Chapter III: Terminology
Concept of terminology:
Terminology is a relatively new field of study, going back only to the 1930s when Wüster published his
dissertation on General Terminology Theory. Wüster, now considered the father of terminology, had
three aims when he developed his theory of terminology:
1. to eliminate ambiguity in technical language standardizing its terminology with a view to
transforming specialized languages into efficient tools of communication;
2. To convince specialized language users of the benefits of standardized terminology;
3. To establish terminology as a discipline and transform it into a science.
Wüster proposed two main branches of terminology: (1) general terminology, which studies systems of
concepts, the nature and characteristics of concepts, terms and their nature, and term unification; and (2)
specialized terminology which is concerned with the rules governing terms in a certain language.
What does terminology mean?
In contemporary literature, the term terminology is used in three senses:
1. the discipline dedicated to the scientific study of the concepts and terms used in specialized
languages, term-concepts relation, and the formulation of principles and methods governing these
relations in any given subject field (theoretical part)
2. The set of practices and activities of collecting, describing, processing, managing, and presenting
terms or terminological data, and these activities are necessary to generate and maintain collections of
terminological information, documentation of terms (applied or practical part, referred to by some as
“terminography”, and by others nowadays as “terminology management”)
3. the set of special terms belonging to a science or used in a particular domain.
Following are some of the definitions proposed for terminology as a theoretical domain:
“The scientific study of concepts and terms found in special languages.” Its object of study is the “set of
terms representing the system of concepts of a particular subject field” (ISO)
“The study of concept systems and categorizing them into logical taxonomies” (Wüster)
“Terminology is a discipline that is concerned with naming concepts. One of its important aims is to
identify the position of every concept in a system of concepts based on the relationships that exist
between the concepts”.
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All these definitions make a link between terms and concepts. That is why we will deal with both
concepts in the coming sections. But before that we will continue with the concept of terminology.
Researchers agree that terminology emerged to satisfy the need of specialists to unify concepts and
terms of their specialized fields and to set up and unify the principles of generating terms. The ultimate
purpose is to enhance communication and the transfer of knowledge. The development of terminology is
actually indicative and at the same time a result of language development and specialization. It is also a
by-product of human interpretation of reality and of societal sophistication and cross-cultural and interlingual interchange. Moreover, terminology is the encapsulation and at some level explicitization of
knowledge generated and knowledge transferred.
Approaches to terminology:
There are three approaches in the study terminology: subject-field-oriented approach, philosophyoriented approach, linguistics-oriented approach. Subject-field-oriented approach focuses on the concept
and its relationship to other neighboring concept as well as the term-to-concept correspondence and the
assignment of terms to concepts. Philosophy-oriented approaches is similar to subject-field-oriented
approach but it classifies concepts into philosophical categories. Linguistic approach considers
terminologies as being sub-languages of individual languages; therefore, it applies linguistic tools to
terminological phenomena.
Based on this, three schools of terminology can be identified :
1. Vienne school: developed by Wüster, who adopted a philosophical approach to terminology, focusing
on concepts, their characteristics, descriptions, definitions, the relationships that exist between them.
Then creating the terms that express them. He drew attention to the importance of standardization and
internationalization of terms.
2. Prague school: adopted a linguistic approach, viewing terms as part of the lexicon of a language.
Therefore, linguistic tools should be used to study terms.
3. Russian school: adopted a subject-field approach, focusing on the concept and its relations to
neighboring concepts. They also pay attention to standardization.
This development in terminology research resulted in the establishment of many international
organizations and committees, such as the ISO. The responsibilities of these organizations and
committees include the unification of term –generating methods, finding the best ways to disseminate
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terms, and organizing terms within a field. The biggest transformation/change in these institutions
occurred with the introduction of computers and term banks. The first term bank appeared in the late
1960s after some conference recommendations.
Factors that contributed to the development of terminology in modern times:
1. Progress in science (interdisciplinarity and microspecialization)
2. Development of technology
3. Development of mass media
4. International political rapport
5. International commerce
6. Spread of multinational communities
7. Standardization (progress in standardization)
8. State intervention (language academies)
9. Cultural and technological colonialism
10. Globalization
11. Social media.
Why do we need terminology theories and research?
Based on what has been said above, we can say that a theory of terminology has three basic tasks:
1. It has to account for sets of concepts as discrete entities of the knowledge structure.
2. It has to account for sets of interrelated linguistic entities which are somehow associated with
concepts grouped and structured according to cognitive principles.
3. It has to establish a link between concepts and terms, which is done traditionally by definitions.
Through definition we identify the precise reference of a term to a concept and create and declare
relationships to other concepts inside the knowledge structure. We can expand the knowledge structure
by adding new concepts.
Characteristics of terminology:
1. Identifies and investigates concepts.
2. Limited to terms and vocabulary items that designate concepts.
3. Synchronic not diachronic, examining current state of concept systems and identifying their
relationships.
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4. Concerned with methods of creating and unifying terms.
5. Contributes to language enrichment and development.
6. Concerned only with written, not spoken, terms
7. Specifies the designation of term components.
8. Has an international perspective and vision.
9. Aims at language planning and embraces standardization.
10. Interdisciplinary, related to the various fields of knowledge.
Terminological problems:
1. Using a classical term for a new concept that differs from the original concept it used to signify. The
result is that the term has two different meanings.
2. Using more than one term to refer to one concept, which is considered a waste of our linguistic
resources. For example, linguistics: ‫ علم اللغة‬،‫ اللغويات‬،‫ األلسنية‬،‫اللسانيات‬
3. Using one term to signify two concepts, which minimizes clarity and precision and causes confusion.
For example, ‫ سياق و سياقي‬for: associative, syntagmatic, and contextual.
4. Not making use of the efforts of classical Arab scholars.
5. Using common Arabized terms such as anthropology and at the same time it the dictionary says it’s
‫إناسة‬
6. Having different forms for Arabized terms. For example, ‫فونيم‬, ‫ فونام‬.
7. Writing proper names differently; ‫ واشنغتن‬،‫ واشنجتن‬،‫واشنجتون‬
8. Focusing only on basic terms, and overlooking more specific terms.
9. Dictionaries do not provide definitions
10 Standardized terms are not put into use
11. Partial consideration when dealing with a new term. An Arabic word may be chosen when
translating a foreign term, then the same word may be used again to translate another foreign term. Thus
it is used to signify two different terms. Therefore, it is necessary to make lists of all the terms in a
single specialization before creating a new term, so that when doing so, one can choose an appropriate
term that is unique and at the same time related to the terms belonging to the same field.
12. Not making lists of terms of a single field of knowledge in a complete project.
13. Not documenting work on terminology.
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Terms and concepts
What is a term?
1. The concept of term has been defined by the ISO variously as follows:
“A term is a verbal designation of a general concept in a specific subject field”. (2000)
“A term is a word, phrase or symbol used to denote a concept”. (1996)
“A term is a linguistic construct in a conceptual schema language that refers to an entity”. (1999)
“A term is a designation of a defined concept in a special language by a linguistic expression”. (1999)
2. L. Bowker (2009: 286-9) emphasizes the term-concept link, stating that “...terms are linguistic
designations assigned to concepts. Because terminology deals with specialized domains of knowledge,
terms refer to the discrete conceptual entities, properties, activities or relations that constitute knowledge
in a particular domain...”.
3. The main function of a terminological unit (single word, expression, symbol, formula, etc.) is to
designate a concept in the particular field of knowledge.
4. A term is a unit in a system of concepts.
All these definitions link terms to specialized concepts.
‫ مصطلح‬in Arabic means “to agree”.
Why do we need terms?
Terms are keys to knowledge, as Alkhawarizmi once said. Understanding terms has been traditionally
considered half of knowledge, because knowledge is a cluster of related concepts organized in a system
and terms designate concepts. The importance of terms has even increased in this age, because our
modern society is described as the society of information or society of knowledge. Production and
services processes are now dependent on technical and scientific knowledge.
What is a “concept”:
Concept has been defined variously as follows:
1. Concepts are “mental constructs that are used to classify the individual objects in the external or
internal world by means of a more or less arbitrary process of abstraction. (ISO)
2. A concept is a unit of content consisting of a set of characteristics.
3. Concepts are the units of knowledge that constitute the mental representations of objects
4. A concept is an element of thought, a mental construct that represents a class of objects.
5. A concept is a unit of thought.
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6. Concepts are the result of a selection process of the salient characteristics defining a class of objects
and not the individual objects themselves.
7. By means of the process of designation we use terms to refer to concrete and abstract reality, a reality
that is external and internal as well as individual and collective.
8. A concept is a unit of knowledge that can be represented and identified uniquely by reference to its
characteristics, features, or components. This also means defining its position in the knowledge space.
As ISO states, the characteristics of a concept is its paraphrase or definition. For example: A microsome
is: a small particle; found in the cytoplasm of a cell; made up of fragmented endoplasmic reticulum to
which ribosome are attached.
Depending on the relationship they have with the object they represent, the characteristics of concepts
can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic characteristics describe the concept as a representation of a class:
shape, color, size in the case of nouns, types of actions, feelings, or processes in the case of verbs.
Extrinsic characteristics are external to the definition as a class: purpose, origin, target, place, inventor,
etc.
Creating a term for a concept means making it part of a particular system of related concepts. So
concepts are not discrete separable units that exist in isolation; logical or ontological relations exist
between these concepts.
Conceptual systems:
Within a special subject, concepts are organized in structured sets that are called conceptual systems,
and these systems reflect the view of the real world held by the experts in the discipline or activity. Each
conceptual system is a structure that can cover several classes of concepts: objects, properties of these
concepts (visual, auditory, perceivable, material, shared, etc.), relationships (equivalent, subordinate,
derived, etc.), operations (weld, solder, dissolve, etc.), and so on.
In each specific special subject field every conceptual class is internally organized into several
subclasses as a function of the types of concepts included in the class, their properties, relationships,
and/or functions.
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Concepts from the logicians’ perspective:
According to Kant, three activities are required to create a concept: comparison, reflection, and
abstraction. Comparison enables us to realize similarities and differences, reflection helps us realize the
characteristics responsible for these similarities or differences, and consequently we can abstract or
identify the essential characteristics that make up the concept. That is why ISO has described concepts
as “the result of a mental process and can be defined as units of thought construct through abstraction”
Concept formation:
Within logic, conceptology deals with the nature of concepts, their representation and the relationships
between concepts. If we grasp a segment of reality by a process of cognition, and turn it into a concept
by a process of abstraction, the relationships established between objects in the real world and the
similarities among these objects reflect the relationships and similarities established between concepts.
Abstraction is a mental operation where the mind moves from parts or items to the whole or class. The
evolution of concepts is accompanied by stages of naming, a process which is called terminologisation
.
Concept type: abstract and concrete.
Classification of concepts: classification is an organized method of connecting or disconnecting the
ideas formulated in our minds as concepts and of organizing them mentally. Therefore, classifying
concepts is the best way to knowledge since when we organize things and concepts in a particular
system, we will then have a good list of concepts belonging to a certain field of knowledge.
We can define a concept by analysis, by synonyms, by paraphrase, by synthesis (by identifying
relations, by description), by implication, by denotation, by demonstration,
Concepts are further determined by means of the relations they have to other concepts, as well as by
definitions, which constitute the descriptive, metalinguistic denotation of concepts.
A definition is important because it specifies the designation of a term as distinguished from other
terms in the same discipline.
A definition is particularly important because it is the verbal description of a certain concept which
makes it distinguishable from other concepts within a system of concepts.
There are 3 basic needs for definitions:
1. the initial fixation of the term-concept equation
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2. the identification of a term via the verification of the existence of an independent definition
3. the explanation of the meaning of a concept for specialist users
Going back to the topic of terms and their relation to concepts, Maria Cabre states that from the point of
view of meaning, terms can be classified by the class of concepts they designate. Concepts can be
grouped into classes and sub-classes in accordance with the features they share (which ultimately are the
defining traits of a conceptual class) and the relationships they have with one another. Several types of
relationships arise from the interaction among concepts, processes, and their resulting states, which are
also concepts.
With this in mind, we can initially identify four major conceptual classes:
Objects or entities
Processes, operations, actions
Properties, states, qualities
Relationships
Each one of these classes of concepts is predominantly expressed by a particular functional class:
Objects or entities
nouns
Processes, operations, actions
verbs, nominalizations of verbs
Properties, states, qualities
adjectives
Relationships
adjectives, verbs, prepositions
From the standpoint of their linguistic origin, terms can be created by means of applying the rules of the
language itself (derivation and conversion).
Term formation:
New terms that are the result of a formation process are usually classified according to the strategy
speakers have used to create them. These strategies can be formal, functional, or semantic in nature.
1. Formal methods:
Among the formal methods available for creating new (English) terms are derivation, compounding, and
creation of phrases.
2. Functional methods: comprise 2 processes:
a. Conversion or zero derivation, i.e. changing the category of an existing word without changing its
form (except that in this grammatical conversion any characteristics of inflection belonging to the
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former category are eliminated and replaced by those corresponding to the new category). For example:
record (v.) record (n); pigeon hole (v.) pigeon hole (n.)
b. Lexicalization, by converting one of the inflected forms of a lexeme into a new word with a different
grammatical category. For example: harden (v) ---hardening (n); weld (v) ---welding (n)
3. Semantic methods:
These methods modify the meaning of a term. The form on which the new form is based can belong to
several subcodes. Two prime criteria are used to classify the terms that result from this kind of formation
process: provenance of the base form, and the type of semantic modification produced in the process.
1. by provenance of the base form, the 2 most frequent sources are the general language lexicon and the
terminology of other special subjects.
2. modification takes one of three forms:
a. extending the meaning of the base form
b. narrowing the meaning of the base form: printer
c. changing the meaning of the base form: washer
Besides formal, functional, and semantic methods, all languages also have other ways of creating new
terms such as borrowing and loan translation or calquing.
In classical Arabic heritage:
Principles of creating concepts:
Concept and meaning are equivalents. A concept is the mental image or representation of what is spoken
about. Concept and meaning are inseparable from an entity, both are the image conjured up in the mind.
Ahmad Eesa: priority of Arabization methods: translation, derivation, allegory, compounding,
Arabization.
Khasara: Arabization methods: translation, coinage (derivation, allegory), borrowing
For an appropriate scientific term to be coined and gain currency, the following is required:
1. There should be consensus among specialists on the term, as they are the ones concerned with it; they
will use it widely, and can tell if it needs to be modified or changed in the future.
2. It has to have accurate and acceptable, appropriately designating the new concept.
3. It has to be semantically or lexically related to the new concept.
4. It refers to only one concept. There should not be more than one term for one concept. There should
not be one term used to signify more than one concept. A term can only refer to a single concept.
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Steps of finding an Arabic equivalent for a new foreign scientific term, arranged according to
priority:
1. Looking for an appropriate and acceptable Arabic word that is commonly used but not as a scientific
term. If such a word is not available, then find a term that was used as a scientific term in Arabic
classical books. It has to be an appropriate term.
2. Looking for words that are semantically related to what is to be designated in any way. Figurative use
of language is wide open for such innovative use of words.
3. Deriving a term from a familiar Arabic word, semantically related to the concept or thing to be
designated.
4. Borrowing the term form the foreign language and naturalizing it. ‫ النقل الحرفي‬،‫ اإلحراف‬،‫النقحرة‬
5. Compounding: when the above methods do not help.
The recommendation of the conference on unifying term coinage methodologies held in 1981: using
linguistic methods in coining new terms as follows: using classical terms, then creating new terms using
allegory, derivation, Arabization, compounding.
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