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Same-sex Marriage: A Historic Shift for Gays and Lesbians
In May 1993, when the Hawaii Supreme Court found the exclusion of same-sex
couples discriminatory under the Hawaii Constitution, the issue of same-sex marriage
began to gain visibility throughout the American media. However, it was during 1996
that a new shift in the history of gay rights took place. After years of court procedures,
Judge Kevin Chang - a Circuit Court Judge in Honolulu - ruled that denying marriage
licenses to same-sex couples in Hawaii was unconstitutional, because the state of Hawaii
failed to find a reason for denying such licenses (Eskridge, 1996). The year 1996 was
critical to gays and lesbians across America, because never before had an issue pertaining
to this minority been so prominently displayed in the American media.
Same-sex marriage has been the front page story in the most important nationwide
newspapers, such as The New York Times, and The Washington Post; been cover stories
of newsweekly and influential general interest magazines, such as Newsweek, and The
New Yorker; and feature stories of the nation’s top six o’clock news, talk shows and
other televised news magazines. Same-sex marriage has also been an element in sitcoms, such as 'Friends' and 'Roseanne', which staged sincere, even sentimental, gay
weddings to sky-high ratings and mere ripples of protest, because, according to Frank
Rich, the public is ahead of politicians in its "live-and-let-live" attitude toward same-sex
marriage (Rich, 1996). Same-sex marriage, therefore, may represent a historic shift for
gays and lesbians across the nation, since their aspirations to legally marry have been
recognized by the American media.
Yet, media attention has not always shed a positive light on the same-sex
marriage issue. Seeking answers, such as the reasons why certain segments of society
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have the compelling interest in denying or extending the traditional values of marriage to
the gay and lesbian minority, this study examines how newspapers across the nation have
reported on the issue of same-sex marriage during the year of 1996, and investigates the
extent to which relatively favorable or unfavorable coverage is linked to specific
variations in city characteristics.
From Stonewall to Hawaii: A Review of the Literature
Numerous articles recognizing the relationship of homosexuality to various
aspects of the media have recently appeared in renowned communication journals, such
as Journalism Quarterly, the Western Journal of Communication, and the Howard
Journal of Communication. A few examples include the analysis of newspaper coverage
of a controversial African-American gay poem aired on public television called
"Tongues Untied" (Aufderheide, 1994); the stigmatization of homosexuals and persons
with AIDS in American society (LePoire, 1994); the distinction between the gay male
and lesbian liberation movements in the United States (Slagle, 1995); the difficulties that
homosexual couples face and the styles of communication they use in everyday life
(Steen, 1995); how the media can be influenced by organizations perpetuating negative
homosexual stereotypes (Moritz, 1995); and the attitudes of Americans towards
homosexuality and their attention to news about AIDS (Kennamer, 1995).
However, the issue of same-sex marriage, which has the potential to revolutionize
the entire social fabric of the nation, remains virtually unexplored by communication
scholars. One article, published in the Howard Journal of Communications, dealt
peripherally with the same-sex marriage issue, reporting on the repercussions and ethics
of gay and lesbian "wedding" announcements in newspapers. The word wedding was
3
kept in quotation marks by the author to reinforce the idea that these ceremonies among
gay men and among lesbians only represent a private commitment and not a legal
accomplishment (Jensen, 1996). Other articles exploring the same-sex marriage issue
were published in journals that focus on gay and lesbian studies, such as the Journal of
Homosexuality; journals of legal matters from universities across the country, including
the Stanford Law Review; and journals of sociology, such as Sociological Abstracts.
This scarcity of articles pertaining to same-sex marriage in the communication
discipline repeats the "Stonewall phenomenon," in which media coverage of an important
gay related issue can be contrasted with its absence in the communication literature.
The Stonewall uprisings of 1969 - a series of riots between patrons of the gay bar
"Stonewall Inn" and NY policemen - lead to the birth of a liberation movement among
gay men and women nationwide (D'Emilio, 1983). During that year, media attention
began to emerge in America, recognizing this homosexual minority stepping into the
social spectrum of the nation. For instance, The Washington Post, according to Edward
Alwood (1996), was "the first major daily newspaper to detect the new mood among gays
in a feature article, HOMOSEXUAL REVOLUTION, which ran on the front page of its
style section in October 1969" (p.95). The Chicago Sun-Times and Time magazine were
among the other media outlets to also recognize this newly visible minority composed of
gay men and lesbians (Alwood, 1996).
Despite the media attention given to the subject of homosexuality after the
Stonewall accounts, communication literature regarding homosexuality remained
practically nonexistent until 1981, when homosexuality became an index category in the
Communication Abstracts. In that year, a review of Gayspeak: gay male & lesbian
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communication was published in the Communication Abstracts, which described the
book as a collection of essays dealing with homosexuality as a social issue, openly
discussing gay rights, patterns in communication among gays, and scientific views on
homosexuality (Chesebro, 1981). Following the release of Gayspeak, several other
influential articles began to emerge in the communication literature, including an article
written by Larry Gross for Critical Studies in Mass Communication, which raised
questions about ethics in western journalism in regards to homosexuals (Gross, 1988).
According to Gross, western journalism claims to be objective and honest, except when
depicting homosexuals, who are constant objects of prejudice and discrimination if their
sexual identity is visible (1988).
Now that same-sex marriages may be a step closer to becoming fully legalized,
this study seeks to add to the communication literature an analysis of how newspapers
across the nation have reported on the issue of same-sex marriage, linking press coverage
variations to city demographics.
Community Structure Approach: Newspapers Reflecting Readership Demographics
In general, newspapers are viewed by media scholars as closely linked not just to
“readers” but to the communities they serve. According to K. A. Smith (1984) "the
media may be viewed as prominent subsystems within the larger social systems of the
community; thus they tend to reflect the values and concerns of dominant groups in the
community they serve" (p.260). In a pioneering study comparing newspapers from cities
of different sizes in Minnesota, Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1980) concluded that
newspapers were "mechanisms for community social control that maintain the norms,
values and processes of a community, and ... their functions necessarily fit into a pattern
5
that varies predictably according to size and type of community" (Tichenor, Donohue and
Olien, 1980: pp.102-103).
The introduction of a new concept into society, such as the possible legalization
of same-sex marriages in the United States, may be received differently in different areas
of the country, since some cities across the country, including Boston, Chicago, and San
Francisco have adopted gay rights legislation; while other cities, such as Atlanta,
Madison, and Seattle have adopted full domestic partnership regulations including "the
right to register one's relationship, to be in spouse's health benefits package, and to be
able to have leave from work in case of death or illness of one's partner" (Newton, 1994,
p.110); and other cities have not made any attempt to secure laws against discrimination
of sexual minorities, much less gay rights.
Certain city characteristics, such as population size, age, or income levels, may
also correlate with either a relatively favorable or unfavorable newspaper coverage of
same-sex marriage. Previous studies utilizing a community structure approach have
found, for instance, that the proportion of relatively privileged groups in a city - those
with college degrees or professional/technical occupational status - can be linked to
relatively favorable newspaper coverage of a 1973 U. S. Supreme Court decision on
abortion, and the coverage of Cuban political refugees (Pollock, Robinson & Murray,
1978; Pollock, Shier & Slattery, 1995). This proportion of privileged groups in a city
was also linked with relatively unfavorable news coverage of Dr. Kevorkian's activities
or Magic Johnson's HIV announcement, suggesting that these two events seemed to
threaten a "buffer" zone purchased by those with enough wealth and education to want to
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protect themselves against life's uncertainties (Pollock, et al, 1996; Pollock, Awarachow
& Kuntz, 1994).
Since prior studies utilizing the community structure approach have suggested
that newspapers cannot be detached from the community they serve, several hypotheses
are worth testing to connect city characteristics with relatively favorable or unfavorable
coverage of same-sex marriage.
Hypotheses
A review of theoretical and empirical literature on ties between community
structure and newspaper reporting yields seventeen hypotheses, divided across six
clusters, meriting attention in this exploratory analysis of newspaper coverage of samesex marriage. The following hypotheses concern a gay market visibility, the privilege of
wealth and education, ethnic identity, city size and media saturation, devotional reading,
and cultural presence in a city.
Gay Market Visibility
The simplest way to determine the correlation between a specific newspaper and
the community it reaches regarding the issue of same-sex marriage, would have been to
have taken into account the number of gays and lesbians in each particular area; however,
this data remains unavailable. A true census of the gay community has never been
completely successful because sexual orientation remains a poll category kept in the
closet.
Up to this date there are only estimated numbers, at the national level, of what the
homosexual population may be in the United States, but this data offers a considerable
variation from one source to another. The 1990 Census reported that 157,400 same-sex
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couples identified themselves (Eskridge, 1996). Griffitt and Hatfield, authors of Human
Sexual Behavior, estimate that 7 percent of men and 4 percent of women, approximately
14 million Americans, are homosexuals; the Advocate, a gay magazine with national
circulation, states that 10 million people in the U. S., or 4 percent of all adult Americans,
are self-identified homosexuals; and Tom Smith of the National Opinion Research
Center in Chicago, classifies the homosexual population as being 5 to 6 percent of all
adult Americans (Kahan, 1995).
Since there are no clear indications of how many gays and lesbians there may be
in the nation, much less in the city level, a "gay market index" was created, based on the
total number of businesses and organizations in a city that are owned by, or primarily
catering to, gays and lesbians. Data was collected from the 1995-96 national edition of
the Gayellow Pages, which is considered the encyclopedia of gay resources in the United
States (Gruber, 1995).
Table 1: Gay Market Index (Gayellow Pages 1995-96)
City
Accomod.
Bars, clubs, Bookstores
groups
Organization
s
resources
3
10
22
7
3
81
5
7
16
11
2
61
20
11
5
36
6
4
91
0
7
3
4
9
2
2
26
Charlotte
0
5
3
4
12
3
0
27
Chicago
7
50
11
14
45
15
7
149
Cincinnati
1
8
3
4
10
5
1
32
Denver
2
25
3
6
29
13
5
83
Detroit
0
28
2
5
10
1
2
48
Madison
2
7
4
2
11
2
1
29
Memphis
0
14
1
1
12
1
1
30
New Orleans
25
36
5
4
9
4
2
85
Philadelphia
4
24
5
5
37
13
4
92
Phoenix
2
25
1
11
17
3
1
60
Pittsburgh
2
15
4
9
25
7
1
63
Portland
2
17
6
9
18
3
2
57
Richmond
0
7
2
2
8
2
0
21
Seattle
9
27
14
10
51
14
2
127
hotels, b&bs
discos
Atlanta
3
33
Baltimore
3
17
Boston
9
Buffalo
Religious
AIDS/HIV
Gay
health care
publications
Total
8
St. Louis
2
21
5
5
15
8
3
59
According to the "gay market index" created, it is possible to assume that:
H1: The higher the number of gay businesses and organizations owned wholly/partly by
gays and/or lesbians, or welcoming a primary gay and lesbian clientele in a city, the
more favorable the coverage of same-sex marriage (Gayellow Pages 1995-96).
According to the numbers obtained in the "gay market index," it is also possible to
consider the gay and lesbian presence in a city per capita, relating the total number of gay
businesses to the entire population size of each city. Following the same rationale previously
described, it is possible to assume that:
H2: The higher the number of gay businesses and organizations - owned wholly/partly
by gays and/or lesbians, or welcoming a primary gay and lesbian clientele - per capita in
a city, the more favorable the coverage of same-sex marriage (Gayellow Pages 1995-96
& Lifestyle Market Analyst 1995).
Privilege of Wealth and Education
Previous research connecting city characteristics with privilege suggests that,
unless an issue is life-threatening, as with Magic Johnson's HIV status (Pollock,
Awrachow & Kuntz, 1994), or Dr. Kevorkian's activities (Pollock et al, 1996), the higher
the proportion of privilege in a city the more favorable the newspaper coverage of human
rights issues, such as with the "Open Door" policy towards Cuban refugees (Pollock,
Shier & Slattery, 1995). To the extent that same-sex marriage reflects the quest of gays
and lesbians for equal rights, same-sex marriage may be viewed as an extension of
human rights; consequently, cities with high levels of privileged citizens may be
associated with the favorable coverage of same-sex marriage. Therefore:
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H3: The higher the percentage of households with an income of over $100,000.00 in a
city, the more favorable the coverage of same-sex marriage (Lifestyle Market Analyst
1995).
H4: The higher the percentage of people in a city with sixteen or more years of
education, the more favorable the coverage of same-sex marriage (Lifestyle Market
Analyst 1995).
Ethnic Identity
Until the 1960's, interracial couples were not allowed to marry in many states
across the country, and scholar Craig Dean (1994) points out in the Journal of
Homosexuality, that gays and lesbians are still denied this most basic civil right. In
various televised interviews and written publications, gays and lesbians have compared
their plight with that of the African-Americans, stating that homosexuals are being
oppressed by government and society regarding the issue of same-sex marriage, in the
same manner that interracial marriages were once proscribed. According to Law
professor Andrew Koppelman the legal precedents set by interracial marriages in the
1960's directly relate to same-sex unions today (Sullivan, 1997, p. 335).
However, in the words of the Vatican, "the 'sexual orientation' of a person is not
comparable to race, sex, age" (Sullivan, 1995, p. 128) because the problem of
discrimination does not usually surface since "the majority of homosexually oriented
persons who seek to lead chaste lives do not publicize their sexual orientation" (Sullivan,
1995, p.129). A large number of African-Americans have agreed with this perspective
and expressed their resentment towards gays and lesbians. It has been said that ethnicity
(not sexual orientation) is a legitimate cause for equal rights, because, in the eyes of
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many prohibitionists - the opponents of homosexual unions according to Andrew
Sullivan - "homosexuality is a choice" (Sullivan, 1997, p. 25). Based on such rationale:
H5: The higher the percentage of blacks in a city, the less favorable the coverage of
same-sex marriage (Lifestyle Market Analyst 1995).
City Size and Media Saturation
In the pioneering studies conducted by Tichenor, Donohue and Olien, partially
summarized in Community Conflict and the Press (1980), larger cities or communities
are believed (and found) to display a wider range of group interests and perspectives than
smaller communities, due to greater social differentiation and stratification found in
larger cities. This "structural pluralism" found in larger cities may also be applied to the
coverage of same-sex marriage, since the concept of homosexual unions becoming fully
legalized may be more easily accepted in areas in which more diversity is found and a
wider range of perspectives is displayed. It is, therefore, possible to predict that:
H6: The larger the city, the more favorable the coverage of same-sex marriage
(Lifestyle market Analyst 1995).
The media, whether it is television, radio or newspapers, have been known to
control the flow of information that reaches the general public, and to set the agenda for
topics that are considered worthy of being to the public at large. Consistent with their
projections on community size, Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1973, 1980) expect media
abundance to be associated with a plurality of perspectives on critical events. In the case
of new and controversial topics, such as same-sex marriages, these various media outlets
play a fundamental role in the diffusion and exchange of information, therefore:
H7: The higher the number of television stations in a city, the more favorable the
coverage of same-sex marriage (America's Top rated cities 1996).
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H8: The higher the number of AM radio stations in a city, the more favorable the
coverage of same-sex marriage (America’s Top Rated Cities 1996).
H9: The higher the number of FM radio stations in a city, the more favorable the
coverage of same-sex marriage (America’s Top Rated Cities 1996).
H10: The higher the radio saturation, or the number of AM and FM stations combined in
a city, the more favorable the coverage of same-sex marriage (America's Top rated cities
1996).
H11: The higher the presence of electronic media, or the number of TV stations
combined with the number of AM and FM radio stations in a city, the more favorable the
coverage of same-sex marriage (America's Top rated cities 1996).
Devotional Reading
David Coolidge of the Institute on Religion and Public Life outlines two worldviews warring for dominance in America today. The first is a Complimentary model,
which assumes that the universe was created with an objective moral order, that the two
sexes are part of that order, and that marriage is the fundamental social institution by
which we unite our lives in family and kinship. This model is compatible with
Christianity, and is being challenged by what Coolidge calls the Choice model, which
assumes that the universe is malleable, that individuals create their own truths and values,
and that sexuality has no intrinsic purpose, but serves as an opportunity for pleasure,
intimacy and reproduction (Pearcey, 1996).
The Roman Catholic Church firmly opposes gay marriage, complying with the
complimentary model. According to the New York Times, "the Vatican calls homosexual
practice a serious moral disorder" (Niebuhr, 1996). Pope John Paul II, not only reiterates
the Church's refusal to recognize same-sex unions, but calls on Catholics to oppose the
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legal recognition of same-sex marriages on the grounds that they are "a serious threat to
the family and society" and "inappropriately conferring an institutional value on deviant
behavior" (Eskridge, 1996). Based on such premises:
H12: The higher the percentage of Catholics in a city, the less favorable the coverage of
same-sex marriage (Kurian, G. T., World Encyclopedia of Cities 1994).
Among Baptists, the issue of same-sex marriage is not just controversial, but is a
matter of expulsion. "When the Pullen Memorial Church of Raleigh, North Carolina,
blessed a same-sex union, the Southern Baptist Convention expelled the church"
(Eskridge, 1996), therefore:
H13: The higher the percentage of Baptists in a city, the less favorable the coverage of
same-sex marriage (Kurian, G. T., World Encyclopedia of Cities 1994).
In 1991, a Presbyterian committee on human sexuality endorsed a sexual ethic of
“justice-love” for sexual relationships, including heterosexual marriage and homosexual
unions (Glaser, 1996). However, in 1994, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church in the U. S., "adopted the resolution that its ministers are not 'permitted' to bless
same-sex unions" (Eskridge, 1996), therefore:
H14: The higher the number of Presbyterians in a city, the less favorable the coverage of
same-sex marriage (Kurian, G. T., World Encyclopedia of Cities 1994).
On the other hand, the Jewish religion, along with the choice model proposed by
Coolidge, views same-sex unions in a more positive light, since several Jewish temples
and synagogues across the country have "regularly performed ceremonies of kiddushin
[sanctified holy union, usually translated as marriage] for same-sex couples within the
Judaic tradition." In addition, in 1993, "the General Assembly of the Union of American
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Hebrew Congregations [Reform Jewish Synagogues] adopted a resolution advocating
legal recognition of same-sex unions" (Eskridge, 1996), therefore:
H15: The higher the percentage of Jewish people in a city, the more favorable the
coverage of same-sex marriage (Kurian, G. T., World Encyclopedia of Cities 1994).
Cultural Presence
According to The Gay Almanac (1996), actress Elizabeth Taylor has said that
there would be no art in America if it weren't for gays. The gay and lesbian presence has
always been clearly perceived in all facets of cultural life, producing culture by acting,
performing, directing, designing, and writing. "It is hard to imagine American artistic
legacy without the paintings of Paul Cadmus, Charles Demuth, Marsden Hartley, and
Andy Warhol; the sculptures of Richmond Barthe; the architecture of Phillip Johnson; the
designs of Isaac Mizrahi and Perry Ellis" (The Gay Almanac, 1996, p.132). These
Americans are a few examples of openly gay men who have left their marks on the
cultural spectrum of the nation. It is then impossible to dissociate cultural life - that is to
say the number of professional theaters, museums, opera companies, symphony
orchestras, dance companies - from gays and lesbians, who have always been great
contributors to this field. According to such rationale, a cultural index was created
summing the number of cultural options present in a city.
Table 2 - Cultural Presence Index
City
Museums Professional
Opera
theaters
companies
Symphony
Dance
orchestras companies
Convention
Total
centers
index
Atlanta
18
12
1
1
6
9
47
Baltimore
32
16
1
2
15
2
68
Boston
17
7
2
2
3
5
36
Buffalo
5
2
1
1
1
1
11
Charlotte
4
3
1
1
1
3
13
Chicago
34
48
5
4
10
5
106
Cincinnati
9
4
1
1
2
2
19
14
Denver
15
5
2
1
5
7
35
Detroit
11
4
2
1
3
4
25
Madison
4
3
1
1
3
2
14
Memphis
10
2
1
1
2
2
18
New Orleans
13
2
1
1
1
4
22
Philadelphia
41
7
3
1
5
4
61
Phoenix
10
1
0
2
1
6
20
Pittsburgh
10
3
2
1
1
2
19
Portland
7
0
1
1
2
3
14
Richmond
14
4
1
1
4
2
26
Seattle
15
9
2
2
2
5
35
St. Louis
19
3
1
3
4
4
34
Therefore, based on the "cultural presence index," it is possible to predict that:
H16:
The higher the number of cultural options in a city (number of museums,
professional theaters, opera companies, etc.), the more favorable the coverage of samesex marriage (America’s Top Rated Cities 1996).
Based on the same rationale previously described, it is also possible to assume
that the supporters of cultural life, or the number people who have attended cultural
events in a city, may also be associated with a more positive coverage of same-sex
marriage. Therefore:
H17: The higher the number of people who have attended cultural events in a city, the
more favorable the coverage of same-sex marriage (America’s Top Rated Cities 1996).
Methodology
A total of 366 articles, printed from January 1st, 1996 to January 1st, 1997, were
surveyed for their degree of coverage of same-sex marriage. A selection of 19
newspapers based upon geographic dispersion, representing a national cross-section of
the United States, and based upon their availability in the DIALOGUE Classroom
Information Program included: the Atlanta Journal/Constitution, the Baltimore Sun, the
Boston Globe, The Buffalo News, The Charlotte Observer, the Chicago Tribune, The
Cincinnati Post, the Rocky Mountain News (Denver), the Detroit Free Press, the Capital
15
Times/Wisconsin State (Madison), The Commercial Appeal (Memphis), the New Orleans
Times Picayune, The Philadelphia Inquirer, the Arizona Republic/Phoenix Gazette, the
Pittsburgh Post Gazette, The Oregonian (Portland), the Richmond Times Dispatch, the
Seattle Times, and the St. Louis Post Dispatch.
The New York Times, The Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times were not
included in the survey because of their national or regional status, representing
demographic influences beyond their city boundaries. The San Francisco Chronicle was
also excluded, since the extraordinarily large gay and lesbian population present in San
Francisco might have skewed results because of idiosyncratic reasons connected to the
culture and history of that city. The Houston Post was included in the original survey
sample, however no articles about same-sex marriage were available for 1996.
With the exception of the Commercial Appeal (Memphis), where only 6 articles
pertaining to same-sex marriage were found for the selected time frame, a random sample
of 20 articles per newspaper, each of over 500 words, were coded using content and
correlation analysis, and given two scores.
The first score was an attention or display score, with a numerical rating ranging
from 3 to 16 points. This numerical scale was based on placement of article (front page
prominent, front page non-prominent, inside prominent, or other), headline word count,
length of article and presence of photograph (with/without caption). This method
measured the significance of an article based on its display within the newspaper, and
newspapers with higher attention scores presented coverage of same-sex marriage more
prominently than newspapers with lower attention scores
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The second score accounted for the direction of each article, derived from an
evaluation of content considering the entire article as a sampling unit. Nominal measures
of "favorable", "unfavorable" or "neutral/balanced" regarding the issue of same-sex
marriage were assigned, and the following is a description of these nominal values:
“Favorable” coverage supported same-sex marriage, by generally defending the
legalization of homosexual unions as an extension of equal rights.
“Unfavorable” coverage opposed same-sex marriage, often using religious
beliefs to support the argument that a legitimate marriage can only be represented by a
man and a woman.
“Neutral/balanced” coverage presented impartial views on same-sex marriage,
reporting facts in a non-biased format, which seemed to inform readers without trying to
persuade them.
After the content evaluation for each article's direction under this threefold
classification, an assignment of direction scores by two researchers was assembled,
yielding a Holsti’s Coefficient of Intercoder Reliability of 0.93. Each article’s attention
and direction scores were then combined into a single score by using the Janis-Fadner
Coefficient of Imbalance (Janis & Fadner, 1965, pp.153-160), resulting in a single score
for each newspaper, which could vary between -1 and +1. Scores above zero indicated
favorability and those below zero indicated unfavorability towards same-sex marriage.
Research done in the field of communication using the Janis-Fadner Coefficient of
Imbalance have been published in several scholarly journals, including Comparative
Politics, Society, Journalism Quarterly, , Communication Yearbook IV, and The
Newspaper Research Journal.
Table 3 - Single-Score Content Analysis: Calculating the Coefficients of Imbalance
17




u = the sum of the attention scores coded "unfavorable"
f = sum of the attention scores coded "favorable"
n = the sum of the attention scores coded "neutral/balanced"
r=f+u+n
If f>u (or the sum of the "favorable" attention scores is greater than the sum of the "unfavorable" attention scores), then
use the following formula:
Coefficient of Favorable Imbalance:
C(f) =
(f2
(answers lie between 0 and +1)
- fu)
r2
If f>u (or the sum of the "unfavorable" attention scores is greater than the sum of the "favorable" attention scores), then
use the following formula:
Coefficient of Unfavorable Imbalance:
(answers lie between 0 and -1)
2
C(u) = (fu - u )
r2
After the results for the coefficient of imbalance were obtained and ranked,
Pearson correlation analysis was used to determine whether these reporting differences
could be associated with differences in city characteristics as suggested by the
hypotheses.
Stepwise multiple regression - MAXR regression analysis - using the SAS
computer language, was also utilized to confirm the Pearson correlation and to predict the
combined effect of different variables on one single dependent variable, in this case the
news coverage of same-sex marriage. In this technique, the best single variable predicting
the outcome is found, then the best two-variable combination is selected, then the best
three-variable combination, and so on.
Results
Overall, newspaper coverage of same-sex marriage in the United States for the
year of 1996 was mostly balanced, since the results obtained for the coefficients of
imbalance offered variation from -0.12 to 0.21. Yet this variation in coefficients was
sufficient to confirm that different newspapers, and consequently different communities,
18
viewed the same-sex marriage issue with different perspectives. The cities of Seattle and
Chicago had the most favorable reports on same-sex marriage, while St. Louis and
Richmond presented the most unfavorable coverage of same-sex marriage.
Table 4 - Janis-Fadner Coefficient of Imbalance - C(I)
City - Newspaper
C(I)
Seattle - "Seattle Times"
0.21
Chicago - "Chicago Tribune"
0.18
Portland - "The Oregonian"
0.14
Pittsburgh - "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette"
0.13
Atlanta - "Atlanta Journal Constitution"
0.12
Cincinnati - The Cincinnati Post"
0.10
Phoenix - "Arizona Republic/Phoenix Gazette"
0.09
New Orleans - "New Orleans Times Picayune"
0.07
Philadelphia - "The Philadelphia Inquirer"
0.06
Denver - "Rocky Mountain News"
0.05
Boston - "Boston Globe"
0.041
Madison - "Capital Times/Wisconsin State"
0.04
Charlotte - "The Charlotte Observer"
0.03
Memphis - "The Commercial Appeal"
0.01
Buffalo - "The Buffalo News"
-0.01
Detroit - "Detroit Free Press"
-0.02
Baltimore - "Baltimore Sun"
-0.03
St. Louis - "St. Louis Post Dispatch"
-0.07
Richmond - "Richmond Times-Dispatch"
-0.12
The Pearson correlation analysis, used to determine whether these reporting
differences could be associated with differences in city characteristics as suggested by the
hypotheses, yields strong results linking positive news coverage of same-sex marriage
with two specific variables, the gay presence in a city (r=.646; p=.002) and radio
abundance (r=.597; p=.007). Table 5 lists the coefficients obtained for the Pearson
correlation, as well as their significance level. Only correlations significant at the .09
probability level or better are reported.
Table 5 - Significant Pearson Correlations
Hypotheses
Correlation
Probability
Gay Market Index
0.646
.003
Radio Saturation
0.597
.007
Electronic Media
0.577
.010
19
AM Stations
0.544
.016
FM Stations
0.529
.020
Population Size
0.431
.066
Percent Blacks
-0.403
.087
Gay Market Index: Associated with Positive Coverage of Same-sex Marriage
This study strongly confirms that the higher the total number of businesses owned
by or catering to the gay and lesbian community in a city, the more favorably newspapers
covered the issue of same-sex marriage (r=.646; p=.002). These results suggest that the
presence of gays and lesbians in a city, according to the "gay market index" created, may
be taken into account by the print media. According to HKR, a research firm working on
several gay and lesbian marketing projects, the reason mainstream businesses, and
possibly the media in general, recognize gay and lesbian consumers is that:
Gay men and lesbian women show their gratitude to marketers who have
the courage to serve them. In return for what they see as acceptance and respect,
gay consumers will go out of their way to patronize these companies.
Furthermore, they will actively spread the word through an amazingly efficient
network that circulates not only through word of mouth, but through 200
electronic bulletin boards and 105 local and national publications dedicated to
America's gay and lesbian population (Kahan, 1995, p.46).
In addition, this emerging gay market has been recently identified as welleducated, with high income, and placing great importance in friendship networks
(DeLozier & Rodrigue, 1996); therefore, as the Advocate magazine reports, gays and
lesbians have their pocketbooks to employ as a new weapon against homophobia
(Mickens, 1994). It is reasonable to suggest that newspapers, by covering the issue of
same-sex marriage in a more positive light in areas where a visible gay and lesbian
market is present, are showing their support for a readership composed of gays and
lesbians, in order to benefit from this powerful and faithful market.
Radio Saturation: Associated with Positive Views on Same-Sex Marriage
20
Radio has been called "the forgotten medium" by several communication
scholars, but a collection of articles compiled by Dennis & Pease (1995) in their book
Radio the Forgotten Medium has shown that radio is very much alive, remaining "the
world's most ubiquitous medium, certainly the one with the widest reach and greatest
penetration" (p.xvi). Radio remains a medium of great importance because it is virtually
everywhere, and this omnipresence is due to the fact that it is relatively inexpensive,
portable, not restricted to home use, and reaches communities where other media, such as
television and cable, are limited or inaccessible. Statistics show that "there are 11,338
radio stations in the country, and 560 million radio sets in use -- 5.6 radios for every
household" (Dennis & Pease, 1995, p.6).
In addition, radio, more specifically talk radio, offers an exchange of ideas and an
immediacy of participation unlike any other medium. According to a 1993 survey of
1,507 randomly selected Americans by the Times Mirror Center for the People and the
Press "talk radio represents the widest window on the world of politics and issues for the
vocal minority" (Dennis & Pease, 1995, p.46). This minority may well be composed of
gays and lesbians who are trying to make their voices heard. Jerry William, a Boston talk
host and national talk radio organizer has stated that talk shows are "the last bastion of
freedom of speech for plain ordinary citizens" (Munson, 1993, p.1). Conclusively, radio
is a medium through which ordinary citizens can interact, reveal their thoughts and get
exposed to a wide range of beliefs and a wide variety of opinions. Radio may be a place
to hear what cannot be heard anywhere else.
Regression Analysis Adds a New Perspective to Same-sex Marriage
21
MAXR regression analysis, using the SAS computer language, confirmed the
results obtained for the Pearson correlation, but added a new perspective on the news
coverage of same-sex marriage. MAXR regression confirmed that, from variables
observed, 52 % of the variance is accounted for by two factors, the presence of a gay and
lesbian market associated with positive coverage of same-sex marriage (42% of the
variance), and the percent of blacks in a city associated with negative coverage of samesex marriage.
MAXR - Best 2 variable model
Variable
Parameter Estimate
F
Probability
Gay Market Index
0.0014
11.62
0.0036
% Blacks
-0.0024
3.21
0.0919
Equation
Incremental R-Square (Beta Weights)
R-Square = 0.52
Probability = 0.003
Gay Market Index
0.42
F=
N=
Blacks
0.10
8.5
19
This unfavorable coverage of same-sex marriage in areas where a high population
of blacks is present reinforces the idea that this negativity stems from comparing the gay
struggle for equality with that of blacks' struggle for civil rights, which has created
tension between gay and black civil rights activists. This new perspective of black ethnic
identity associated with a negative coverage of homosexual unions is consistent with the
words of black scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr. (1992), who has stated in an article for The
New Yorker, that the sentiment that gays are the pretenders to the throne of disadvantage,
which properly belongs to black Americans, is surprisingly widespread. Gates adds that
all prejudices are not equal, that gays cannot really claim the "victim status" inherited by
black Americans, and that, according to Dr. Molefi Kete, homosexuality is a deviation
from Afrocentric thought (Gates, 1992).
22
A Second Regression Revels a New Dimension for Same-sex Marriage
A second regression analysis was conducted using all the variables studied, with
the exclusion of the "gay market index," based on the curiosity and interest in calculating
results, possibly different ones, if the index had never been assembled. Remarkably,
radio saturation, or the total number of AM stations and FM stations combined in a city
(overall accounting for 46 % of the variance), had replaced the original position of the
"gay market index," by absorbing its exact ranking order from the first regression
analysis, and yielding almost identical results.
MAXR # 2 - Best 2 Variable Model
Variable
Parameter Estimate
F
Probability
0.0058
8.61
0.0097
- 0.0024
2.93
0.1063
AM + FM Stations
% Blacks
Equation
Incremental R-Square (Beta Weights)
R-Square = 0.46
Probability = 0.0077
AM + FM Stations
0.36
F=
N=
Blacks
0.11
6.7
19
The comparison between the two regressions may suggest that the two variables,
"gay market index" (r = .646) and radio saturation (r = .597), are so similarly connected,
functioning in such similar ways, that they may be tapping the same spectrum of an
economic or socio-cultural stratum. As more gays and lesbians step out of the closet,
with aspirations of being accepted by society and legitimizing their unions if they choose
to marry, radio may be the only medium offering a forum for their opinions and room to
make themselves heard.
Conclusion and Implication for Future Research
Same-sex marriage is a controversial topic and has generated a wide range of
opinions from city to city, community to community, and individual to individual.
Perhaps it is too early to determine what really influences newspapers when reporting on
23
the issue of same-sex marriage, or which city characteristics are most strongly linked to
coverage of issues regarding the gay and lesbian population, since there is no data
available at present concerning the exact number of gays and lesbians in a city. The
creation of a "gay market index," an attempt to measure the gay and lesbian presence in a
city, has helped dispel the prospect of a “fear hypothesis” towards such a controversial
issue, and confirmed a link between newspapers and the favorable coverage of same-sex
marriage.
However, the year 1996 enjoyed a generally balanced nationwide newspaper
coverage of same-sex marriage. It was noted that a visible gay and lesbian presence in a
city, and radio abundance are strongly linked to the positive coverage of same-sex
marriage, whereas the percentage of blacks in a city is associated with a more negative
reportage on same-sex marriage.
One-dimensional Issue or Historic Shift?
Future studies should continue researching the correlation of city demographics
and newspaper coverage of same-sex marriage, taking into account the absence of
significant results concerning certain city characteristics, such as income, education, and
religious affiliation. These demographics may not have yielded significant results when
linking newspapers to coverage of same-sex marriage, because this issue may reach
beyond the boundaries of income, education and religion, since the gay and lesbian
market, which has proven so strongly related to the coverage of same-sex marriage, may
be composed of gays and lesbians of different backgrounds, including religious
affiliation, income and educational levels.
24
Future studies may also look at other significant events in the history of gay
rights, such as the "don't ask don't tell" compromise proposed by President Clinton when
he attempted to lift the ban on gays in the military. A comparative study may emerge,
revealing if the coverage of same-sex marriage stands out on its own as a onedimensional issue among the realm of gay related issues, generating public approval only
for this issue; or is there a historic shift throughout media and society towards the general
acceptance of gay and lesbian issues? As research continues, perhaps a more accurate
census of the gay and lesbian population will be available, and new shifts on the legality
and acceptance of gay rights and same-sex unions will surface, producing additional
results, chronicling this debate in years to come.
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