Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1179–1188, 2011
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1179/2011/
doi:10.5194/nhess-11-1179-2011
© Author(s) 2011. CC Attribution 3.0 License.
Natural Hazards
and Earth
System Sciences
Short-term 222Rn activity concentration changes in underground
spaces
withseason,
limited
exchange
withcarry
thea substantial
atmosphere
recorded
in the winter
when air
convective
air movements
amountL.ofFijałkowska-Lichwa
radon out into the atmosphere.
and T. A. Przylibski
TheWrocław
incorrectUniversity
usage ofofmechanical
in Fluorite Adit
results
the most
Technology, ventilation
Faculty of Geoengineering,
Mining
andinGeology,
Institute of Mining Engineering,
Division of Geology and Mineral Waters, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50–370 Wrocław, Poland
unfavourable conditions in terms of radiation protection. The staff working in that
222
22 December
2010 throughout
– Revised: 3 March
2011
Accepted:
– Published: 27 April 2011
facilityReceived:
are exposed
practically
all year
on –the
highest9 March
Rn 2011
activity
concentrations both at work (in the adit) and at home (outside their working hours).
Abstract. The authors investigated short-time changes in
(outside their working hours). Therefore, not very well con-
Therefore,
very concentration
well considered
solution
of in
ventilation
not only
doesfornot
222 Rnnot
activity
occurring
yearly
two under-system
sidered
solution
the ventilation system not only does not
touristexposure
facilities of
with
air can
exchange
with the it. prevent radioactive exposure of the staff, but can even inpreventground
radioactive
thelimited
staff, but
even increase
atmosphere. One of them is Niedźwiedzia (Bear) Cave in
crease it.
Adit in Kletno, a section of a disused uranium mine. This adit
changes in underground spaces and residential buildings situated in the same or similar climatic zones.
222
TheKletno,
authorsPoland
have –also
observed
characters
of annualThe
patterns
of have
Rnalso observed comparable characterisa natural
spacecomparable
equipped with
locks ensurauthors
isolation fromchanges
the atmosphere.
The otherspaces
site is and
Fluorite
ticsbuildings
of the annual
patterns of 222 Rn activity concentration
activityingconcentration
in underground
residential
situated
in the same
or similar
zones.ventilation system, operated
is equipped
withclimatic
a mechanical
periodically outside the opening times (at night). Both sites
are situated within the same metamorphic rock complex, at
INTRODUCTION
similar altitudes, about 2 km apart.
1 Introduction
The measurements conducted revealed spring and autumn
occurrence of convective air movements. In Bear Cave, this
Radon
is a radioactive noble gas. The longest-lived of its isoRadon
is a causes
radioactive
noble gas.
The
of its isotopes
is 222
with
half222 Rn
process
a reduction
in 222
Rn longest-lived
activity concentration
topes
is Rn
with
a half-life of T1/2 = 3.8224 days (Collé,
daytime,
when 1995a,
tourists,b).
guides
other
staff are properties,
1995a, b).
to its radioactive properties, long half-life
life T½in=the
3.8224
daysi.e.
(Collé,
Due and
to its
radioactive
longDue
half-life
present in the cave. From the point of view of radiation proand low chemical reactivity, 222 Rn plays an important role
222
and low
chemical
reactivity,
RnFor
plays
an ofimportant
role in in
thetheenvironment.
tection,
this is the
best situation.
the rest
the year, daily
environment. It It migrates easily to the atmosphere
concentrations of 222 Rn activity in the cave are very stable.
rocks
soils,
migrates easily to the atmosphere from rocks and soils, where it is from
formed
as aand
result
of where it is formed as a result of natIn Fluorite Adit, on the other hand, significant variations in
ural alpha transformation of 226 Ra in the uranium-radium
naturaldaily
alpha222transformation
of 226Ra in are
the recorded
uranium-radium
series series
(Mogro-Campero
& and Fleischer, 1977; Miliszkiewicz,
Rn activity concentrations
almost all
(Mogro-Campero
year round. These changes are determined by the periods
1978;
Cothern
and
Smith,
1987; Cotton et al., 1995; Ciba et
Fleischer, 1977; Miliszkiewicz, 1978; Cothern & Smith, 1987; Cotton et al., 1995; Ciba
of activity and inactivity of mechanical ventilation. Unforal., 1996; Emsley, 1997; Martinelli, 1998; Daintith, 2000).
this is inactive
in the daytime,
which
results2000).
in the While
et al., tunately
1996; Emsley,
1997; Martinelli,
1998;
Daintith,
migrating,
the gas
While
migrating,
the gas accumulates in all spaces, parhighest values of 222 Rn activity concentration at the times
ticularly those with impeded air exchange with the atmoaccumulates
in all spaces, particularly those with impeded air exchange with the
when tourists and staff are present in the adit. Slightly lower
sphere (Tanner, 1964, 1980; Mogro-Campero and Fleischer,
concentrations
radon1980;
in Fluorite
Adit are recorded
in the 1977;
atmosphere
(Tanner,of
1964,
Mogro-Campero
& Fleischer,
Martinelli,
1998).
1977;
Martinelli,
1998). Its concentrations can subsequently
winter season, when convective air movements carry a subreach values of tens or even hundreds of thousand Bq m−3
Its concentrations
canofsubsequently
values of tens or even hundreds of thousand
stantial amount
radon out intoreach
the atmosphere.
(Fernàndez et al., 1984; Kobal et al., 1987; Eheman et al.,
3
The
incorrect
usage
of
mechanical
ventilation
in
Fluorite
1991; Ciężkowski
Ci żkowski et
Bq/m (Fernàndez et al., 1984; Kobal et al., 1987; Eheman et al., 1991;
et al., 1993; Kies and Massen, 1995;
Adit results in the most unfavourable conditions in terms of
Szerbin, 1996; Peńsko et al., 1998; Przylibski, 1999, 2001;
al., 1993;
Kies protection.
& Massen, The
1995;
Szerbin,
Peńsko
al., 1998;
Przylibski,
1999,
radiation
staff
working1996;
in that
facilityet are
Field,
2007; Fijałkowska-Lichwa,
2010).
222
Rn
exposed
practically
throughout
the
year
to
the
highest
Radon,
together
with
its
radioactive
progeny, is re2001; Field, 2007; Fijałkowska-Lichwa, 2010).
activity concentrations, both at work (in the adit) and at home
sponsible for about 40–50% of the effective dose (1–
−1 ) which
Radon, together with its radioactive daughters, is responsible for
40−50%
of a typical person receives from all
2.5 about
mSv year
natural
andall
man-made
Correspondence
to: a typical person receives
the effective dose (1 – 2.5
mSv/year) which
from
natural sources of ionising radiation within
a
year
(Commission
Recommendation, 1990; UNSCEAR,
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa
and man-made sources
of
ionising
radiation
within
a
year
(Commission
2000;
Waligórski,
2010).
Due to this fact, underground
([email protected])
Recommendation, 1990; UNSCEAR, 2000; Waligórski, 2010). Due to this fact,
Published
by Copernicus
Publications
on behalf
European
Union.car
underground
spaces
where people
do various
kinds of
ofthe
jobs
(touristGeosciences
facilities, mines,
parks, tunnels, stores, etc.) must be subject to monitoring of 222Rn activity concentration
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa and T. A. Przylibski: Short-term 222 Rn activity concentration changes
1180
Table 1. Mean and extreme values of mean monthly radon (222 Rn) concentration in the air of selected underground tourist facilities in
winter season,
when convective air movements carry a substantial
Poland (according to Chruścielewski and Olszewski, 2000; Chibowski and Komosa, 2001; Przylibski, 2002).
ut into the atmosphere.
222 Rn activity concentration
Underground space name
usage of mechanical ventilation in Fluorite Adit results in the most
in the air (Bq m−3 )
ditions in terms of radiation protection. The staff working in that
Min.
Mean
Max.
100
60
70
1260
450
1880
4180
1370
18 500
70
290
2210
40
90
330
340
580
690
Podziemna trasa turystyczna w Chełmie
2
166
622
Podziemna trasa turystyczna w Sandomierzu
(Underground tourist route in Sandomierz)
15
44
77
sed practically throughout all year on the highest
222
Rn activity
Sudetes
th at work (in the adit) and at Jaskinia
home (outside
their
working
Niedźwiedzia
(Bear
Cave) hours).
Jaskinia Radochowska (Radochowska Cave)
ry well considered solution of Podziemne
ventilationmuzeum
system“Kopalnia
not only
does not
złota” w Złotym Stoku
(Underground
museum
“Gold
Mine”
in Złoty Stok)
e exposure of the staff, but can even increase it.
Podziemna trasa turystyczna im. 1000-lecia Państwa
ve also observed comparable characters
annual patterns of 222Rn
Polskiego wof
Kłodzku
(Underground tourist route of the Millenium of the Polish
tion changes in underground spaces
and residential buildings situated
State in Kłodzko)
Podziemne Fabryki Walimia
ilar climatic zones.
(Underground Factories of Walim)
Sztolnia nr 9 i 9 a w Kowarach
(Adit no. 9 and 9a in Kowary)
N
Remaining part of Poland
oactive noble gas. The longest-lived
of its isotopes
is 222
with half(Underground
tourist route
inRn
Chełm)
days (Collé, 1995a, b). Due to its radioactive properties, long half-life
l reactivity,
222
Rn plays an important role in the environment. It
the atmosphere from rocks and soils, where it is formed as a result of
spaces where people do various kinds of jobs (tourist facil-
in underground tourist facilities in much smaller time ranges.
226
ities,
mines,
caruranium-radium
parks, tunnels, stores,
must be sub- & This decision was due to the fact that these changes have
sformation of
Ra
in the
series etc.)
(Mogro-Campero
ject to monitoring of 222 Rn activity concentration level. It
is a particularly important task, regulated by law in many
countries as1998;
well Daintith,
as by a variety
guidelines
and recomey, 1997; Martinelli,
2000).ofWhile
migrating,
the gas
mendations from international organizations (ICRP, 1993;
ll spaces, Åkerblom,
particularly1999;
those
with2003).
impeded air exchange with the
IAEA,
er, 1964, 1980;
Mogro-Campero
Fleischer,
1977; Martinelli,
Seasonal
changes in&radon
concentration
in the air1998).
of
underground spaces have been discussed and analysed by
can subsequently reach values of tens or even hundreds of thousand
many authors (i.e. Przylibski, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001;
Przylibski
1998; Przylibski
and Ciężkowski
Ci żkowski, et
et al., 1984;
Kobal etand
al.,Piasecki,
1987; Eheman
et al., 1991;
1999; Przylibski and Fijałkowska-Lichwa, 2010; Gillmore
Massen, 1995;
1996;Chibowski
Peńsko etand
al.,Komosa,
1998; Przylibski,
1999,
et al.,Szerbin,
2001, 2002;
2001; Kullab
et al., 2001;2010).
Kávási et al., 2003; Papachristodoulou et al.,
Fijałkowska-Lichwa,
2004; Perrier et al., 2004a, b; Olszewski et al., 2005; Lario et
r with its radioactive
daughters,
for about
40−50%
al., 2005, 2006;
Gervinoisetresponsible
al., 2007; Bahtijari
et al.,
2008; of
Vaupotič, 2008;
al., 2009;
Fijałkowska-Lichwa,
(1 – 2.5 mSv/year)
whichLua et
typical
person
receives from all2010).
natural
Their findings have turned out to be comparable, and the
sources of
radiation
within
a year (Commission
mostionising
recent studies
only extend
the previously
known regularities
to
next
underground
spaces.
1990; UNSCEAR, 2000; Waligórski, 2010). Due to this fact,
Recently, more and more findings concerning short-term
222 Rnkinds
es where people
do in
various
of jobs
(tourist facilities,
mines,
changes
activity
concentrations
have been
pub-car
222
lished.
The
purpose
of
these
analyses
is
to
understand
the
res, etc.) must be subject to monitoring of Rn activity concentration
mechanisms of these changes and identify their causes (i.e.
cularly important
regulated
in Perrier
many and
countries
well as
Li et al.,task,
2006;
Perrier etby
al.,law
2007;
Richon,as2010).
Having this in mind, the authors of this paper have also decided to investigate changes in radon activity concentration
Miliszkiewicz, 1978; Cothern & Smith, 1987; Cotton et al., 1995; Ciba
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1179–1188, 2011
paramount importance for radiation protection of employees,
and also, but to a much lesser extent, of visitors. The knowledge of changes in radon activity concentrations both during
the year and during the day will help develop guidelines for
optimal scheduling of daily and yearly working time in underground spaces. Work should be planned in such a way
that employees receive the lowest possible dose of ionising
radiation from radon and its progeny.
2
Choice of research objects
In view of the accessibility of measuring equipment and the
possibility of its constant supervision, the authors chose underground spaces accessible to visitors, where guided tours
are offered, as their research objects. The sites are inaccessible outside the opening times.
In Poland there are over 70 underground tourist routes
in five categories of spaces. They include caves, mines,
strategic-military spaces, cellar systems and other underground tourist attractions. Most of them are situated in areas with high radon potential, predominantly in the Sudetes,
a fragment of the European Variscan orogenic belt. Because
of this, these sites are prone to the occurrence of high radon
concentrations (Table 1).
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1179/2011/
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa and T. A. Przylibski: Short-term 222 Rn activity concentration changes
1181
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Location of Bear Cave (a) and Fluorite Adit (b) in Kletno
on a map of Poland (A) and a geological sketch of the Polish part
of the Sudetes (B). I: igneous rocks: 1: intrusive rocks, 2: extrusive
rocks, II: metamorphic rocks, III: sedimentary rocks.
Due to high radon concentrations making the measurements easier, two sites situated in the Sudetes, the SE part
of the Bohemian Massif, were chosen. They lie in SW part
of Poland, within the crystalline Śnieżnik Massif (Fig. 1).
The source of radon in these spaces are U and Ra-rich orthogneisses (Banaś, 1965; Borucki et al., 1967; Przeniosło,
1970; Przylibski, 2004). In the area of Kletno, these rocks are
cut with numerous faults facilitating radon migration. Two
sites were chosen, lying close to each other – at a straight-line
distance of about 2 km (Fig. 2), differing in origin, the lithology of surrounding rocks and the effectiveness of ventilation. These are: “Jaskinia Niedźwiedzia” (Bear Cave) nature
reserve in Kletno, and the underground tourist-educational
route “Sztolnia Fluorytowa” (Fluorite Adit) located in a part
of a disused uranium mine in Kletno.
Bear Cave is a natural site, formed in a marble lens contained within mica schists and gneisses (Fig. 2a). Fluorite
Adit is situated within the same gneisses and mica schists.
It lies in a tectonic zone where rocks were shattered and the
resultant fissures were filled hydrothermally with Fe and U
ore minerals. These minerals were successively extracted
in mines (Fig. 2a). A fragment of an underground mining
system developed from the Middle Ages (extraction of Fe
ores; hematite) up to the mid-20th century (U ore mining;
uraninite) has been opened to visitors and named Fluorite
Adit. The name is derived from mineralisation of hydrothermal veins, with a predominance of fluorite accompanied by
quartz, hematite and uraninite.
Fluorite Adit is fitted with a periodically operated mechanical ventilation system, as its natural air exchange with the atmosphere is not efficient enough. A fan is placed at the shaft
mouth near the ticket office (Fig. 2b). Bear Cave, on the other
hand, has locks preventing air exchange with the atmosphere
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1179/2011/
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Geological sketch of Kletno area with plotted sites of Bear
Cave and Fluorite Adit (A) and a plan of Fluorite Adit with plotted
sites of 222 Rn activity concentration measurements (B). 1: lenses of
marbles and erlans, 2: gneisses, 3: metamorphic schists, 4: faults,
5: area of disused uranium mine in Kletno.
with the aim of protecting its microclimate and preserving
its beautiful speleothems. These locks are installed at the entrance and exit from the middle level of the Cave, which is
accessible to visitors (Fig. 3b).
3
Measurement method
When choosing the appropriate measurement equipment, the
authors paid particular attention to four basic aspects: detector type, measurement method and data storage capacity, resistance to hard operating conditions (including relative humidity reaching 100%) and the type of power supply. The
type of the detector used determined the lower limit of detection (LLD), the size of the whole appliance and its resistance to hard operating conditions. This is why a semiconductor detector turned out to be the most appropriate, as
its relatively high LLD was not critical for high 222 Rn activity concentration values recorded in the chosen spaces.
What is more, it ensured high resistance of the structure to
the hard operating conditions and possibly the small dimensions of the whole appliance. The authors decided to use
Polish probes, type SRDN-3, fitted with a semi-conductor
detector, which ensured a suitably long (up to 12 months)
period of unmanned operation; besides, the diffusion sampling it used did not disturb the poor air circulation inside
the studied spaces. These probes are additionally equipped
with temperature and relative humidity sensors. The structure and operation of these probes have been described by
Przylibski et al. (2010). The calibration of these probes
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1179–1188, 2011
1182
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa and T. A. Przylibski: Short-term 222 Rn activity concentration changes
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Plan of Bear Cave in Kletno with plotted sites of 222 Rn
activity concentration measurements (B) and a photo of SRDN-3
probe operating at measurement site No. 3 (A).
was performed at the Laboratory of Radiometric Expertise
(Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Kraków, Poland). The measurements were performed using
a radon calibration facility. The main part of the post is a
radon chamber and another important component is a certified radon source (PYLON Electronic Development Co.,
Canada) (Kozak et al., 2003). Measurement results from
SRDN-3 probes are frequently checked by AlphaGUARD
radon monitor during short measurements in the cave and
adit where the probes are installed. The AlphaGUARD was
used as a reference device.
In order to monitor the influence of external atmospheric
conditions on the level of radon activity concentrations in
both studied spaces, a weather station, Vantage Pro2, was
installed at the entrance to Bear Cave. It collected, also in 1h mode, data concerning the temperature of atmospheric air,
its relative humidity, as well as atmospheric pressure, wind
speed and direction. Measurement results from this station
are representative of the area of both studied sites, which are
situated at similar altitudes (the cave at 800 m a.s.l., the adit
– at 773 m a.s.l.), about 2 km apart.
4
Results and discussion
Due to the seasonal character of long-term changes in radon
activity concentration in the chosen spaces (Fig. 4), 24h changes were analysed in relation to seasonal changes,
which, to a large extent, coincide with changes in the intensity of tourism. One can distinguish three periods varying in tourism intensity, which are characteristic of the cave
and the adit: early season – winter/spring (February–April),
high season – summer (May–August), late season – autumn/winter (October–January) – facility closing.
Seasonal changes in 222 Rn activity concentration presented in Fig. 4a, also observed in Bear Cave as early as
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1179–1188, 2011
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Changes in 222 Rn activity concentration during the yearlong monitoring measurements in Bear Cave in Kletno (A) and Fluorite Adit in Kletno (B). Points represent mean daily values of radon
concentration, and the line – the moving average with period of
30 days.
in the late 20th century (Przylibski, 1999), reveal the occurrence of high concentration values from May to September
and low values between November and March. The transitional periods, when radon concentration inside the cave
changes significantly, are April and October. At these times,
convection currents are triggered, which leads to a ceasing
(in April) and restarting (in October) of a more intensive
air exchange between the cave and the atmosphere. These
movements occur when atmospheric air temperature rises or
falls above or below the temperature inside the cave, which
is almost constant throughout the year and amounts to 6.5 ◦ C
(Przylibski, 1999).
Daily changes in 222 Rn activity concentration are presented in the example of three selected 24-h periods representing the above-mentioned characteristic periods distinguishable in each space in a year. February 12th 2009 was
chosen for Bear Cave, as characteristic of the winter period,
when the facility opens to visitors. This day is typical of
a period with low and quite stable values of 222 Rn activity
concentration. 2 August 2009 represents the peak of tourist
season and simultaneously the summer season, when high
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1179/2011/
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa and T. A. Przylibski: Short-term 222 Rn activity concentration changes
Fig. 5. 5. Daily pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration changes for
Fig.
three chosen characteristic days, representing three seasons of the
year, differing in values and variation in radon concentration in Bear
Cave in Kletno.
and fairly stable values of 222 Rn activity concentration are
recorded. 23 April 2009 represents the spring season, when
222 Rn activity concentration increases due to the termination
of convection and the gas accumulates in the cave.
The pattern of seasonal changes in 222 Rn activity concentration in Fluorite Adit (Fig. 4b) is markedly different from
that in Bear Cave (Fig. 4a). In the period from February
to July, high and changeable values of radon activity concentration are observed. From August to October, low and
quite stable values of activity concentration of this gas were
recorded. Finally, radon concentration between late October and January was small but changeable (Fig. 4b). Days
characteristic of these periods were chosen to illustrate the
pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration changes in Fluorite
Adit. These were 8 May 2009, 22 October 2009 and 2 January 2009.
In Bear Cave, similar patterns of 24-h changes in 222 Rn
activity concentration were recorded on 12 February 2009
and 2 August 2009. They only differed in the absolute values (Fig. 5). The variations had irregular character and were
quite small, which fully confirms the conclusions from the
observation of seasonal changes (Fig. 4a). Therefore, one
cannot distinguish any periods within a day when radon activity concentration is clearly higher or lower. This fact
points to the poor permeability of the cracking zone in the
orogene, which makes air exchange with the atmosphere
possible only in long-term periods favourable to convection.
This observation also confirms the good tightness of the
locks. Consequently, the cracking zone in rocks above the
cave roof enables air exchange with the atmosphere particularly in the spring season. This is when significant variations
in 222 Rn activity concentration are recorded inside the cave.
They are shown in Fig. 5 for 23 April 2009. What is conspicuous here are higher concentrations of this gas at night, and
only half as high in daytime. The decline in 222 Rn activity
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1179/2011/
1183
concentration starts at about 05:00–07:00 a.m., when temperature difference between the warmer cave interior and the
minimum 24-h temperature of atmospheric air is the biggest.
This is probably when convection is triggered. This process
does not end until early afternoon, at around 02:00 p.m. From
that moment on, gradual accumulation of radon inside the
cave begins, and it lasts until night hours, reaching its maximum at about 03:00 a.m. Such a pattern of daily changes
in 222 Rn activity concentration is very favourable from the
point of view of radiation protection of guides and other employees working inside the cave, as well as visitors. Most
work inside, as well as sightseeing, takes place when radon
activity concentration is the lowest in a day.
The above interpretation is also verified by the fact that it
is only in spring when 222 Rn activity concentration is correlated with the atmospheric air temperature. The linear correlation coefficient between the values of these parameters is
−0.43. This value is statistically significant at the 0.05 level
for 24 data pairs. Such a value of linear correlation coefficient indicates that radon activity concentration inside the
cave decreases with the increase in outdoor temperature.
The graph in Fig. 6 depicts three characteristic daily patterns of 222 Rn activity concentration changes in Fluorite
Adit. 22 October 2009 is characteristic of the period of low
and quite stable values. Changes in radon concentration during the day are quite small, as the air inside the adit, warmer
in this part of the year (autumn) carries radon out and into
the atmosphere. Tourist traffic in this season is quite small,
so guides do not stay long inside the adit either. The remaining two days (Fig. 6) are characterised by similar patterns
of 222 Rn activity concentration changes in relation to each
other. The former one (2 January 2009) represents the beginning of tourist season with large changes in radon activity concentration, although at the level of its smaller absolute
concentrations. On the other hand, higher absolute values are
characteristic of 8 May 2009, representing the spring season
and also high tourist season. Low concentration values on
these days are recorded in the evening and at night, i.e. from
about 06:00 p.m. or 10:00 p.m. to 09:00 a.m. Starting at
09:00 a.m., fast growth in 222 Rn activity concentration is observed, lasting until 04:00–05:00 p.m., followed by another
period of quick fall. Superimposing the patterns of radon activity concentration changes on two days – 2 January 2009
and 8 May 2009, enables identifying two processes responsible for such a change pattern. The decisive factor is obviously the mechanical ventilation running at night, i.e. from
05:00 p.m. till 09:00 a.m. At these hours, initially a decrease
and then (between 07:00 and 10:00 p.m.) stable low values
of radon activity concentration are recorded inside the adit.
A rapid rise in 222 Rn activity concentration is recorded after disconnecting the mechanical ventilation at 09:00 a.m.,
continuing practically until its re-connecting at 05:00 p.m.
However, on the two selected days, radon concentrations increased to reach significantly different values – about 7500
Bq m−3 (on 2 January 2009) and about 23 000 Bq m−3 (on
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1179–1188, 2011
1184
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa and T. A. Przylibski: Short-term 222 Rn activity concentration changes
7. Daily pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration changes in
Fluorite Adit (dashed line, red) and Bear Cave (continuous line, red)
registered in April 2009 in relation to a typical daily pattern of radon
concentration changes in residential buildings (continuous line,
green). Daily pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration changes in a
residential building was taken from website www.hpa.org.uk, 2010.
Fig. 6.
Fig.
7.
Fig.
8 May 2009). This means that in daytime (09:00 a.m. to
05:00 p.m.) in the cold season (winter – 2 January 2009)
warmer air flows naturally (advection) out of the adit, carrying radon into the atmosphere. This results in a significant decrease in the activity concentration of this gas inside
the adit, compared to the spring season, when radon-rich air,
cooler than the atmospheric air, stagnates inside the adit.
Measurements conducted in Fluorite Adit demonstrate
that the least favourable conditions in terms of radiation protection coincide with the heaviest tourist traffic, both in a day
(Fig. 6), and in a year (Fig. 4b). This is caused by natural factors (advection), but particularly by disconnecting the
mechanical ventilation disturbing the visitors. Switching off
the fan results in a fast rise in 222 Rn activity concentration in
the adit.
The recorded values of basic atmospheric parameters in
Kletno enabled the authors to analyse correlations between
radon activity concentration inside Fluorite Adit and these
parameters. The data from 8 May 2009 were analysed, as the
highest radon concentration changes in the adit occurring on
that day facilitated the interpretation. The analysis of simultaneous changes in atmospheric air temperature and 222 Rn
activity concentration inside the adit proved that radon concentration in the adit increases with a rise in outdoor temperature. This is due to cool air stagnating inside the adit,
additionally helped by disconnecting the mechanical ventilation. Radon released from the orogene is held up inside the
adit with this cool air. On 8 May 2009, the linear correlation coefficient between the temperature outside the adit and
222 Rn activity concentration inside reached 0.86. This value
is statistically significant at the 0.05 level, showing strong
positive correlation between these parameters.
Figure 7 shows 24-h changes in 222 Rn activity concentration inside Bear Cave and Fluorite Adit compared to a typical
pattern of radon concentration changes in a residential build-
ing. The authors chose the spring season, when changes in
radon activity concentration in underground spaces are the
largest. These changes follow a different pattern from that in
residential buildings. In underground spaces the highest values are recorded in daytime (the adit) or at night (the cave),
while in residential buildings the highest values are observed
in the morning. Comparing these two facts leads to a conclusion that people employed to serve visitors in Fluorite Adit
are exposed to maximum, or close to maximum values of
radon activity concentration 24 h a day, since the highest values in the adit are recorded in daytime (during working time),
and in residential buildings – before and after the working
hours (Fig. 7). This is highly unfavourable from the point of
view of radiation protection. In the case of this tourist facility, mechanical ventilation, switched on at the wrong time,
does not fulfil its function at all. It does not cause the lowering of radon concentration inside the space at the time when
visitors, and especially the staff employed to serve them and
perform other jobs inside the facility, stay there. A much
better situation in terms of radiation protection can be observed in Bear Cave. The pattern of daily changes in radon
concentration there is similar to changes observed in residential buildings. Therefore, staff exposure to the influence of
ionising radiation coming from radon and its progeny is far
smaller there than in Fluorite Adit, despite the fact that forced
ventilation cannot be used in the cave due to speleothem protection. It should be emphasized, however, that such a situation occurs only in spring, when the convection process of air
exchange with the atmosphere starts in underground spaces.
The analyses of annual changes in 222 Rn activity concentrations inside the studied underground spaces in Kletno
demonstrate that the charateristics of these changes are a bit
similar (Fig. 8). The pattern of these changes in the studied
Fig. 6. Daily pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration for three selected characteristic days, representing three seasons in a year, differing in values and variation in radon concentration in Fluorite Adit
in Kletno.
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1179–1188, 2011
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1179/2011/
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa and T. A. Przylibski: Short-term 222 Rn activity concentration changes
5
Conclusions
The study of underground tourist facilities in Kletno (Sudety,
SW Poland) confirmed the occurrence of convection air
movements. So far, convection has been documented for
autumn and, in particular, for spring. Thanks to using new
SRDN-3 probes with a semi-conductor detector, the authors
could investigate changes in 222 Rn activity concentration
hour after hour throughout the entire calendar year. It enables precise investigation of the process causing retention
of radon inside the space or removing it to the atmosphere.
In Bear Cave, a space very well isolated from the atmosphere, convection movements causing transport of radon to
the atmosphere were observed. Those movements, occurring
in autumn and spring, started early in the morning (between
05:00 and 07:00 a.m.), and declined in the early afternoon at
about 02:00 p.m. This process resulted in the lowest values
of 222 Rn activity concentration in daytime, i.e. when tourists
visit the cave and the staff are present there. In the remaining
seasons, daily variations in 222 Rn activity concentration were
very small.
In Fluorite Adit, equipped with ventilation devices, the
pattern of 24-h changes in 222 Rn activity concentration looks
completely different. Large 24-h variations in 222 Rn activity concentration are recorded virtually throughout the entire year, except the season between late July and and late
September. 24-h radon concentration changes inside the adit
depend on the time of activating the mechanical ventilation.
From the moment when it is switched on after closing the
facility to visitors, at about 05:00 p.m., 222 Rn activity concentration decreases steadily to an almost stable minimum
value. Depending on the initial maximum concentration, this
value is reached at about 07:00 p.m. in winter, or as late as
at 01:00 a.m. in spring and summer, when daytime 222 Rn
activity concentration reaches the maximum values for the
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1179/2011/
Radon concentration
underground spaces was also compared to annual changes
in radon activity concentration inside residential buildings in
northern Poland, as well as with data from buildings presented by the UK Health Protection Agency (Karpińska et
al., 2004; www.hpa.org.uk, 2010). Due to the lack of data
from residential buildings in the Kletno area, the authors used
available data published for northern Poland. Analyses of
these change patterns, shown in Fig. 8, proved their character in underground spaces to be similar to that in buildings
located in northern Poland, and completely different from
that in buildings analysed by the Health Protection Agency.
The observed patterns of annual radon concentration changes
shown in Fig. 8 are most likely to be determined by climatic
similarities and differences between buildings situated in the
areas of Poland and the UK. It is interesting that seasonal
changes in 222 Rn activity concentration in residential buildings and underground spaces situated in areas with similar
climatic conditions have similar patterns.
1185
J
F
M
A
M
J
Bear Cave
J
A
S
O
N
D
Dwelling houses
Fluorite Adit
buildings in the region of northeastern Poland
Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Annual pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration changes in
two studied underground spaces in Kletno in relation to annual pattern of radon concentration changes in residential buildings. The
pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration changes in residential buildings is based on data from the website www.hpa.org.uk, 2010 (residential buildings) and data from residential buildings in the Northeast of Poland, according to (Karpińska et al., 2004).
calendar year. In spite of similar patterns of 24-h changes
in winter, as well as in spring and summer, there are distinct differences in absolute radon concentration values. This
means that in winter, when the temperature inside the adit is
higher than that of the atmospheric air, convection occurs.
Because of this, even at the time when the mechanical ventilation is disconnected, i.e. in daytime (from 09:00 a.m. to
05:00 p.m.), convection air movements result in transportation of large amounts of radon out into the atmosphere. Because of this, its concentration in the adit in winter is almost a
third of that in late spring and summer, when convection does
not occur. Such a characteristic of 222 Rn activity concentration changes inside Fluorite Adit results in the fact that the
least favourable conditions in terms of radiation protection in
this space occur at the time of the heaviest tourist traffic, both
in a year and a day. Thus, improperly used mechanical ventilation does not prevent radiation exposure of visitors and
the staff. The authors have also observed an interesting regularity in the annual pattern of 222 Rn activity concentration.
The characteristics of these changes are similar in residential buildings and underground spaces situated in the same or
similar climatic zones.
When comparing daily changes in 222 Rn activity concentration in both studied underground spaces with those in a
typical residential building, one notices a difference in the
character of these changes. Remembering that the employees serving visitors in the Fluorite Adit live in typical buildings in terms of daily 222 Rn activity concentration, we could
not overlook the fact that they live in extremely unfavourable
conditions from the point of view of radiation protection.
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1179–1188, 2011
unfavourable conditions in terms of radiation protection. The staff working in that
unfavourable conditions in terms of radiation protection. The staff working in that
facility are exposed practically throughout all year on the highest 222Rn activity
facility are exposed practically throughout all year on the highest 222Rn activity
concentrations
both atand
work
(inPrzylibski:
the adit) Short-term
and at home
(outside
working changes
hours).
222 Rn
1186
L. Fijałkowska-Lichwa
T. A.
activitytheir
concentration
concentrations both at work (in the adit) and at home (outside their working hours).
Therefore, not very well considered solution of ventilation system not only does not
Therefore,
well both
considered
of ventilation
system
not
Collé, R.:notA only
precisedoes
determination
of the 222 Rn half-life by 4For 24 h a not
day, very
they stay
at homesolution
and at work
(in the
prevent radioactive exposure of the
staff,
but
can
even
increase
it.
liquid scintillation measurements, Radioactivity & Radiochemadit) at radioactive
the times when
the values
of radon
prevent
exposure
of the
staff, concentration
but can even are
increase it.istry, 6(1), 16–29, 1995a.
the highest.
The authors have also observed comparable characters of annual patterns of 222Rn
222
222
R.: patterns
Critically of
evaluated
The
authorsone
have
observed
comparable
characters
annual
Rn half-life for Rn radioactive deTherefore,
can also
say that
inadequately
considered
and ofCollé,
activity concentration changes in cay
underground
spaces
and residential
buildings
situated
and associated
uncertainties,
Radioactivity
& Radiochemtested usage of mechanical ventilation not only does not preactivity concentration changes in underground spaces and residential
buildings
situated
istry, 6(1),
30–40, 1995b.
vent radiation exposure of employees
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spaces,
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Cothern, C. R. and Smith Jr., J. E. (eds.): Environmental Radon,
inbut
theit same
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it. Forzones.
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Plenum Press, New York, USA, 1987.
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½ = 3.8224
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