Gender Inequality in
International Education
in the United States
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
1
Gender Inequality in International Education: Agenda
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Background
Project Objectives
Research Methods
Timeline
Conclusion
Questions
References
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
2
Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
 International organizations have advanced “Education
for All” since World War II.
“Everyone has the right
to education” (Universal
Declaration of Human
Rights, art. 26).
 Efforts have emphasized increased educational access
for girls and women.
 Beginning with the World Conference on Education for
All in 1990, the international community adopted
specific target dates to achieve education for everyone.
 The initial deadline was 2000. It was extended to 2015
and again to 2030.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
 At the primary level, gender disparities disadvantage
girls in 37% of countries.
Gender inequality
persists in many
countries
 At the secondary level, gender disparities disadvantage
girls in 60 percent of countries at the lower secondary
level and 43 percent of countries at the higher
secondary level.
 At the college level, women are disadvantaged in some
areas of the world. In parts of Southern Asia and subSaharan Africa fewer than 40 women are enrolled in
college for every 100 men.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
Data availability requires that gender equality in
international education be measured in terms of
participation rates.
Full gender equality
requires more than
equal participation
By itself, equal participation or parity does not equate to
equality.
UNESCO notes that more is required:
“Full gender equality in education would imply that
girls and boys are offered the same chances to go to
school and enjoy teaching methods, curricula, and
academic orientation unaffected by gender bias”
(UNESCO 2003).
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
The internationalization
of higher education
warrants examination of
how country-level gender
inequality impacts
international student
enrollment

Worldwide, 4.1 million students attend college outside
their home country.

Enrollment is projected to grow to 8 million students by
2025.

With over a million international students, the United
States is the top destination country.

International enrollment in the United States has
grown from 1.1% of total students in 1948-49 to 5.2%
in 2015-16.

International students in the United States contribute
$32.8 billion to the economy and create or support
over 400,000 jobs.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
Leading Host Countries
Country
United States
United Kingdom
China
France
Australia
Russia
Canada
Germany
Japan
Spain
Netherlands
New Zealand
Students
1,043,839
496,690
397,635
309,642
292,352
282,921
263,885
235,858
152,062
76,057
74,894
50,525
Source: Project Atlas 2016.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
Scant attention has
been paid to gender
disparities among
international
students
Source: Institute of International Education 2016b; National Center for
Education Statistics 2015; United States Census Bureau 2017.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
In U.S. higher education,
women reached parity
with men in 1978
Source: National Center for Education Statistics 2015.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
The gap between men
and women international
students has decreased
since 1951
Source: Open Door Reports, 1952 - 2016.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
Participation by Women Among
International Students, 2008-09 to 2015-16
Since 2008-09, participation
by women has decreased
among international
students in the U.S.
Year
Percent Women
Percent Men
2008-09
45.3
54.7
2009-10
44.8
55.2
2010-11
44.9
55.1
2011-12
44.3
55.7
2012-13
44.4
56.6
2013-14
44.1
55.9
2014-15
43.7
56.3
2015-16
43.3
56.7
Source: Open Do0r Reports, 2009 - 2016
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
The Institute of International
Education focuses on the gender
gap between men and women
Image: Institute of International Education 2016a.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
The gap between women
international and domestic
students has increased
from 10.3% to 14.0% since
1951
Source: National Center for Education Statistics 2015; Open Door Reports,
1952 - 2016.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
The underrepresentation
of women does not occur
in all host countries

Women represent a majority of international
students in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and
the Netherlands.

In Germany and Japan, there are more women
among international students than among domestic
students.

Overall, the United States is below the 48%
participation rate by women international students
among countries in the Organization of Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD).
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Background
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives
 This project will examine gender inequality in
international higher education in the United
States using spatial data.
“Almost everything that
happens, happens
somewhere” (Longley et
al. 2015, 1).
 No comprehensive study exists of gender
inequality in international education on a
country of origin basis.
 This project seeks to add to the base of
knowledge concerning barriers to achieving
gender equality in international education.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives

The Institute of International Education does not
currently collect gender data by country of origin.

Interestingly, it did so from 1953 to 1974. It
stopped doing so when it changed its report
methodology.

Country of origin data by gender is available from
the Department of Homeland Security’s Student
Exchange Visitor System (SEVIS).
Source: Institute of International
Education 1954.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives
SEVIS data shows
significant variation in
gender participation by
country of origin along
with regional differences
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Project Objectives
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Three principal research questions will be addressed.
1. Whether a correlation exists between participation by women in
international education and gender inequality within their country of origin.
2. Whether a correlation exists between the percentage of women
participating in international education and the percentage of women attending
institutions of higher education within their country of origin.
3. Whether a correlation exists between the percentage of women
participating in international education and secondary education completion rates
by women in their country of origin.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Data Sources
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Research Question No. 1
Research Question No. 1 will test the following null hypothesis: No correlation exists
between participation by women in international education and gender inequality
within their country of origin.
One of several gender equality indexes will be used to measure whether a
correlation exists between participation by women in international education and
gender inequality within their country of origin.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Leading Indexes on
Gender Equality have
country coverage
ranging from 108
countries to 188
countries

Gender Development Index (GDI)

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI)

Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)

Gender Equality Index (GEI)

Gender Equity Index (GEI-SW)

Women’s Economic Opportunities Index (WEOI)
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Research Question No. 2
Research Question No. 2 will test the following null hypothesis: The percentage of
women participating in international education is not higher than the percentage of
women attending institutions of higher education within their country of origin.
The idea for this question came from a journal article that speculated that “it might
well be concluded that the way that the student migration channel operates relative
to [] source countries may actually favour women” (Findlay 2011, 170).
UNESCO data will be gathered concerning country level higher education
participation rates by women.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Research Question No. 3
Research Question No. 3 will test the following null hypothesis: No correlation exists
between the percentage of women participating in international education and
secondary education completion rates in their country of origin.
UNESCO data will be gathered concerning secondary completion rates by women.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Secondary Research Focus
Two secondary research objectives will be pursued:
1. Current data will be compared with data from 1953-1974 to determine
which countries have made significant improvements in participation by women.
2. Data will be sought concerning international student participation by
gender in other countries to determine if there are any differences with the
United States.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Research Methods
Data Issues
What should the cutoff be to include a
country within the study?
How will missing data sets for some
countries be handled?
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Timeline
Spring 2
2017
Summer
2017
GEOG 596A
Data
Acquisition
Fall 2
2017
Winter
2018
GEOG 596B
Journal
Submission
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Conclusion
 Gender equality remains a central international
objective.
"The results of research have
little value if they are not
communicated to people"
(Montello and Sutton. 2013).
 Understanding gender inequality in international
education may assist institutions and policy
makers in developing programs to eliminate
barriers to full participation by women in this
important education arena.
 This understanding is necessary to reach Goal 5
of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals
provides: “Achieve gender equality and
empower all women and girls.”
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: Questions
Questions?
Contact:
Robert M. Myers
[email protected]
http://robertmmyers.weebly.com/
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: References
Economist Intelligence Unit. 2012. “Women’s Economic Opportunity 2012: A Global Index and Ranking.”
Findlay, Allan M. 2011. “An Assessment of Supply and Demand-Side Theorizations of International Student
Mobility.” International Migration 49 (2): 162–90.
Indices of Social Development. 2017. “Gender Equality.” http://www.indsocdev.org/gender-equality.html
Institute of International Education. 1952. Education for One World, 1951-52. New York: Institute of
International Education.
_________.
1954. Education for One World, 1953-54. New York: Institute of International Education.
_________.
1975. Open Doors 1975 Report on International Education Exchange. New York: Institute of
International Education.
_________.
2016a. “2016 Open Doors Presentation.” http://www.iie.org/~/media/Files/Corporate/OpenDoors/Open-Doors-2016-Presentation.pdf?la=en.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: References
_________.
2016b. Open Doors 2016 Report on International Education Exchange. New York: Institute
of International Education.
Longley, Paul A., Michael F. Goodchild, David J. Maguire, and David W. Rhind. 2015. Geographic
Information Science and Systems. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Montello, Daniel and Paul Sutton. 2013. An Introduction to Scientific Research Methods in
Geography & Environmental Studies. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, Ltd.
NAFSA. 2016. “The United States of America: Benefits from International Students.” New York:
NAFSA - Association of International Educators.
http://www.nafsa.org/_/File/_/econvalue2016_natl.pdf.
National Center for Education Statistics. 2015. “Digest of Education Statistics, Table 303.10. Total Fall
Enrollment in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Attendance Status, Sex of Student,
and Control of Institution: Selected Years, 1947 through 2025.”
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_303.10.asp?current=yes.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: References
OECD. 2016. Education at a Glance 2016: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing.
OECD Development Centre. 2014. “Social Institutions & Gender Index: 2014 Synthesis Report.”
http://www.genderindex.org/sites/default/files/docs/BrochureSIGI2015.pdf.
Project Atlas. 2016. “A Quick Look at Global Mobility Trends.” New York: Institute of International Education.
https://p.widencdn.net/hjyfpw/Project-Atlas-2016-Global-Mobility-Trends-Infographics.
Social Watch. 2017. “Measuring Inequity: The 2012 Gender Equity Index.” Accessed March 25.
http://www.socialwatch.org/taxonomy/term/527.
UNESCO. 2003. Global Monitoring Report: Gender and Education for All, The Leap to Equality. Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO. 2016. Global Education Monitoring Report: Gender Review - Creating Sustainable Futures for All.
Paris: UNESCO.
United Nations. 1948. Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf.
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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Gender Inequality in International Education: References
_________.
2015. “General Assembly Resolution 70/1, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development.” New York. https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/291/89/PDF/N1529189.pdf?OpenElement.
United Nations Development Programme. 2016. Human Development Report 2016: Human Development for
Everyone. New York: United Nations Development Programme.
United States Census Bureau. 2017. “International Data Base: World Population by Age and Sex, 2017.”
http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpopgraph.php.
United States Department of Homeland Security. 2015. “SEVIS by the Numbers Data, September 2015.”
https://studyinthestates.dhs.gov/sevis-by-the-numbers/september-2015.
World Economic Forum. 2016. The Global Gender Gap Report 2016. World Economic Forum. Geneva: World
Economic Forum.
World Globe Public Domain Image Credit:
https://www.wpclipart.com/flags/flag_globe/world_flags_globe_tilted.png.html
Robert M. Myers | Adviser: Dr. Amy Griffin | GEOG 596A
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