Notes on 12/3/09
A) Chemistry
1. Composition of Matter

All matter is made up of 92 ___________________
elements
Element
o a pure substance that cannot be broken down to a simpler substance by ordinary chemical
means (see periodic table)
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Helium
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Potassium
Strontium
Copper
Calcium
Sodium
Fluorine
C
H
O
He
N
S
K
Sr
Cu
Ca
Na
F
Chlorine
Manganese
Mercury
Lead
Phosphorus
Silicon
Tin
Uranium
Zinc
Iron
Magnesium
Iodine
Cl
Mn
Hg
Pb
P
Si
Sn
U
Zn
Fe
Mg
I
Atoms
o smallest units of matter
 made up of:
e-
p+
found in nucleus, + charge
Protons: ______________________________
Subatomic
found in nucleus, 0 charge
Neutrons: _____________________________
particles
Electrons: _____________________________
found in nucleus, - charge




Know
names and
symbols
no
e-
atomic mass = protons + ________________
neutrons
atomic number = number of protons
number of electrons = number of protons (atom electrically neutral)
atomic mass – atomic number = number of neutrons
Hydrogen
Atomic number
Atomic mass
# of protons
# of electrons
# of neutrons
1
1
1
1
(1-1=) 0
1
1
H
Deuterium
1
2
1
1
(2-1=) 1
2
1
H
Tritium
1
3
1
1
(3-1=) 2
3
1
H
What do they all have in common? ______________________________________________
atomic #, # of protons, # of electrons
 atomic number = ID number of the element
 Electrons arranged in ______________
_____________
around nucleus
energy
levels
o Describe the electron configuration of the element chlorine
nucleus
1st
2
2nd
8
3rd
18
1
HW for 12/3/09
Subatomic Particles Practice
Directions: Using the periodic table provided, use the atomic numbers and/or element symbols
to fill in the rest of the entries below:
always the same #
*
*
atomic
number
element
symbol
element
name
number of
protons
number of
electrons
number of
neutrons
82
Pb
Lead
82
82
207-82
=125
2.
6
C
Carbon
6
6
12-6
=6
3.
26
Fe
Iron
26
26
56-26
=30
4.
8
O
Oxygen
8
8
16-8
=8
5.
50
Sn
Tin
50
50
119-50
=69
6.
11
Na
Sodium
11
11
23-11
=12
7.
16
S
Sulfur
16
16
32-16
=16
8.
53
I
Iodine
53
53
127-53
=74
9.
19
K
Potassium
19
19
39-19
=20
92
U
Uranium
92
92
238-92
=146
1.
10.
2
3
Notes on 12/7/09
Isotopes
o atoms of the same element having differing numbers of ______________
neutrons
ex. carbon-12 and carbon-14
U-235 and U-238 (radioisotopes)
Compounds
different
o chemical combinations of two or more elements
 compounds are represented by formulas
ex. H2O
NaCl
C6H12O6
 Compounds Formed by Covalent Bonding
= sharing of pairs of __________________
electrons
 all form ________________=
molecules
smallest part of a substance that maintains the properties of
that substance
energy
 when bonds are broken, bond ______________
is released; takes energy to combine
elements into compounds
 Compounds Formed by Ionic Bonding
= transfer of electrons from one atom to another
ex. NaCl: table salt
transfer
+
eexplosive metal
poisonous gas
ions
 gain or loss of electrons causes the atom to become charged = _____________
 Na+ ion is attracted to the Cl- ion
the # of electrons they can
 chemical reactivity of an atom depends on _____________________________________
share or transfer.
_______________________________________________________________________
Na
Cl
2. Energy
States of Matter
movement/motion
 depends on rate of molecular __________________________:
solid, liquid, gas
 change in state = physical change
ex. H2O(s)  H2O(l)  H2O (g)
 change in composition = chemical change
ex. steak (proteins)  amino acids
Energy and Chemical Reactions
 reactions are represented by equations:
ex. CO2 + H2O 
H2CO3
reactants
products
 many chemical reactions require activation energy in order to occur
 catalysts reduce the amount of activation necessary to start a reaction
catalyst speeds up the rate of the reaction without
_____________________________________________________________________
changing itself
_____________________________________________________________________
living
 enzymes are required for many reactions in ________________
systems
ex.
4
end in “-ase” : lactase, lipase, maltase, protease
3. Solutions
o two or more substances blended together but not chemically combined (= mixture)
 Solutions are formed when solute evenly dispersed (dissolved) in solvent
ex. sugar = solute
water = solvent
solute
 Saturated solution can dissolve no more _______________
 Aqueous solutions (solutions dissolved in water) are very important in living systems
Acids and Bases
 H2O covalently bonded, but 2/billion dissociate into ions
 Acid solutions sour
 Basic (alkaline) solutions bitter, slippery
 pH scale
0--------------------------7-----------------------------14
acidic
neutral
basic
 acid/base indicators = litmus paper, pH meters, phenolphthalein
 most biochemical reactions very sensitive to changes in pH
ex. blood and body fluid- pH 7.4
stomach acid- pH 2
 buffers help to maintain body fluids at normal and safe pH values
Litmus
Red = acid
Blue = base
5
6
B) Biochemistry
1. Water
o most common compound in living Systems
 unique properties of water:
i.
water molecule is polar
 has a slightly negative oxygen end and slightly positive hydrogen ends
ii.
hydrogen bonding
 positive region of one water molecule is attracted to negative region of another
 weak bonding; easily broken
 causes water to cling to itself (cohesion) and other substances (adhesion)
ex. cohesion – surface tension
adhesion – water moving up stem
 capillarity = adhesion and cohesion working together to pull water up
narrow tube
 temperature moderation
i.
takes great energy gain or loss for water to change temperature
 because it requires breaking all of the hydrogen bonds before temperature
change can take place
ii.
allows stability in temperature of cells, therefore homeostasis
2. Carbon Compounds
Inorganic vs. Organic Compounds
 Organic compounds must contain carbon ( & hydrogen)
 Inorganic Compounds
ex. H2O- water
ex. CO2- supplies C in organic compounds
 green plants use it in photosynthesis
ex. minerals
compounds of P, Ca, Fe, Mg, Zn from soil, water
***Green plants converter INORGANIC to ORGANIC compounds***






Organic Compounds
all contain carbon (and hydrogen)
all produced by organisms
carbon can form 4 covalent bonds; links to form long chains/rings
ex. C6H12O6 = molecular formula for glucose, fructose, galactose
carbon bonds with itself, forming many different compounds
most organic compounds have functional groups
ex. hydroxide (-OH) = functional group attached to carbon atoms
CH4:
7

i.
ethanol: causes liver and brain cell death
ii.
methanol: (wood alcohol) causes blindness and death
iii.
glycerol: forms part of lipid
monomers
vs.
polymers
(small)
(long chains)
3. Molecules of Life

Four
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
classes of organic compounds:
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
nucleic acids
CARBOHYDRATES
 contain C, H, O 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen
 ex. sugars, starches, cellulose
Indicators:
 Sugars
 monosaccharides (C6H12O6)
ex. glucose, fructose, galactose (isomers)
 disaccharides (C12H22O12)
ex. sucrose, maltose
monosaccharide
monosaccharide
benedicts : tests for glucose
blue  orange
iodine : tests for starch
yellowbluish - black
disaccharide
2 molecules of monosaccharide combined = 1 molecule of disaccharide + water
monosaccharides can also form long chains to form polysaccharides
= dehydration synthesis: the process of removing water to form bonds between sugars
 Starches
o polysaccharides in long branched chains
ex. Plant starch
cellulose in potato
animal starch = glycogen
 produced and stored in liver
cellulose- forms plant cell wall
 animals break down starches into simple sugar to get energy
= hydrolysis: process of adding water to break the bonds between sugar molecules


8
LIPIDS
INDICATOR-BROWN
PAPER
DRY TO GREASY





contain C,H,O
ratio of H to O much greater than 2:1
ex. fats, oils, waxes
made up of glycerols and fatty acids, usually in a 1 to 3 ratio
 dehydration synthesis releases 3 molecules of water
fats (triglycerides) are hydrolyzed when needed; stored when not needed; do not dissolve in
water
ex. butterfat – in milk
oils - energy source in plants
waxes - usually protective
steroids- complex lipids that form many hormones
ex. testosterone – male hormone
cholesterol – needed for nerve cell function but may block blood vessel walls
PROTEINS and AMINO ACIDS
Indicator
 contain C, H, O, N
biuret reagant
 building blocks = amino acids
blue & purple
 each contains an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH)
 20+ amino acids, depending on “R” group
 amino acids group in long chains to form polypeptides by dehydration synthesis (also called
condensation reaction)
 C-N bonds = peptide bonds
 hamburger protein broken down by hydrolysis into amino acids and reassembled into yours
9
ENZYMES
o proteins that act as organic catalysts, affecting reaction rates in organisms without being
changed themselves
 only active site on enzyme involved in reactions; dependent on shape
 enzyme and molecule (substrate) form enzyme-substrate complex causing reaction to occur
 enzymes are very specific, similar to a lock and key system
 names of enzymes end in –ase
ex. maltase breaks down maltose
Rates of enzyme action dependent on:
i.
temperature
 rate of enzyme action generally low at low temperatures and increases as
temperature rises
 BUT at a maximum temperature, enzyme loses effectiveness
 denaturation of enzyme
ii.
relative amounts of enzyme and substrate
 in a given amount of enzyme, addition of substrate will increase enzyme activity
until all enzyme is “busy”
iii.
pH
 each enzyme acts most effectively within a specific pH range
ex. gastric protease – pH 2
pancreatic protease – pH 8

_carbohydrate
protein
ex. glucose
ex. meat
Organic
Compound
10
lipids
nucleic acid
ex. fats, oils
ex. DNA
Name: ___________________________________________
_____ 1. Which formula represents an organic compound?
1. NH3
2. NaCl
3. H2O
Per. _____
4. C6H12O6
_____ 2. The reactions involving most chemical compounds in living systems depend upon the
presence of
1. sulfur as an enzyme
3. water as a solvent
2. salt as a substrate
4. nitrogen as an energy carrier
_____ 3. Small soluble food molecules are converted to larger, insoluble molecules by the
process of
1. hydrolysis
3. dehydration synthesis
2. respiration
4. fermentation
_____ 4. Which organic compound is correctly matched with the subunit that composes it?
1. maltose - amino acid
3. protein - fatty acid
2. starch - glucose
4. lipid - sucrose
_____ 5. In most carbohydrate molecules, the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is
1.
1:2
2.
3:1
3.
2:1
4.
1:3
_____ 6. Which compound is inorganic?
1. amino acid
2. nucleic acid
3. protein
4. water
_____ 7. Which metabolic waste is produced as the result of the synthesis of maltose from
two glucose molecules?
1. water
2. salt
3. carbon dioxide
4. urea
_____ 8. To be used by muscle cells, starch must be chemically converted to
1. amino acids
3. fatty acids
2. simple sugars
4. simple proteins
_____ 9. What are the end products of carbohydrate hydrolysis?
1. amino acids
2. simple sugars
3. hydrogen ions
4. fatty acids
____ 10. The complete digestion of animal starch results in the formation of
1. glucose molecules
3. fatty acids
2. amino acids
4. glycogen molecules
____ 11. Which formula represents a carbohydrate?
1. NaHCO3
2. NH2CH2COOH
3. C18H36O2
4. C12H22O11
____ 12. A specific organic compound contains only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
in the ratio of 1:2:1. This compound is likely a
1. nucleic acid
2. monosaccharide
3. protein
4. lipid
11
____ 13. The complete hydrolysis of carbohydrates results directly in the production of
1. glycogen
2. carbon dioxide
3. urea
4. simple sugars
____ 14. Which element is present in all lipids and proteins?
1. iron
2. nitrogen
3. carbon
4. calcium
____ 15. The process by which proteins are made from amino acids is known as
1. dehydration synthesis
3. intracellular digestion
2. ingestion
4. hydrolysis
____ 16. An organic compound that has hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1 ratio would belong to the
group of compounds known as
1. lipids
2. proteins
3. fatty acids
4. carbohydrates
____ 17. Which substance is an inorganic compound that is necessary for most of the chemical
reactions to take place in living cells?
1. glucose
2. water
3. starch
4. amino acid
____ 18. If a specific carbohydrate molecule contains ten hydrogen atoms, the same molecule
would most probably contain
1. one nitrogen atom
3. five oxygen atom
2. ten nitrogen atoms
4. twenty oxygen atoms
____ 19. A chemical reaction involves the production of a dipeptide from two amino acids. This
is an example of
1. hydrolysis
3. dehydration synthesis
2. digestion
4. carbon fixation
____ 20. An organic compound has both an amino group and a carboxyl group. It is most
probably a (an)
1. amino acid
monosaccharide
3. fatty acid
4. glycerol
____ 21. A carbon to nitrogen bond may also be called a (an)
1. peptide bond
2. hydrogen bond 3. ionic bond
4. polymer
____ 22. Which of the following may be used as a building block for proteins?
1. monosaccharide
2. fatty acid
3. glycerol
4. amino acid
____ 23. Which organic compound is a building block of a triglyceride, containing three carbon
atoms, five hydrogen atoms, and three hydroxyl groups?
1. glycerol
3. saturated fatty acid
2. amino acid
4. unsaturated fatty acid
____ 24. Which process produces peptide bonds?
1. digestion
3. dehydration synthesis
2. hydrolysis
4. enzyme deactivation
Name: ___________________________________________
Per. _____
12
Base your answers to questions 1 through 5 on the diagram below which represents steps in the
enzyme-catalyzed breakdown of maltose and on your knowledge of biology.
_____ 1. Which substance is represented by letter A?
1. sucrose
2. maltase
3. lipase
_____ 2. The substrate in this process is a (an)
1. disaccharide
2. amino acid
3. monosaccharide 4. lipid
4. protease
_____ 3. Which chemical reaction occurs between steps 1 and 5?
1. fermentation
3. hydrolysis
2. carbon fixation
4. dehydration synthesis
_____ 4. Which statement best describes step 2?
1. An enzyme is undergoing denaturation.
2. An enzyme is being hydrolyzed.
3. A water molecule is being synthesized.
4. An enzyme-substrate complex is being formed.
_____ 5. Steps 1 through 5 best illustrate
1. that substrate concentration affects enzyme action
2. a model of enzyme specificity
3. that enzymes are composed of protein
4. the role of coenzymes in chemical reactions