Teaching and Learning Advisory Council Teaching Engagement
Discussions that Work
Friday, April 8 in LRC 109
1:00 P.M. - 2:00 P.M.
Facilitated by Judy Puncochar, PhD
School of Education
Where all think alike, no one thinks very much - Walter Lippmann
Workshop Description
Students should hear opinions from more than fix or six peers who are willing to speak during class, and
students should hone their skills for speaking during class. Participants in this Friday’s TLAC Teaching
Engagement will learn how to increase student participation during lectures, labs, and recitations with
“Discussions that Work”! Judy Puncochar from the School of Education will provide several quick and
easy-to-implement discussion strategies useful in classes of any size (6 to 500 students). Leave with
approaches for handling politically or emotionally charged statements and controversies where all want
to speak at once or not at all. Learn effective ways to structure discussions with 100% of students
participating. Learn tricks for asking effective questions, steps for increasing students’ critical thinking
skills, and structuring paired sharing so everyone shares. Specific strategies include reciprocal
questioning, MacKeiche’s One-Minute Paper, quick groupwork (15-minutes and less), and measuring
student accountability during discussions.
STRUCTURING DISCUSSION
This handout contains some reasons and basic steps for structuring discussion in educational settings.
Information in this handout draws from educational psychological literature and practice.
Classroom Discussion is a teaching technique with several pedagogic purposes. Instructors use
discussion to:
 Make use of resources of members of the group.
 Assist students to integrate, relate, apply, and evaluate course principles.
 Motivate students for further learning.
 Improve problem solving and decision making skills.
 Obtain feedback on course objectives.
Deciding to Structure a Discussion
A good discussion has clear educational goals and usually addresses a subject or problem that has
distinctly defined parts. The instructor helps a group progress by addressing one aspect of the problem
at a time rather than skipping around the issue as different members of the group toss in ideas.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Antecedent Steps for Instructors
Plan for discussion. Make some notes.
Clarify the problem.
Gather information. Identify your resources.
Consider alternative solutions and divergent perspectives.
Consider what characteristics are necessary for an acceptable solution.
Guidelines for Productive Group Discussions
1. Ideally, start a large group discussion at the individual level, then move to paired sharing, small
groups, and finally to the large group discussion.
2. Invite quiet students to participate.
a. State the question first. Pause. State a student’s name and ask the question again.
i. “How would your life be different if NMU went to a four-day work week? Justin,
how would your life be different?”
ii. “What’s your opinion, Dee?”
iii. “Does anyone have a different opinion?”
b. “What are other ways the university could save money?”
3. Seek student-to-student interaction. Direct student comments and questions to other students.
a. “What are our suggestions in response to Jim’s excellent question?”
i. “Jill, how would answer Jim’s question?”
b. Encourage students to look at and talk to one another.
4. Understand the student’s statement or question. Paraphrase. When you are uncertain, others
probably are uncertain, too.
a. Ask a student to summarize what a previous student said. Allow the first student to
restate if the understanding is inaccurate.
b. “I think you are saying…. Am I right, or did I misunderstand?”
5. Probe for more information.
a. “What is the evidence in support of your statement?”
b. “What arguments would you offer as alternatives to your position?”
c. “What steps did you go through to reach your conclusion?”
6. Keep the focus on the discussion topic.
a. “We were discussing ___, and so far, we have two supporting ideas. Does anyone have a
different idea?”
b. “Before we continue, someone summarize the main points so far.” Alternatively, “I will
summarize….”
7. Wait time.
a. How would your life be different if people had no thumbs? Jot down your thoughts on a
piece of paper. Wait a full minute, and call on a student, rather than wait for a
volunteered response.
8. Notice students’ reactions to student comments.
a. Ask students to describe why they look uncertain about the response.
b. When students nod in assent, ask for an example based on the comment.
(For more information, see Woolfolk, 2010, 469-473).
Maximizing Discussion Productivity
The Four-Factor Theory
To maximize group members’ productivity through discussion, consider framing the learning time using
the Four-Factor Theory (Rosenthal, 1987):
1. Climate – consists of all the nonverbal behaviors of the manager and group members (e.g.,
smiling, nodding, and appropriate eye contact versus frowning, swallowing, and looking away as
a person speaks).
2. Feedback – includes the reinforcing statements made to the group member by the instructor or
by other group members.
3. Input – the amount of resources (time, knowledge, materials) available for success or failure at
the task. Students have a responsibility to come to class prepared. The discussion instructor has
a responsibility to maximize the students’ level of preparedness.
4. Output – opportunities to speak in the group or speak to persons in charge, and opportunities
to attempt/complete more challenging assignments.
Most people hate to break a silence. Use silence to advance discussion with the One-Minute Paper.
The One-Minute Paper (McKeachie, 1986)
(Individual level)
The one-minute paper engages students at the individual level and is particularly useful after a film,
presentation, or lecture when students have had exposure to a new topic. The one-minute paper allows
students to formulate a question or summarize main points. The work acts as a “cue” to discussion and a
check for clarity of course concepts.
To administer the One-Minute Paper, give the students one minute to write a question, synopsis, or
statement about information just presented. Allow students to keep their one-minute papers for cues
during the classroom discussion or collect for the instructor’s purposes.
Suggestions for Success with the One-Minute Paper:
 If concepts are difficult, two to five minutes might be necessary to formulate a meaningful
question or summary.
 Students’ one-minute papers may be collected after the discussion for feedback on course
objectives.
 The time for a one-minute paper purposefully limits the number of concepts. Students may feel
frustrated if the material seems overwhelming or complex, so break from presenting material to
engage the students about every 10 minutes.
 Encourage student-student interaction when sharing one-minute papers rather than studentinstructor interaction.
Role Play
(Pairs; small group level)
Role Play is a structured active learning technique that requires two (or more) participants. Role Play
prepares students to begin discussion of course concepts through an exchange of ideas with another
person.
The purpose of Role Play is to allow students to check their understanding of course concepts and
engages all members of the class in active participation.
Structuring Role Play
Participant A plays the role of _____ (e.g., student) and Participant B plays the role of _____ (e.g.,
instructor). Participant A (student) asks a question. Participant B (instructor) responds. Reverse roles.
Participant A (instructor) asks a question and Participant B (student) responds. Switch roles and repeat
with a new question.
Suggestions for Success with Role Play
 Model for students a sample of what you expect (e.g., foreign language conversations,
marketing strategies, conflict resolution practices, etc.)
 Teach students the types of questions to ask and behaviors you expect.
 Allow enough time for students to formulate good questions and responses.
 Role Play is easily adapted to structured-paired sharing and can be used to improve students’
notes for exam preparation.
The Two-Column Method
(Classroom level)
The Two-Column Method is a chalkboard technique used by instructors to prepare students for debating
an issue. The purpose of the Two-Column Method allows students to consider complications and
alternatives. The strategy is particularly useful during a situation of conflict or controversy, and is
valuable when students have strong biases, which prevent them from adequately considering alternate
points of view.
Structuring the Two-Column Method
Draw a large T on the chalkboard. Label the columns:
Favorable to A
Favorable to B
Pro
Con
For
Against
Strengths
Limitations
Record all arguments, ideas, suggestions, and confusions on the chalkboard. Leave the two columns on
the chalkboard for cues during the classroom discussion.
Suggestions for Success with the Two-Column Method
 Adequately define the problem. If the problem is not adequately defined, students will show
signs of frustration. Redefine the problem if necessary.
 If a student debates an argument presented for the other side, reformulate the student’s point
so you can list the point as a positive argument in the debater’s own column.
 Be complete in listing the arguments. Ask students to help you remember exactly what was said.
 If students talk faster than you write, tell them that you want all of their ideas. Ask them to
repeat unrecorded points.
 Include protested and/or countered arguments.
 Engage the assistance of a student volunteer who has the skills of writing quickly and legibly.
 Ask the students’ permission before erasing the chalkboard. The information is their work. Some
may want to take notes, etc.
 Do not erase the chalkboard until the discussion is over.
 Clear the chalkboard for the next class.
Critical Thinking and the Socratic Method
A gentler form of the Socratic Method can help instructors hone skills conducive to a “guide on the side”
role in discussion. The following summary of how to use the Socratic Method is from Stanford
University’s Award Winning Teachers on Teaching lecture series.
The Socratic Method: What it is and How to Use it in the Classroom
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/Newsletter/socratic_method.pdf
First Steps for Starting a Critical Thinking Discussion
1) Provide a concrete, common experience for all students to see (i.e., a demonstration, film, or
role-play).
2) Following the presentation, ask a question, which is the most common way to begin a
discussion: “What happened?”
3) Your questions should follow the order of Bloom's Taxonomy (next page) as a hierarchical
structure for questioning.
4) Allow students to use cues from their notes, textbooks, or one-minute papers.
5) Build on students’ questions and comments to further the discussion.
Guiding a Critical Thinking Discussion
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






Guide the discussion. Do not answer your own question or tell students “the answer.” Students
need to develop an answer or understanding. “What do we know?” “What data are relevant?”
Expand thinking (i.e., consider divergent perspectives). Agreement is a barrier to discussion and
not the objective of most educational discourses.
Seek to understand the complexities of the theory, issues, and principles.
Encourage differing points of view, especially ones that are contrary to majority opinion.
Assist the outnumbered opinion. Effective group problem solving is facilitated when the
minority opinion is heard. Beware - even the instructor prefers the majority, so conscientiously
assist the minority voice.
Encourage cooperation in identifying areas of agreement and disagreement. When the relative
values of complex situations are discussed, rather than right vs. wrong, constructive problem
solving is possible.
Avoid the competition of students tearing down other students’ ideas. If disparagement of ideas
is a problem, use the two-column method, role reversal, and/or perspective taking to settle
disputes.
Encourage perspective taking. Students should be able to articulate alternative positions.
Critical Thinking Discussions
High-level thinking skills involves any cognitive operation that is complex or places high demands on the
processing taking place in working memory. Students do not benefit from high level thinking tasks
unless explicit instruction comes first (Johnson, 2000). If instructors present high-level talks with very
little structuring of these talks, very little teaching or learning will take place.
Teaching about thinking skills is relatively easy by breaking down the cognitive process into steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Look at the whole
Find the similarities
Find the differences
Describe
Critical thinking skills involve those processes where a person must organize, analyze, or evaluate given
information.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain (Original)
(Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956)
Bloom’s taxonomy outlines the progression of thinking skills from the simplest (Knowledge) to the highest
levels of critical thinking. Notice the verbs you could use in your questions in the gold area.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Domain
Appropriate verbs
Student products
http://www.flickr.com/photos/bmcdiarmid/4891532516/
http://www.cetl.hku.hk/system/files/BloomsWheel.pdf
1. Knowledge - Start discussions at the Knowledge level of the cognitive domain. Knowledge is the simplest,
easiest, and lowest level of cognitive complexity. Knowledge includes the ability to recall or recognize
acts, events, facts, and ideas in which certain cues or clues prompt stored knowledge to awareness.
Verbs: lists, names, recalls, defines, states, identifies, describes, knows ... all of which address specific
terms, facts, sequences, criteria, methods, procedures, principles, theories, etc.
Example: List the rules.
2. Comprehension - Probe the students’ knowledge for comprehension, which is the ability to receive and
absorb information, without necessarily relating the information to other ideas or seeing its implications.
When we say we "understand" something, we usually mean a minimal kind of understanding where
students receive the information without a critical examination of the implications.
Verbs: Converts, explains, predicts, generalizes, infers, translates, extrapolates, interprets ... from the
data, communications, available information, etc.
Example: Compare the rules.
3. Application - Instructors who have students to apply their understanding are moving students to higher
levels of cognitive functioning. Application is the ability to use abstractions, rules, principles, ideas, and
methods in particular and concrete situations and is the easiest of the higher-level cognitive domains.
Verbs: Uses, solves, constructs, prepares, demonstrates, applies, and proves ... principles.
Example: Construct a list of difficulties for accomplishing the rules within an organization.
4. Analysis - When instructors ask students to compare and contrast, students are moving from
Comprehension to Analysis, which is the ability of students to determine the features of a situation,
problem, communication, or decision and speak about its elemental components.
Verbs: Discriminates, outlines, diagrams, differentiates, infers, explains, analyzes ... details, principles,
relationships, etc.
Examples: Analyze the distinctions between the rules. What differentiates one rule from another?
5. Synthesis - A cognitively taxing challenge for students is to create a new function or object from their
Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, and Analysis of an entity. Synthesis is creativity and is the ability
to work with pieces, parts, and elements by combining or putting them together in some unique way.
Verbs: Designs, organizes, rearranges, compiles, modifies, creates, produces ... a new arrangement.
Examples: Design a new rule for the most likely cause of a deviation from an original rule. Create a test to
verify the cause of the deviation.
6. Evaluation is the ability to make judgments about the extent to which materials and methods satisfy
criteria. According to the builders of the Bloom’s taxonomy, evaluation is the highest level of cognitive
ability. You could extend evaluation to appreciation. Discuss Evaluation last.
Verbs: Appraises, compares, contrasts, discriminates, criticizes, and detects... judges based on evidence.
Examples: Conduct a potential problem analysis to assess the chances that the new rule will resolve the
source of the original deviation. What is your rating of confidence (0-100%) that you are correct in your
evaluation of the new rule?
Newer Versions of Bloom’s Taxonomy
A newer version of Bloom’s Taxonomy exists in A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A
Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., and seven
others (2001). Addison Wesley Longman, publishers.
Bloom's Taxonomy (Modified)
The Cognitive Process Dimension
The
Knowledge Remember Understand
Dimension
Factual
Knowledge
List
Conceptual
Knowledge
Describe
Procedural
Knowledge
Tabulate
MetaAppropriate
Cognitive
Use
Knowledge
Summarize
Apply
Analyze
Evaluate
Create
Classify
Order
Rank
Combine
Explain
Assess
Plan
Interpret Experiment
Predict
Calculate Differentiate Conclude Compose
Execute
Construct
Achieve
Action
Actualize
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/coursedev/models/id/taxonomy/#table
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Bloom%27s_Taxonomy
Divergent Thinking versus Convergent Thinking
Divergent thinking involves multiple creative possibilities and new perspectives. Humans prefer to
converge on an answer rather than diverge into unknown possibilities. Examples of divergent thinking
include the following: “How many uses can your group devise for a textbook?” “Your group must select
three themes, decide on a favorite theme, and provide a rationale for why this theme is favored.”
People seek convergent thinking. Students like answers and solutions to problems. Multiple-choice tests
are classic opportunities to practice convergent thinking. Students must select a single answer. In
multiple-choice exams, students use their Knowledge and Comprehension levels of the cognitive domain
to converge on a selected answer. Multiple-choice exams rarely move students to think at levels higher
than the Comprehension domain.
Have students hone their divergent thinking skills, even under convergent tasks. For example, I offer
students Option E on four-option multiple-choice items (i.e., select from options a, b, c, or d). Option E
Students write their own answers, practice divergent thinking, and deviate from my options to their own
answer. My research on the use of Option E in four-option multiple-choice tests finds students are
correct only 50% of the time, which is double the chances of being correct with a pure guess (25%
chance of being correct).
Short Groupwork (10-15 minutes)
Use 3-4 person teams. Groups of five or six tend to break into pairs and trios, unless each member has a
specific role. Instructor assigns the teams. Have students share first names (and perhaps why they have
the first name they do to help students remember one another’s names). Pick a short task with no more
than three questions. Note the use of divergent thinking within the three questions. Have students
assign roles of Reader, Recorder, and Divergent Thinker to group members alphabetically by first name.
The Reader reads the poem, Recorder records the group answers, and Divergent Thinker encourages
creativity. Have the Divergent Thinker write a group number and three key words from the poem (last
question) on the chalkboard or marker board. Group responses are interesting to students.
“I, Too”
by Langston Hughes
(1925)
1. What is the main
theme of the poem?
2. Who is the “darker
brother” of today?
3. What are 3 key words
of10 selected words
in the poem?
I, too, sing America.
I am the darker brother.
They send me to eat in the kitchen
When Company comes,
But I laugh,
And eat well,
And grow strong.
Tomorrow,
I’ll be at the table
When company comes.
Nobody’ll dare
Say to me,
“Eat in the kitchen,”
Then.
Besides,
They’ll see how beautiful I am
And be ashamed–
I, too, am America.
Substitute an abstract, graph, equation, paragraph, drawing, problem, puzzle, blueprint, budget, etc.
1. Develop three different
strategies for finding
triangles.
2. Try a new strategy for
finding the correct
number of triangles.
Reciprocal Questioning
Reciprocal Questioning is a technique to allow students to monitor their own learning. The strategy is a
4-step process:
1) Summarization of information
2) Clarification of information
3) Generation of questions based on the information, and
4) Interaction of students-to-instructor or students-to-students.
Reciprocal Questioning is great strategy to improve students’ reading comprehension or to use during
times when students are unprepared (http://www.readingquest.org/strat/). Everyone reads a selected
short text silently. The instructor closes her or his textbook and the students ask the instructor a
question based on the text. The instructor answers.
1. Select a well-structured text for the lesson.
2. Imagine how the questioning will go and think about questions students might ask. Prepare
possible questions before the lesson.
3. Write down additional questions to use during the lesson.
4. Tell the students that today they are going to practice asking questions.
5. Read a short text aloud or silently and tell students to ask you a question about the text. Provide
an answer. Reverse roles. The instructor asks a question after students read a short section of text
and calls on a student to answer. Alternatively, the called upon student has the option either of
answering or asking a related question to another student, e.g., “Great question, I would not want
to face such a tough decision. What would you do, Kathy?”
Start with clarifying questions: Why do you think that? Can you elaborate? Tell me more. Can you give
me an example? (See http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/cl1/cl/doingcl/peerqst.htm). You can find
several excellent lists of clarifying questions on Google.com.
Why is _______ important?
Explain how _______.
Why is _______ happening?
What conclusions can I draw about _______?
What if _______?
What is the best _______ and why?
How does _______ relate to what I learned before?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of _______?
How are _______ and _______ similar?
How does _______ affect _______?
What is another way to look at _______?
What is the difference between _______ and _______?
What is a new example of _______?
What are the implications of _______?
How does _______ apply to your life?
Skills of picking main ideas, engaging in metacognitive thinking, and the process of thinking take time to
hone. Students need a great deal of exposure to and experiences with asking questions. In addition to
questioning, move students to summarize, clarify, and predict.
Grading a Discussion
I put discussion rubrics in the hands of students. Several excellent discussion rubrics exist on university
teaching websites. Click “OK” when asked if you would like to open these pdf files.
Scoring discussions: https://academictech.doit.wisc.edu/ORFI/otr/images/discussion_rubric2.pdf
http://www.eastern.edu/academic/ccgps/vcst/pdf/DiscussionGradingRubric.pdf
Grading a debate: http://www.csun.edu/~ds56723/phil338/hout338rubric.htm
Scoring online postings: http://edhd.bgsu.edu/~sbanist/discrubric.pdf
http://www2.uwstout.edu/content/profdev/rubrics/discussionrubric.html
References
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision
of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Allyn & Bacon. Boston, MA (Pearson Education
Group).
Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational
objectives. The classification of educational goals: Handbook 1. Cognitive domain. New York:
Longmans, Green. “Bloom’s taxonomy,” the classic attempt to bring order into the welter of
what teachers say they want their students to learn. – 43, 631.
Brown, Thomas C. (1992). Teams Can Work Great…. Industry Week, 241(4), p. 18.
Byrnes, D. A. & Kiger, G. (2005). Common bonds: Anti-bias teaching in a diverse society (3rd Ed.),
Wheaton, MD: Association for Childhood Education International.
CRM/McGraw-Hill Films (1987). Productivity and the self-fulfilling prophecy: The Pygmalion effect (2nd
edition) <video recording interview of Rosenthal> Del Mar, CA: McGraw-Hill Training Systems.
Editorial Projects. (1999). Thoughtful teachers, thoughtful schools: Issues and insights in education today
(3rd Ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Gage, N. L., & Berliner, D. C. (1988). Educational psychology, 4th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Johnson, A. P. (2000). Up and out: Using creative and critical thinking skills to enhance learning. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, D. & Johnson, F. P. (2009). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (10th Ed.),
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Kepner, C. H., & Trego, B. B. (1981). The new rational manager. Princeton Research Press.
McKeachie (1986). Improving college teaching. Washington, DC: American Council on Education (pp.
211-239).
Puncochar, J. (2004). Human Relations and Skills for Inclusive Teaching. Minneapolis, MN: University of
Minnesota.
Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399.
Wlodkowski, R. J., & Ginsberg, M. B. (1995). Diversity and motivation: Culturally responsive teaching. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Woolfolk, A. (2010). Educational psychology (11th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.