CHAPTER 12
MOTIVATION
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Lecture outline
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•
•
•
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Nature of motivation
Needs theories
Cognitive theories
Reinforcement theory
Social learning theory
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Nature of motivation
Motivation is the force energising or, giving
direction to, behaviour.
It is a complex interaction of behaviours,
needs, rewards/reinforcement and cognitive
activities.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Nature of motivation
ability X motivation
x
environmental =
performance
conditions
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Needs theories
•
•
•
•
Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow)
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
ERG theory (Aldefer)
Acquired needs theory (McClelland)
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Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Needs theories
Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow):
• Theory arguing that individual needs form a
five-level hierarchy.
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Needs theories
Self-actualisation
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
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Needs theories
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Herzberg’s theory that hygiene factors are
necessary to keep workers from feeling dissatisfied
but, only motivators can lead workers to feel
satisfied and motivated.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Needs theories
Hygiene factors
Motivators
Pay
Working
Conditions
Supervisors
Company
Policies
Fringe
benefits
Achievement
Responsibility
Work itself
Recognition
Growth
Advancement
These factors help prevent
dissatisfaction.
These factors promote
satisfaction.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Needs theories
ERG theory (Aldefer)
Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
theory, which argues that there are three
levels of individual needs.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Needs theories
Existence needs
Physiological (food, water)
Pay
Benefits
Working conditions
Relatedness needs
Relationships with family,
work and professional
groups
Growth needs
Creativity
Innovation
Productivity
Satisfaction-progression
principle
Frustration-regression
principle
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Needs theories
Acquired needs theory (McClelland)
Theory stating that our needs are acquired or
learned on the basis of our life experiences.
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Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Needs theories
Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland —
cites the need for achievement, power,
and affiliation as major motives in work
Need for achievement —drive to excel
Need for power—influence others behaviour
Need for affiliation—desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Cognitive theories
• Expectancy theory
• Equity theory
• Goal-setting theory
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Cognitive theories
Expectancy theory (Vroom)
Theory arguing that we consider three main
issues (effort-performance, performanceoutcome, valence) before we expend effort
necessary to perform at a given level.
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Cognitive theories
• Effort-performance expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the
required level of performance.
• Performance-outcome expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our successful
performance will lead to desired outcomes.
• Valence
Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or
rewards.
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Cognitive theories
Equity theory (Adams)
Theory arguing that we prefer situations of balance
or, equity.
Implications for managers:
– Communication essential to assess
equity/inequity perceptions in employees.
– Complimentary to Expectancy theory.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Cognitive theories
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory [technique] works by
focussing attention & action, mobilising effort,
increasing persistence, & encouraging the
development of strategy to achieve goals.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Cognitive theories
Reinforcement theory
Theory arguing that our behaviour can be
explained by consequences in the
environment.
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Cognitive theories
Types of reinforcement:
• Positive
Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to encourage desired
behaviour. Use of shaping.
• Negative
(unpleasant) stimuli so an individual will engage in the desired
behaviour to stop the stimuli.
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Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Cognitive theories
Types of reinforcement:
• Extinction
Stopping previously available positive outcomes from a
behaviour to decrease the behaviour.
• Punishment
Providing negative consequences to decrease or discourage
a behaviour.
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Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Reinforcement theory
Fixed interval:
given on fixed time
schedule. Uneven
responses, extinction
rapid if reinforcement
late, or stops
Variable interval:
given on variable or
random time basis.
High, steady
response rate, slow
extinguishment,
if stopped
Fixed ratio:
given after fixed number
of cases of desired behaviour.
High response rates, rapid
extinguishment if stopped
even temporarily.
Variable ratio:
given on variable or
random frequency
of behaviour basis.
High response rate,
very slow extinguishment
Using
reinforcement
theory:
encourage desired
behaviour, be clear
on what is desired.
Use variable interval
& variable ratio
reinforcement.
Punish moderately
severely & promptly.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Social learning theory
Social learning theory (Bandura)
Theory arguing that learning occurs through
continuous reciprocal interaction of our
behaviours, various personal factors and
environmental forces.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Social learning theory
Learning occurs by continuous interaction
between our behaviours, personal factors and
environmental forces, viz:
• Symbolic processes
• Self-control/regulation
• Vicarious learning.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Lecture summary
• Nature of motivation
– Motivational process
– Motivation & performance.
• Needs theories
–
–
–
–
Hierarchy of needs
Two-factor
ERG
Acquired needs.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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Lecture summary
• Cognitive theories
Expectancy
– Equity
– Goal-setting.
–
• Reinforcement theory
Positive, negative, extinction, punishment as
reinforcement.
• Social learning theory
Symbolic processes, self-control, vicarious learning.
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd. PowerPoint Slides t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus
Enhanced Edition. Slides prepared by David Meacheam & George Sansbury.
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