GENDER DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE AND
BEHAVIORAL STEPS TOWARD DIVORCE
D. RUSSELL CRANE, JEAN N.SODERQUIST,
and MICHAEL D. GARDNER
This study investigated the difiences in cognitive and behavioral
steps in the divorce process for men and women. Two studies of 589
clinical couples were analyzed comparing the responses of men and
women on the 14 items of theMarita1 Status Inventory (MSI). Women
werefound to make specific plans about divorce and implement these
plans. Women were also found to think more about divorce and taUc
to friends during the divorce decision-mnking process. Thesefindings
indicate that the divorce process is not the same for men and women
and that statements of divorce intent are not equivalent@ both. Additionally, the divorce process is probably more accurately reflected in
the thoughts and actions of wives.
The prevalence of marital instability and the increasing divorce rate
in the United States over the past two decades have fostered not only
widespread societal concern but a renewed academic interest, both of a
theoretical and an empirical nature (Booth & Johnson, 1983; Bumpass &
Sweet, 1972; Crane et al., in press; Hagestad & Smyer, 1982; McRae &
Brody, 1989). Of specific interest is the area of marital stability-specifically, why and under what conditions couples divorce.
Several researchers have shown differences in the way men and women
perceive and react to problems in marital stability (Crane et al., 19M;
Emery & Wyer, 1987; Larson & Holman, in press; Levenson & Gottman,
1985; McDonald et al., 1987). Evidence from both d i c a l and nonclinical
D.Russell Crane, Ph.D., is a Professor and War of the Marriage and Family Therapy
Graduate Programs in the Department of Family Saences, 274 TLRB, Brigham Young
University, Provo, UT 84602. Send reprint requests to Dr. Gane. JeanN. Soderquist, Ph.D.,
is a Marriage and Family Therapist in Private Practice in Salt Lake City, UT 84119. Michael
D.Gardner, Ph.D.. is a Marriaee and Familv Thera~ist,Utah Vdev Reeional Medical
Center, Pmvo. UT 84604. 5uppo> for this ambe was p'rohded by a g r k t &rn the College
of Farmiy, Home and Sodal Sciences of Brigham Young Univeniq to rhe first author.
The American Joumalof Family Therapy, Vol. 23, No. 2,1995 6 B m n n e r h e l , Inc.
100
The American Journal of Family Therapy, Vol. 23, No. 2, Summer 1995
populations indicates that women are more dissatisfied with their relationships than are their male counterparts (Booth & White, 1980; Crane &
Mead, 1980). If this is the case, there may be important gender-related
differences in the divorce process.
Research on gender role differences shows that traditionally defined
family roles are very different for men and women (Gilligan, 1982;
Goldscheider & Waite, 1986). Over the past three decades, gender role
orientations have been changing, with both men and women becoming
less traditional (Gield, 1979;McBroom, 1987;McDonald et al., 1987).Although men and women are exposed to the issues, the role-related changes
for men seem to be a more passive process than for women. However,
for many women, change seems to involve their immediate life experiences, such as changes in employment, marital status, or fertility
(McBroom, 1987). These changes can produce reassessment of their traditional gender roles. According to more than two decades of research, it
appears that "his" marriage may be more desirable than "her" marriage
in many dimensions (Fowers, 1991).
Gender differences have also been found in s les of communication
and conflict (Hecht, 1984;Noller, 1993).Research s ows that females generally express their emotions more frequently than males. Females are
also more willing to talk to others about their problems and dissatisfactions than males, particularly in unhappy marriages (Campbell & Snow,
1992;Fuller, 1983;Gottman, 1994).Differences in such basic areas as physical and emotional responses to disagreement and confrontation have also
been linked to ender (Levenson & Gottman, 1985;Lloyd, 1987;Norell &
Apple, 1990;
te, 1989).
Another difference in marriages with respect to gender is the source
of personal fulfillment and gratification (Riessman & Gerstel, 1985). The
woman may gain from a marriage financially, but give up more in terms
of privacy, control over schedules, and friends. In divorce, she does not
regain privacy or control of her schedule, but will suffer negative and
prolonged economic consequences, while her husband's finanaal circumstances often improve (Fowers, 1991;Holden & Smock, 1991).If the wife
seeks employment outside the home during or after her marriage, additional strain and overload are experienced because often she still has rerisibility for the home in addition to her employment obligations. Also,
gexpectation that she nurture others despite fumeroous demands elsewhere may reduce the married woman's ability to provide good care for
herself (Riessman & Gerstel, 1985). Men, on the other hand, have two
potential sources of gratification-family and employment. These two
roles do not result in a double burden for married men because their
wives continue to do most of the work in the home. This difference in
workload and gratification is a possible reason wh several studies have
shown that women report more dissatisfaction in &eir relationships and
more thoughts of divorce than do men (Crane et al., 1984; Kitson &Sussman, 1983).
Evaluation of marriages using such instruments as the Marital Adjustment Test (MAT) and Marital Status Inventory (MSI) have shown that
X
&
Gender Differences in Divorce
101
wives' scores indicate more marital distress than do the scores of their
husbands. In Crane et al. (1984), an effort was made to clarify the cause
of the wives' higher MSI scores by conducting an item analysis by gender.
Significant differences were found on 5 of the 14 items of the MSI, suggesting that there is a difference in the thoughts and actions in the divorce
process. In another study by Crane et al. (in press), the MSI was used as
a predictor of divorce potential. The results indicate that the wives' MSI
scores were highly predictive of divorce and are a better indicator of
divorce risk than those of husbands.
In summary, it appears that "his" marriage may be substantially different from "her" marriage. The partners come into the marriage with many
differences, including expectations, roles, styles of communication and
conflict sources of gratification, and sets of criteria on which to rate the
success or failure of the relationship. Some of these differences may be
due to gender. Any combination may lead to marital dissatisfaction and
dissolution.
The purpose of this study was to test for gender differences in the
cognitive and behavioral steps toward divorce. If a therapist can determine the steps that have been taken by a couple toward divorce, he or
she can design treatment programs to better fit the couple's needs. This
study examined the hypothesis that within a clinical sample, the wives
express distress and proceed toward divorce with different thoughts and
actions than do their husbands.
METHOD
Subjects
Two samples were available for study. Sample one consisted of 348
couples who requested marital therapy at the Brigham Young University
Comprehensive Clinic in Provo, Utah. AU couples completed a standard
intake procedure, including an assessment packet, prior to beginning therapy. All but a few of the couples in this sample were members of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Consequently, the results of
this sample will be compared to a second sample detailed in the Crane et
al. study (1984), which was a cross-sectional,nonhomogeneous group.
The second sample was 241 couples gathered from five different clinical
locations in three states and one marital enrichment sample. The intent
was to compare these samples for similarity of findings across different
locations and populations.
The Marital Status Inventory (MSI) is a l4item true or false test which
is designed to measure divorce potential. It measures the cognitive and
behavioral steps toward divorce and has been found to be helpful in predicting divorce (Crane et al., in press). Several studies (Crane t Mead,
The American fournal of Family Therapy, Vol. 2.3. No. 2, Summer 1995
1980; Crane et al., 1984, in press; Weiss & Cewto, 1980) have supported
the MSI as a valid and reliable instrument.
RESULTS
The analysis by gender was conducted to determine if husbands' and
wives' scores differed on the MSI. The results indicate that wives scored
consistently higher on the MSI than husbands (males: n = 348, x = 2542,
sd = 2.788; females: n = 348, x = 3.536, sd = 3.305; paired t-test = -7.28,
p < .001).
A chi-square analysis of MSI items by gender was conducted to identify
gender-specific differences in the divorce decision-making process. This
analysis allowed individual comparison of husbands' and wives' responses on the 14 MSI questions. SigniGcant differences were found on
items 1,4, 7, 8, and 14, as presented in Table 1. These items are compared
with the results and significant items found in the Crane et al, study (1984),
which is also presented in Table 1.
The direction of the differences between husbands' and wives' responses also proved to be interesting. On item 1, it was found that higher
numbers of wives had made specific plans to discuss separation or divorce
with their husbands. Item 4 determined that more wives than husbands
had actually expressed to their spouses a desire to be divorced or separated. Question 7 found that higher numbers of wives reported talking to
others about thoughts of divorce. Items 8 and 14 indicated that wives
thought about &vorce more than their husbands both after an argument
and at other times. These results are almost identical to those of the study
by Gane et al. (1984). The only item differences between the studies were
on items 1 and 3. This study found item 1to be sigdicant, whereas the
Crane et al. study (1984) did not. The Crane et aL study (1984) found item
3 to be significant, whereas this study did not. Of the items found to be
significant in this study, items 1, 4, and 7 have the greatest clinical or
practical significance (see Table 1).
These three items indicate that women make plans about divorce, carry
out these plans, and talk to others about their desire to divorce appro=mately 24% more than do men.
DISCUSSION
This study su ports previous research that indicates that men and
women differ in elr achons
. and thoughts in the divorce decision-making
process. Women were more likely than men to have made specific plans
to discuss divorce or separation with their spouse and to have actually
carried these plans out. Women in these samples are also more likely to
discuss the question of divorce or se aration with someone other than
their spouse. Additionally, wives tenc tor h .r k about divorce more than
their husbands after an argument and at other times. Women also think
more about divorce and talk to others about divorce and are willing to
make these thoughts and desires known to their spouse. Therefore, this
5,.
Gender Differences in Divorce
TABLE 1
Steps in the Divorce Process that Women d o More Often than Men
Item
Number
Marital Status
Inventory Items
Chi-Square Values
Percentage
Study One
Present
Differences
Crane et al.
Study
(1984)
N
1
I have made spafic plans to discuss
separation or divorce with my
spouse.I have considered what I
will say, etc.
Thoughts of divorce occur to me
very frequently, as often as once a
week or more.
I have suggested to my spouse that
Iwish to be divorced, separated, or
rid of him / her.
I have discussed the question of my
divorce or separation with someone
other than my spouse (trusted
friend, psychologist, minister, etc.).
I have omasionally thought of
divorce or wished that we were
separated, usually after an
argument or other inadent.
I have considered divorce or
separation a few times other than
during or shortly after a fight,
although only in vague t e r n .
= 241
NS
N = 348
7.W
u)
5.79.
NS
5.78'
22.47-
24
5.32.
8.46-
21
13.3-
6.44'
'p c .os, *.p c .OI. .-p c .mt
study indicates that women appear to take a more active role in preparing
and planning for divorce or separation.
This study also supports previous research that indicates that marital
distress is generally more apparent in wives than in their husbands. Therefore, practitioners may want to a special attention to the MSI scores of
wives and review the steps ant! Xoughts they have had in the divorce
rocess, since wives' scores are better predictors of divorce than are huslands' scores (Crane et al., in press)
The use of the MSI as a divorce prrdiction instrument can have practical
use for cliniaans. It can benefit the therapist and the client if there is
evidence that the couple may be at risk for divorce. The results of this
study showed that women make plans about divorce, cany out these
plans, and talk to others about their desire to divorce. This knowledge
can assist the therapist in deading on the type of treatment that is most
beneficial for the clients. For example, using this information, the thera ist
may discuss directly whether the couple wishes to continue marital tierapy or if it would be better to proceed with divorce mediation and adjustment due to the levels of distress and steps that have been taken
toward divorce.
The American Journal of Family Therapy, Vol. 23, No. 2. Summer 1995
One conclusion related to the results of this study is that wives' statements of distress or divorce intention will occur more frequently than
statements from their husbands. Also, given that wives' distress levels are
more predictive of divorce than are their husbands' distress levels, cliiciaw and husbands should pay careful attention to any such statements.
Because many women know the costs of divorce in such terms as loss
of soaal and economic status, increased responsibility for children, and
custody disputes, their willingness to consider divorce should not be
taken lightly.
Four of the five items found to be sigruficant in this study were sign&
cant in the Crane et al. study (1984).This similarity, as well as concurrence
with other studies of gender differences in the areas of marital satisfaction
and divorce (Booth &White, 1980; Campbell & Snow, 1992; Gothnan, 1994;
Kitson & Sussman, 1983), suggests that the results may be generalizable to
a variety of groups. Further research is, of course, necessary to finnly
establish these differences.
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