canadian Journal of Career Development/Revue canadienne de developpement de carriére
Volume 7, Number 2, 2008
6
Going Beyond Traditional Career Development Theories
which one moves to increasingly complex stages.
Kolb’s cyclical model enriches
Perry’s linear theory by integrating the
experiential learning process as a means
of understanding cognitive growth and
development. Kolb describes learning as
a dynamic process, allowing for a more
holistic way of understanding and working with individuals as they move
through their D
stages of development.
Kolb’s model is not an alternative to
Perry’s, but rather a complementary
framework that addresses cognition, experience, perception, and behavior,
thereby embellishing our understanding
of personal development; used together
they provide a more powerful and useful guide to the understanding of individual growth and development than
can either alone. While Perry’s theory
moves us through increasingly complex
stages of intellectual development,
Kolb’s theory provides a way to understand the deeper level learning necessary to prepare one to enter subsequent
stages of cognitive development (see
figure 3). In this way the client incorporates earlier learning from experience
into a new, higher level of cognitive
functioning, much the way we might envision a helix.
Use of Kolb’s Theory in Career Development
When one or more of the four
learning abilities are underdeveloped or
overlooked, holistic learning may be
blocked. And, since career development
entails a learning process, the inability
to use all of these dimensions may well
impede client successes in achieving
goals. Over utilization of a preferred
mode, or under development of another,
can lead to incomplete learning in the
career development process. Career de-
velopment professionals who understand clients’ experiential learning preferences can capitalize on them, while
encouraging the strengthening of underdeveloped modes of learning.
When Reflection predominates over
Abstract Conceptualization, clients may
enjoy gathering a considerable amount
of information, but find it challenging to
analyze it and make a decision. Clients
who are strongest in Abstract Conceptualization may find it rewarding to assimilate disparate facts gathered into a
solid plan for action and yet they may
have difficulty carrying through with
their good intentions because they fear
taking risks. Another pitfall of relying
on the Abstract Conceptualization mode
is that clients may embark on a career
without regard for how well it fits their
personal values and individual needs.
Others may find it challenging to
immerse themselves in an experience,
but have difficulty reflecting upon its
meaning and significance. For example,
one client might rush into an opportunity to act on a career decision without
gaining adequate information or reflecting upon the personal value of that information. When Reflective
Observation predominates at the expense of other modes for learning from
experience, clients may have a flood of
ideas, but be unable to make a decision
to move forward with a plan of action.
When Active Experimentation predominates in the extreme, clients may have a
history of making the same mistakes
over and over again, neglecting reflection upon the experience as part of a
learning process to transform their experience. We so often see clients who participate in numerous interviews without
a resulting job offer; this may be attributed to failure to reflect on the effectiveness of their interviewing skills and
demeanor. Or consider clients who fail
to recognize their need for working in a
collaborative environment and who
have a succession of jobs that consistently isolate them from others. In these
and similar other situations, a counselor’s intervention could guide clients
to greater integration of experience by
encouraging reflection, thus aiding their
development towards a higher level of
cognitive functioning. In this regard,
feedback processes from a counselor
would seek to counter an imbalance between observation and action, either
from a tendency for an individual to emphasize decision and action at the expense of information gathering, or from
a tendency to become bogged down by
data collection and analysis at the expense of risk taking. Ultimately, a holistic learning process seeks to counter
ineffective tendencies by promoting
higher-order purposeful action to
achieve personally directed goals.
Information about clients’ preferred
modes of learning can inform career
counselors in designing an individualized strategy and methodology that enhances their learning and facilitates
growth in cognitive development. For
example, clients whose strengths are in
concrete experience will have a preference for learning through job shadowing
and internships, feedback and discussion, and career coaching. On the other
hand, clients whose learning strengths
are abstract conceptualization will learn
best by conducting their own research
about their career options and welcome
guidance by a counselor who has
knowledge about occupations and asks
thought provoking questions.
It is important for us to recognize,
however, that the comfort with which
clients engage in typical career development activities will depend on their
Learning Cycle
Learning Cycle
Learning Cycle
CE
CE
CE
AE
RO
Dualism
AE
RO
Multiplicity
AC
RO
AE
Commitment
Relativism
AC
AC
Figure 3.
Canadian Journal of Career Development/Revue canadienne de developpement de carriére
Volume 7, Number 2, 2008
Going Beyond Traditional Career Development Theories
stage of cognitive development.
Thus, clients in the early stages of cognitive development whose dominant
mode of learning is abstract conceptualization will not eagerly pursue a higher
order activity such as conducting research until they have developed the
sense of personal agency found in later
stages.
Conclusion
As we learn more about cognitive
stage development and experiential
learning theory, it becomes increasingly
apparent to us that our clients enter career counseling at many different developmental levels and with different
strengths and styles of learning. We believe that a comprehensive career development approach will enable them to
engage in a career development process
that takes their stages of cognitive development and their experiential learning preferences into consideration. We
believe Perry’s cognitive stage development and Kolb’s experiential learning
theories when used together, and in conjunction with traditional career development theories, provide career counselors
with a holistic, integrative, individualized approach to career counseling that
can successfully be used with traditional
career development theories. Thus, experiential learning theory and cognitive
stage development theory provide additional lenses through which we may understand our clients. However,
conducting research using the Learning
Styles Inventory (Kolb, 1999) and the
Learning Environment Preferences
(LEP) (Moore, 1987) would provide
empirical data about the usefulness of
these theories in practice. Nonetheless,
we believe using these theories in counseling not only maximizes the likelihood of successful career outcomes, but
perhaps as importantly engages clients
in a developmental experience that promotes a higher level of cognitive functioning.
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