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Chapter 1: What is Instructional Design?
What is Instructional Design?
 1892 - Formation of American Psychology Association, formal study of how people learn
(educational psychology - EP) began.
 John Dewey - “Linking science” between how people learn and delivery of instruction.
Linking science = ID. Now distinct discipline; look to other disciplines to improve practices.
 Four-part definition of ID: 1) Process - analyze needs/goals, develop delivery system,
materials, evaluation 2) Discipline - branch of knowledge, research, theory. 3) Science detailed specifications to facilitate learning. 4) Reality - start at any point in process.
 Premise of ID - Use research on thinking/learning, information technology and analysis.
 Most popular approach: 1) Analyze situation. 2) Produce/implement. 3) Evaluate results.
 ADDIE process: analyze, design, develop, implement, evaluate; components of all ID model.
 ID - Systematic approach, accepted protocols, but eclectic – can use unconventional sources.
Models of Instructional Design/Development
 Models - guidelines, quality, uniformity, means of comparison, apply to variety of situations.
 Systems approach (Dick and Carey): emphasizes examining and refining instruction
throughout process. Previously, learners/environment not considered in designing instruction.
 Kemp, Morrison and Ross: Nine elements, non-specific sequence: instructional problems,
learner characteristics, task analysis, inst. objectives, content sequencing, inst. strategies, inst.
delivery, evaluation instruments, inst. resources.
Professional Instructional Design Practice
 Consider constraints of the environment (university, K-12, non-academic).
 General Systems Theory - 1950s, everything is related to everything else; examine how
various factors influence learning. Systematic – step by step. Once innovative, is now the
standard. Criticized as too behavioristic - only observable outcomes - and too complex.
 Modern approach = positivistic (one right answer).
 Postmodern: Four societal factors: 1) student access to many sources, 2) no single type of
“educated individual,” 3) constructivism - non-linear instructional model, 4) no single
objective truth - ‘right’ answer based on individual and context. Pluralism (resist single
explanation), people construct knowledge, truth, and reality. Uses criticism as inquiry
method, has highly complex systems, are adaptive.
 Eclectic approach - specific elements from variety of sources, combine five processes.
 Rapid prototyping - A number of prototypes, each more like final product. Unlike traditional
approaches, design and development processes are not separate. Everyone is involved in
evaluating, problem solving and revising. However, careful planning is needed.
Synthesis:
With its roots is psychology, educational psychology focuses on how people learn. Dewey’s
“linking science” was the beginning of instructional design. While the ID process can be as
simple as analyze, produce and evaluate, there are a number of models that provide the
instructional designer with guidelines and a means of assessing quality. Familiarity with a variety
of approaches – systems theory, postmodern, rapid prototyping – provides a means for an
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eclectic approach. Take the best of what is available to suit specific purposes.
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Chapter 2: Understanding How People Think
Cognition and Basic Cognitive Functions
 Cognition: Mental process of knowing (awareness, perception, reasoning, judgment).
 Cognitive functions: 1) Memory: active processes encode and information. 2) Mental power:
arousal level, concentration span, channel capacity, mental stamina. 3) Cognitive abilities:
stored knowledge and skills. 4) Executive abilities: use mental power and cognitive abilities
to meet social, professional, and psychological needs (planning ahead, set priorities, selfcorrect, regulation). 5) Metacognition: introspective look at processes and how one arrived at
ideas, concepts, and thoughts. Reflective - improves control over processes and learning.
Historical Perspectives on Thinking: A Brief History
 Historically, part of philosophy. Greek philosophers (5c BC) believed mind perceived images
given off by objects. Plato - idealism; reason is primary source of understanding/knowledge.
 Scholasticism (9thc.) – Highly organized system of truths. Based on Aristotle and the church.
Human intellect not capable of acquiring knowledge without illumination from God.
 Renaissance - 18thc: Individual is capable of discerning what is real and truth. Descartes and
Locke - thinking focused on observation, experience, rational thought, scientific method.
 Metaphysics: Nature of reality; relationship between mind/matter, substance/attribute,
fact/value. Epistemology: Study the nature of knowledge - assumptions, foundations,
breadth, validity.
Modern Views on Thinking: The Shift from Philosophy to Psychology
 Psychology (mid1800s) has significant influence on IDs view of thinking. Educational
Psychology based on research; focus on how thinking and learning are interconnected.
 Behaviorism: Mental processes are invisible, can’t be studied scientifically; study outward
behavior. Mind capable of being shaped; produce desired responses and behaviors. Pavlov,
Thorndike, Watson, and Guthrie. B.F. Skinner best known; operant conditioning.
 Cognitivism: After WWII. Importance of internal mental processes; identified and studied.
Mind considered highly complex; compare to computer processing series of procedures.
 More recent: 1) Constructivism: Individual constructs understanding by reflecting on
personal experience; generate mental models. Gardner, Sternberg, Jonassen. 2)
Postmodernism: Late 20thc, thinking is dynamic, ever-changing and dependant on
interpretation; concrete experience over abstract principles.
Instructional Designer’s Views on Thinking
 Pragmatism - Principles of usefulness and practicality of ideas. If something works, it’s
valid, if not discard. Originated C.S. Peirce (1878) and moved forward by William James.
 Eclecticism – Follow variety of philosophical approaches and select those that suit needs.
 Understanding divergent perspectives on how people think = insight into learning.
Synthesis:
Originally associated with philosophy, study of how people think is now part of psychology. An
understanding of what thinking is has altered drastically over time – from illumination by God to
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behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. The key for instructional designers is to see the
truths inherent in various theories and apply that knowledge to create effective instruction.
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Chapter 3: Understanding How People Learn
What is Learning?
 Learning - Complex process, can be described from various perspectives.
 Definitions: 1) Relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. 2)
Relatively permanent change in mental representations or associations as a result of
experience.
 Some changes are readily observable and others are more subtle (gain better appreciation for
classical music, for example). Change may be deliberate/unintentional, correct/incorrect,
conscious or unconscious. Some changes are result of maturation, organic damage and
temporary states (drugs, fatigue) not learning.
Two major, Divergent Approaches to How People Learn
 Behaviorism - 1900-1950, continues to influence ID today. Learning as change in behavior,
result of experience, can be measured. Focus only on external events; blank slate.
o Classical conditioning model - Pavlov, associative learning. Two stimuli are presented at
the same time, one unconditioned (salivate for meat) and one unconditioned (bell).
Associate one with the other and you get a conditioned response (bell, salivate).
o Operant conditioning - Skinner, results when response is followed by reinforcement.
Organism operates on the environment (voluntary response).
o Learner has active role, learns by doing, experiencing, and engaging.
 Cognitivism - Mental processes exist and can be studied scientifically. Early focus was on
information processing; later expanded to include judgment, decision-making, creativity,
critical thinking and emotions. Learner: active role, making decisions.
A Third Approach: Constructivism
 1970s, roots in psychology and philosophy. Learners use “prior knowledge to construct a
personally meaningful understanding of new content.” (Brown and Green, p.51) Learners are
active, and seek meaning.
Types of Learning
 Identify types of learning to take place; will aid in designing efficient, effective instruction.
 Benjamin Bloom’s domains helpful when planning instruction and assessment.
o Cognitive:  knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation.
o Affective: emotional responses from least committed to most committed – receiving,
responding, valuing, organizing, characterizing value.
o Psychomotor: physical abilities and skills; typically described as basic skills and actions
progressing to more skilled/creative.
o Learning objective - A description of a pattern of behavior you want the learner to
demonstrate. Mager suggests three components: action, condition, and criterion.
Synthesis:
Understanding the complex process of how people learn makes designing instruction more
effective and an eclectic approach is best. Each instructional design context is different and no
single approach can account for all variables. Bloom’s taxonomy, and the recent revision, has
had tremendous impact on teaching and learning.
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Chapter 4: Managing Instructional Multimedia Production
The Production Process and Organization of a Production Team
 Three phases: preproduction - Planning (resources, time frame, needs, task, etc.), what needs
to be accomplished. Production - design and development, plans put into action.
Postproduction - distribution, integration, archival, formatted for distribution.
 Team members and roles depend upon media being produced. Typically include SME,
writer, art director, graphic artist, sound, video, programmer, talent, manager, and director.
 Client –their satisfaction is a measure of the project’s success (person, group, user).
Production Management
 Execute tasks within parameters, highest quality and on time and hopefully under budget.
 Production calendar – List tasks to be completed and who is responsible. Milestones - when
things should be accomplished; drop-dead dates - either finished or must be abandoned.
Begin with final deadline and work backwards.
 Important for people to sign off work in progress; eliminates surprises & disagreements later.
 Calendars for more complicated/multiple projects: 1) Gantt charts show scheduled and actual
progress. 2) PERT (program evaluation and review technique) and CPM (critical path
method) display overlapping horizontal lines for task durations and people assigned.
 Style guides unify look and feel of the project (font, color scheme, graphics, sound) and
technical guidelines (file types, sizes).
 Storyboards help create common vision. Series of pictures allow everyone to see final form.
Multimedia storyboards show screen-by-screen layout and include navigation layout that
lists possible choices when navigating the product.
 Prototyping - Production strategy allows for testing, evaluation and revision (multiple times)
before final product. Highly recommended for multimedia production.
Communication and Conflict Resolution
 Reliable communication keeps production moving: respect, regular consultation, specificity,
paper trail maintenance (share layouts, sketches, etc. to create shared vision). Team must
agree on who has final responsibility for each aspect and element.
 Communication, explicit roles and consensus will make for more successful teamwork.
Product Evaluation
 Ongoing evaluation, through prototyping, can be built in to the process but formal evaluation
is also needed.
 Expert review - Feedback from someone with a great deal of experience with that type of
media. Can be done very early in the process due to their experience and expertise.
 Peer review - In middle and later stages, other designers provide an “outsiders” viewpoint.
 Usability testing allows designers to observe users in action to find potential problems.
Synthesis:
Effective project management will get your instructional design project successfully from the
planning stage to being usable. Establishing a common vision, clear roles, effective
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communication, and ongoing evaluation will result in a more successful product. This will not
only satisfy the client but also positively impact student learning.
Chapter 5: Conducting Needs Analysis
Needs Analysis: An Overview
 First step in design process is to help determine what change needs to occur. Use needs
analysis to locate source of problem - interviews, observation, and review of artifacts.
 Questions: What change is requested? Who is requesting? Where will change take place? Is
instruction appropriate to bring about change?
Popular Approaches to Needs Analysis
 Mager performance analysis. What is being done vs. what should be done. If difference,
why? 12-step performance analysis. Compare cost of problem and solution before going on.
 Morrison, Ross, and Kemp - Three approaches, more technical.
o Needs assessment: Locate source of problem; performance problems, critical needs,
priorities for intervention, and baseline data. 1) Planning - audience, data, 2) Collecting
Data - sample, instruments, 3) Analyzing Data - identify/prioritize needs, 4) Final Report
- purpose, process, summary, recommendations.
o Goal analysis - Takes less time, has narrower focus. Need identified, focus is on solution.
Performance assessment is similar to Mager’s performance analysis.
 Rossett (1995) - Gather info on optimal performance, actual performance, feelings, causes,
and solutions. 1) Determine initiators - performance problem, new stuff, mandates, 2)
Identify sources of information, 3) Select tools – interviews, observations, records, meetings,
questionnaires, 4) Conduct needs assessment, analyze, determine if more data is needed, 5)
use findings to make decisions.
 Smith and Ragan (1999) - 1) Discrepancy-based: Determine gaps, prioritize, and determine
instructional needs. 2) Problem Finding, Problem Solving: Verify problem, establish cause,
determine impact of learning and current instruction. 3) Innovation: Change has taken place.
Determine nature of change and learning goals, evaluate goals, look at environment.
Needs Analysis Procedure
1. Determine desired change - behavior, skill or attitude. Client’s opinion may be biased.
2. Understand who’s asking for the change; determine emotional and political climate and
support.
3. Determine where change will occur (usually easy – home, school, work, etc.).
4. The Intervention - Determine if instruction is the most appropriate intervention. Allow
client to be part of decision-making process, good to offer more than one intervention.
Evaluation of the Success of a Needs Analysis
 Summative evaluation may be too late. Present opportunities for client to provide feedback
on needs analysis and share data with target audience (member check).
Synthesis:
A thorough understanding of the problem and environment is needed in order to design
instruction that will effectively improve performance. Typically, a needs analysis is necessary to
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gather accurate and comprehensive information to guide instruction. Regardless of procedure, a
well constructed and implemented needs analysis will provide useful data to guide work.
Chapter 6: Conducting Task Analysis
What is Task Analysis?
 Task analysis is the systematic process of determining what learners will know or be able to
accomplish. Also referred to as content analysis and subject matter analysis.
 Morrison says TA solves three problems for the instructional designer: 1) defines content crucial step, 2) forces SME to work through subtle steps, 3) able to view content from learner
perspective and thus gain insight into teaching strategies.
 Jonassen, Tessmer, and Hannum - Expanded view includes operational components,
knowledge states, prioritization, sequence, selecting media and constructing assessments.
Popular Approaches to Task Analysis
 All share one goal - determine content and skills to include in instruction.
 Jonassen, Tessmer, and Hannum - Five discrete functions: inventorying (list), describing
(elaborate), and selecting tasks, sequencing tasks and components (to facilitate learning),
analyzing tasks and content level (cognitive, behavioral, physical, affective).
 Morrison, Ross and Kemp - Combination of needs and learner analysis provide starting point
for scope and sequence. Task analysis provides input for instructional objectives. Three
techniques for analyzing content and tasks: 1) Topic analysis - cognitive or declarative
knowledge, provides content and structure of components; outline. 2) Procedural analysis walk through steps with a SME to identify steps needed to accomplish task; flowchart. 3)
Critical incident method - identify knowledge/skills used to accomplish a task, an interview.
 Dick, Carey and Carey - Instructional analysis. Begin by identifying instructional goal and
focus on what learners should be able to accomplish, not just on content of instruction. First
part is goal analysis – classify learning and create visual representation (flowchart) with
specific steps. Second part is subordinate skills analysis - identify skills needed at various
steps to meet instructional goals.
 Smith and Ragan – Task analysis transforms goals. Form can guide subsequent design.
Result - list of goals with prerequisite skills/knowledge needed to achieve them. Key element
is information-processing analysis - allows designer to determine content for instruction.
Task Analysis Procedure and Evaluation
 Subject Matter Expert (SME) - All approaches emphasize need for SME to help gather
information about content and tasks necessary to develop instruction.
 Task analysis document typically outline or flowchart depicting tasks and subtasks.
 Type of task analysis procedure to follow should be determined by the instructional goal –
procedural tasks, for example.
 Evaluation - Along with summative evaluation, ask SME not involved to evaluate for
accuracy and thoroughness. Also, compare with needs analysis and learner analysis to see if
results match what is known.
Synthesis:
Task analysis is a critical step and the basis for determining the content of instruction. With
several processes and methods from which to choose, designers need to select and modify the
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task analysis to suit the instructional goals. Not only must content need to be selected, but also
properly sequenced for greatest affect on learning.
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