Ngamassi et al.
Social Media Use in Disaster Management
Examining the Role of Social Media in
Disaster Management from an
Attribution Theory Perspective
Louis Ngamassi
Thiagarajan Ramakrishnan
Prairie View A&M University
[email protected]
Prairie View A&M University
[email protected]
Shahedur Rahman
Prairie View A&M University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper is related to the use of social media for disaster management by humanitarian organizations. The past
decade has seen a significant increase in the use of social media to manage humanitarian disasters. It seems,
however, that it has still not been used to its full potential. In this paper, we examine the use of social media in
disaster management through the lens of Attribution Theory. Attribution Theory posits that people look for the
causes of events, especially unexpected and negative events. The two major characteristics of disasters are that
they are unexpected and have negative outcomes/impacts. Thus, Attribution Theory may be a good fit for
explaining social media adoption patterns by emergency managers. We propose a model, based on Attribution
Theory, which is designed to understand the use of social media during the mitigation and preparedness phases
of disaster management. We also discuss the theoretical contributions and some practical implications. This
study is still in its nascent stage and is research in progress.
Keywords
Attribution Theory, social media, disaster management, disaster management phases.
INTRODUCTION
The past decade has seen an increase in the use of social media to manage disasters (Denis et al., 2014; Hiltz et
al., 2014; Hughes, 2014; Yates & Paquette, 2011). It seems, however, that social media has still not been used to
its full potential by humanitarian organizations and other disaster responders. For example, findings from
Ngamassi et al. (2016) suggest that social media has been mainly used in the response phase of disaster
management but not as much in the other phases of mitigation, preparedness, and recovery. Understanding the
reasoning behind the use of social media extensively in one phase as compared to other phases will contribute to
the optimal use of social media in disaster management. In this study, we examine the use of social media in
disaster management through the lens of Attribution Theory. Attribution Theory suggests that individuals
behave as inexperienced psychologists when trying to comprehend the cause of events (Weiner, 1985).
Attribution Theory also posits that people look for the causes of events, especially unexpected and negative
events (Weiner, 1985). The two major characteristics of disasters are that they are unexpected and have negative
outcomes (Coombs, 2007). Thus, Attribution Theory may be a good fit for explaining social media adoption
patterns by emergency managers, specifically in the mitigation and preparedness phases of disaster
Short Paper – Social Media Studies
Proceedings of the ISCRAM 2016 Conference – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May 2016
Tapia, Antunes, Bañuls, Moore and Porto de Albuquerque, eds.
Ngamassi et al.
Social Media Use in Disaster Management
management. The focus of this paper is in understanding the use of social media in the preparedness and
mitigation phase of disaster management and as such, we will not be examining the use of social media in the
other two disaster management phases of response and recovery.
In the next section, we provide a brief presentation of disaster management phases followed by a brief overview
of the literature on social media in disaster management. After that, we present our conceptual model. We then
expound on the research methodology. In closing, we discuss the theoretical contributions and some practical
implications.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT PHASES
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has broadly classified the disaster management into four
phases: Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery (FEMA, 2010). This classification is also
consistently found across the literature (e.g. Chikoto et al., 2012; Islam & Chik, 2011). Mitigation requires
examination of how to take continuous action to remove or diminish long-term hazards to people and property
during disaster. Preparedness involves (1) determining the supplies and resources most vital in case of disaster;
(2) designating amenities for emergency use; and (3) assigning and training support personnel in key areas
during response and recovery operations. Response begins when a disaster is imminent or immediately after the
disaster occurs. This phase mainly involves conducting an assessment of the situation and putting the strategies
developed during the preparedness phase into action. Recovery is to ensure all community activities and systems
return to normal functioning. Recovery is unique to each community or area depending on the type of disaster,
the extent to which the community is affected by the disaster, and the resources that are available or can be
procured by the community.
SOCIAL MEDIA IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Researchers have devoted a considerable amount of time investigating the use of social media for disaster
management. Major themes investigated include situational information (Mark & Semaan, 2008; Oh et al.,
2010), sense-making (Robinson, 2009), collaborative resilience (Mark & Semaan, 2008;), rumor management
(Mendoza et al., 2010) and a vision of the future of disaster management that better supports inclusion of
activities and information from members of the public (Palen et al. 2010). Most of these studies highlight the
fact that during disaster, social media can effectively supplement traditional information dissemination and
sourcing methods by emergency services organizations and disaster managers.
The popularity, efficiency, and ease of use of social media have led to its pervasive use of disaster management
(Denis et al., 2014; Hiltz et al., 2014; Hughes, 2014; Yates & Paquette, 2011). Social media facilitates open
online exchange of information through conversation and interactions (Yates & Paquette, 2011). This also offers
an alternative opportunity for first responders and disaster relief organizations to collect information about the
disaster, victims, and their needs (Abbasi et al., 2011). Moreover, social media has the potential to organize
extensive communication and strengthen the flow of information, and at the same time be flexible to the
changing needs of responders (Sutton et al., 2008; Yates & Paquette, 2011; Ngamassi et al. 2016). In some
disaster areas, it may not be possible to use the prevailing terrestrial communication network due to damaged
infrastructure or damaged cables. In these situations, social media plays a very important role in communication
and sharing of information with the individuals involved in search and rescue operations.
Although researchers and non-profit organizations do not deny the importance of using social media in disaster
management (Denis et al., 2014; Oh et al., 2010; Robinson, 2009; Mark & Semaan, 2008), it seems that social
media has been under-utilized in managing disasters. For example, a study conducted by Ngamassi et al., (2016)
indicates that social media is predominantly used in the response phase of disaster management and not so much
in the preparedness and the mitigation phases. One of the reasons for not utilizing social media to its full
potential could include disaster management workers not understanding the characteristics of social media and
how it can be used in the other phases. Another reason could be that there are no clear protocols that map the
different characteristics of social media with the different phases of disaster management and hence, disaster
management workers are unsure as to which type of social media can be used in which phase of disaster
management. In order to improve the use of social media in disaster management, it is important to understand
why social media is not used more frequently in phases other than the recovery phase.
In this study, we draw on Attribution Theory to examine why social media is underutilized in the disaster
management phases of mitigation and preparedness.
Short Paper – Social Media Studies
Proceedings of the ISCRAM 2016 Conference – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May 2016
Tapia, Antunes, Bañuls, Moore and Porto de Albuquerque, eds.
Ngamassi et al.
Social Media Use in Disaster Management
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Attribution Theory is generally used to examine how people attribute reason to the behavior of others (Hughes
and Gibson, 1987). It is the study of the process by which people associate causes to events and outcomes that
they experience (Swanson and Kelley 2001). Attribution Theory posits that people look for the causes of events,
especially unexpected and negative events (Coombs, 2007). A major goal of the attributional process is to
understand, organize, and form meaningful perspectives about outcomes and to predict and control them. This
propensity to understand and control events and outcomes is more evident in situations with unexpected and/or
negative outcomes.
Few studies have applied Attribution Theory in the area of disaster management (Coombs, 2007; Patton,
2003).There are studies that examine the different response strategies, which disaster management adopts when
faced with a crisis (Liu et al., 2011). Here, most of these studies look into crises as a threat that can cause a
negative impact or outcome to organizations. There are not many studies that tie social media with the disaster
management phases provided by FEMA. Further, prior studies have indicated attributional elucidations to the
behavioral dynamics when users have chosen to use technology (Henry and Stone, 2001; Martinko et al., 1996;
Henry et al., 1993). Therefore, Attribution Theory would be appropriate to understand the success/failure in
using social media in the disaster management phases of preparedness and mitigation.
In this study, we draw on the Weiner model of achievement attributions to understand the use of social media in
the preparedness and mitigation phases. This model suggests that attributional factors can be categorized within
the dimensions of stability, locus of causality, and controllability. Stability refers to whether the attribution
factors are stable indicating that the factors are permanent or unstable indication that the factors can be changed,
i.e., temporary. Locus of causality examines whether the factors are internal or external to the individual.
Controllability refers to how much control an individual has over the attribution factors. The attributions we
examine in this study include task difficulty, luck, effort, and ability. We posit that these attributions have an
influence on the use of social media in the disaster management phases of preparedness and mitigation. Figure 1
depicts our research model.
Task Difficulty
P1a P1b Luck
P2a -
Use of Social Media for
Preparedness
P2b -
P3a Effort
P3b -
Use of Social Media for
Mitigation
P4a P4b Ability
Figure 1: Conceptual Model
Task difficulty refers to the level of difficulty in performing the given tasks. According to Weiner model of
achievement attributions, task difficulty is considered to be a stable and external attribution. Further, individuals
do not have much control over the difficulty of task that needs to be performed. If the task of using social media
is complex, then this may lead to the unsuccessful use of social media. Furthermore, if the individual perceives
the social media to work in such a way that it is easy to make mistakes, this may demotivate the individuals
from successfully using social media for the preparedness and mitigation phases of disaster management. Thus,
if the disaster management worker perceives the task of using social media for disaster management as difficult,
he/she may not achieve the desired success in using these tools for the mitigation and preparedness phases.
Therefore, we propose that:
P1a: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of task difficulty and use of social media for
preparedness phase of disaster management.
Short Paper – Social Media Studies
Proceedings of the ISCRAM 2016 Conference – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May 2016
Tapia, Antunes, Bañuls, Moore and Porto de Albuquerque, eds.
Ngamassi et al.
Social Media Use in Disaster Management
P1b: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of task difficulty and use of social media for
mitigation phase of disaster management.
Luck is an external attribution, and individuals do not have much control over it. Thus, if something good or bad
happens due to luck, it is perceived as not to be under the control of the individual. Luck has to do with the
impact of unforeseen environmental conditions (Sneal et al., 2015). Further, luck is temporary and highly
unstable and can change any time. If a person believes he/she is unlucky, then he/she may not be inclined to use
social media. Therefore, we propose that:
P2a: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of luck and successful use social media for
preparedness phase of disaster management.
P2b: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of luck and successful use social media for
mitigation phase of disaster management.
Effort refers to the amount of time and resources an individual spends on learning to understand the system.
Effort is an internal attribution and is highly controllable & unstable. Thus, depending on the results, the
individual can put more or less effort. The more effort the individual puts in, the higher is the success in using
the system. Similarly, the less the effort the individual puts in, lower will be the individual’s success rate in
using social media for the preparedness and mitigation phases of disaster management. Moreover, we are
examining the lack of use of social media in the mitigation and the preparedness phases of disaster management.
Therefore, we propose that:
P3a: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of effort and use of social media for preparedness
phase of disaster management.
P3b: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of effort and use of social media for mitigation
phase of disaster management.
Ability is internal and highly stable. However, an individual does not have a lot of control over his/her
perception of ability. If the individual understands how the system works or if using any technology comes
naturally to the individual, then he/she will successfully use the system. However, if the individual perceives
himself/herself as not having the ability with technology, then he/she may not be able to use the system
successfully. Therefore, we propose that:
P4a: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of ability and use of social media for preparedness
phase of disaster management.
P4b: There exists a negative relationship between attributions of ability and use of social media for mitigation
phase of disaster management.
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
To further evaluate the nature of these attributional factors and their influence on the use of social media for
disaster management in the preparedness and mitigation phase, we developed multi-item scales for measuring
these attributional factors and social media use. The scales were designed and adapted from previously validated
instrument (Henry & Stone, 2001). A preliminary conceptualized instrument for testing the research model is
given in Table 1. The table provides construct names and the measurement items. In the survey questionnaire,
all the items are measured on a five-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 =
agree, and 5 = strongly agree, unless specified otherwise.
Pilot test will be run using this instrument with a small sample for reliability and validity. This step will occur
before large-scale test. Measuring items may be revised or removed based on the results of the pilot. The target
population will be CIOs, CTOs, and senior managers from different disaster management organizations in the
United States.
Data will be analyzed using a two-step approach and will use Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique.
SmartPLS will be used to analyze the data. In the first step, we will examine the measurement model to ensure
our instrument exhibits adequate psychometric properties. In the second step, we will examine the structural
model to evaluate our propositions. Further, given the data will be self-reported and will be collected in one
point of time, there is a potential for common method bias. We will further run a Harmon one-factor test to
evaluate the severity of common method bias.
Short Paper – Social Media Studies
Proceedings of the ISCRAM 2016 Conference – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May 2016
Tapia, Antunes, Bañuls, Moore and Porto de Albuquerque, eds.
Ngamassi et al.
Social Media Use in Disaster Management
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
In this study, we propose a model to understand the use of social media during the mitigation and preparedness
phases of disaster management using the lens of Attribution Theory. We propose that the lack of use of social
media for disaster management in mitigation phase and preparedness can be understood by examining the users’
attribution of achievement behavior through the three dimensions of stability, locus of causality, and control.
The attributional factors along these dimensions include ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty.
Two theoretical contributions can be drawn from this study. First, the scope of Attribution Theory has not been
expounded in the existing literature with regards to FEMA defined disaster management phases and the use of
social media. This study tries to fill this existing gap. Second, social media in disaster management until now,
has been mainly examined during the response phase, i.e., after the disaster has occurred, in disaster
management literature. Our model provides an approach to examine the use of social media in disaster
management even prior to the occurrence of any disaster.
This study also has practical implications. The conceptual model and the instrument will provide a framework
for the disaster management workers to understand and evaluate their motivation with regards to using social
media prior to the occurrence of disasters. Further, based on this study, managers can provide specific incentives
targeting the correct attributional behaviors to ensure the successful use of social media in the preparedness and
mitigation phases and thus be forearmed to deal with any disaster rather than wait until the disaster occurs.
In conclusion, this study focuses on providing a conceptual model for the use of social media in the mitigation
and preparedness phases of disaster management. Four propositions provide a theoretical foundation for future
empirical studies. Overall, this study contributes to the literature focused on information systems in disaster
management areas.
SURVEY INSTRUMENT
Task Difficulty*
1. Most of the tasks I perform with regards to disaster management using social media are complex.
2. Social media for disaster management works in such a way that mistakes are easy to make.
3. Orders and entries for disaster management are difficult to make using social media.
4. Social media is difficult to use for disaster management.
Luck*
1.
2.
I am unfortunate and “do the wrong thing” without knowing what I am doing.
I am unlucky and often make mistakes using social media for disaster management.
Effort*
1. I do not work as hard as I should to learn how to use social media for disaster management.
2. I do not spend as much time as I should to ensure that I use social media correctly for disaster
management.
3. I spend little time at work learning to use social media for disaster management.
Ability*
1. I don’t understand how social media works for disaster management.
2. Using social media for disaster management does not come naturally to me.
3. I don’t have the ability to use social media for disaster management.
System use
1. What percentage of your work time is spent using social media for the preparedness phase of disaster
management?
2. What percentage of your work time is spent using social media for the mitigation phase of disaster
management?
*Attributions were examined for the unsuccessful use of social media for the preparedness and mitigation phases of disaster management.
Table 1. Constructs and Measurement Items for the Conceptual Model
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Short Paper – Social Media Studies
Proceedings of the ISCRAM 2016 Conference – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May 2016
Tapia, Antunes, Bañuls, Moore and Porto de Albuquerque, eds.
Ngamassi et al.
Social Media Use in Disaster Management
This article was developed under an appointment to the DHS Summer Research Team Program for Minority
Serving Institutions, administered for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) by the Oak Ridge
Institute for Science and Education (ORISE) through an interagency agreement between DHS and the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE). ORISE is managed by Oak Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU) under DOE
contract number DE-AC05-06OR23100. This document has not been formally reviewed by DHS. The views
and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessary
representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of DHS, DOE, or ORAU/ORISE. DHS, DOE and
ORAU/ORISE do not endorse any products or commercial services mentioned in this publication.
We would like to thank Dr. Abish Malik and Dr. David Ebert of the VACCINE Center at Purdue University for
their support during the DHS Summer Research program.
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