Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
Overview
1.
What is systematics? How is it used to develop phylogenetic trees?
Concept 26.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships
2.
What is taxonomy?
3.
Every organism on Earth may be referred to by a unique binomial, or a two-part name. These
are in Latin, or latinized. What is your binomial? What does it mean?
4.
What are the two components of every binomial?
5.
Taxonomy uses hierarchical categories that nest within each other, like Russian dolls. The figure
below shows the categories, each called a taxon. Label each taxonomic category, in the boxes,
and then give the one that applies exclusively to this panther to the side of each box.
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
You will notice that the most general category, domain, the one that encompasses the most organisms,
is shown at the bottom of the figure. As you move up in the figure, the organisms show greater and
greater degrees of relatedness. You are expected to memorize these taxonomic categories in order!
Most students use a mnemonic device linked to the first letter of each taxon to remember them. Make
up your own, or try ours:
D K P C O F G S or Dear King Phillip Comes Over For Good Spaghetti
(You may choose to have King Philip come over for something else—whatever you can remember
best!)
6.
So, which are more closely related, organisms in the same phylum, or those in the same order?
7.
Here is a phylogenetic tree. Recall that branch points represent common ancestors of the two
lineages beyond the branch or node. Circle the common ancestor of badgers and otters, and label
it as A. Circle the common ancestor of cats and dogs, and label it as B.
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
Concept 26.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data
Let’s look back at a Study Tip from Chapter 22. This idea is repeated in our current chapter.
Study Tip
Homologous structures show evidence of relatedness. (whale fin, bat wing)
Analogous structures are similar solutions to similar problems but do not indicate close relatedness.
(bird wing, butterfly wing)
8.
Molecular systematics is a valuable tool used today to sort homology from analogy. What is it?
Concept 26.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees
9.
Below are three cladograms. What is a clade? Circle a clade that is not highlighted below.
10.
Why is Group I monophyletic?
11.
Explain why Group II is paraphyletic.
12.
What is a polyphyletic group?
13.
Clades are derived by using shared derived characters. What are these?
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Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
14.
Explain why for mammals, hair is a shared derived character, but a backbone is not.
Concept 26.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome
Let’s summarize some important information from this section. The rate of evolution of DNA sequences
varies from one part of the genome to another; therefore, comparing different sequences helps us to
investigate relationships between groups of organisms that diverged a long time ago. For example,
DNA that codes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA) changes relatively slowly and is useful for investigating
relationships between taxa that diverged hundreds of millions of years ago. DNA that codes for
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) evolves rapidly and can be used to explore recent evolutionary events.
15.
16.
Which method reveals that fungi are more closely related to animals than to green plants?
Which method reveals that the Pima of Arizona and Yanomami of Venezuela are descendants
of the same Native Americans that crossed the Bering Land Bridge 13,000 years ago?
Concept 26.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time
17.
What are molecular clocks?
18.
If we use a molecular clock, approximately when did HIV emerge?
Concept 26.6 New information continues to revise our understanding of the tree of life
Taxonomy is in flux! When your authors were in high school, we were taught there were two kingdoms:
plants and animals. Then in our college courses, we were introduced to five kingdoms: Monera,
Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia. Now biologists have adopted a three-domain system, which
consists of the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. This system arose from the finding that there
are two distinct lineages of prokaryotes.
ARCHAEA
EUKARYA
BACTERIA
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Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
19.
On the figure above, place an arrow at the point showing the common ancestor of all three
domains.
20.
What two domains include all prokaryotes? Which two domains are most closely related?
21.
Which kingdom is made obsolete by the three-domain system? Why?
22.
Which kingdom crumbled because it is polyphyletic?
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1.
2.
3.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
4.
5.
6.
-5-
Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
Overview
The chapter opens with amazing tales of life at the extreme edge. What are the “masters of
adaptation”? Describe the one case you thought most dramatic.
1.
Concept 27.1 Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success
2.
Which two domains include prokaryotes?
3.
Let’s focus on some general details about prokaryotes.
a.
Are they multicellular or unicellular?
b. Compare their size relative to eukaryotic cells.
c.
What three shapes are most common? Label them on the
figure.
d. What is the composition of the typical bacterial cell wall?
4.
A key feature of prokaryotic cells is the cell wall. What three functions does it provide for the
cell?
5.
Quick review! What material comprises the cell wall of plants? of fungi?
6.
The cell walls of Archaeans are different. They lack
but contain
and
.
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Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
7.
Explain the difference between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
8.
What is a bacterial capsule? What functions may it serve?
9.
Many prokaryotes are capable of directional movement. What is this called?
10.
What bacterial feature makes this possible?
11.
Under ideal conditions, how quickly can E. coli divide? What conditions check prokaryotic
reproduction?
12.
What three key features allow prokaryotic populations to consist of trillions of individuals?
13.
Compare prokaryotes to eukaryotes in terms of the following characteristics:
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Size
Genome
Membranes
Location of genome
Plasmids
Ribosomes
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
14.
What are the small, circular, self-replicating pieces of DNA found in bacteria called?
15.
Label the following structures of a typical prokaryote seen here: cell wall, sex pilus, circular
chromosome, nucleoid region, ribosomes, flagella, capsule, and fimbriae. Sketch in a plasmid
or two, and label them. For each structure, know the function. (Go to the end of the chapter,
p. 573, for help with this figure.)
16.
When conditions for survival are difficult, some species produce endospores. What are these?
Can you name any species that form endospores? As a hint, consider what causes botulism or
tetanus.
Concept 27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in
prokaryotes
17.
You should now have some idea why there is so much potential for genetic diversity with
bacterial populations. Although mutation is the major source of genetic variation in prokaryotes,
listed below are the other three ways variation is introduced. Explain each one.
Source of Variation
Transformation
Summary Explanation
Transduction
Recombination
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
18.
Define transformation. This idea was first described by Frederick Griffith. (You read about his
work in Concept 16.1.)
19.
What is transduction? What is the vector for this process?
20.
Compare and contrast transduction and transformation.
21.
What is a sex pilus? What is the F factor? And how are the two related?
22.
The F factor is an episome. This is a piece of DNA that can be integrated within the main
chromosome of the bacterium, or able to exist as an independent plasmid. What is the bacterial
cell called:
when the F factor is in plasmid form?
when it lacks an F plasmid?
when it is integrated within the chromosome?
23.
What occurs in bacterial conjugation?
24.
When a mating bridge forms between an F+ cell and an F– cell and the F plasmid is replicated
and transferred, what is the status of the F– cell afterward?
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Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
25.
What is an Hfr cell?
26.
How are Hfr cells created?
27.
Summarize the transfer of genetic information from an Hfr cell to an F– cell.
28.
An understanding of R plasmids and antibiotic resistance will be important when you do a
bacterial transformation lab. What are R plasmids?
Concept 27.3 A great diversity of nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes
29.
Prokaryotes can be placed in four groups according to their mode of nutrition, which is how
they take in carbon and how they obtain energy. List each group below, and summarize how
each of them obtains energy. Place an ** by the heterotrophs.
Mode of Nutrition
30.
Energy Source
Examples
Compare the metabolic requirements of each group with respect to oxygen:
obligate aerobes
obligate anaerobes
facultative anaerobes
31.
To which of the above groups do you think the bacterium Clostridium tetani, the causative
agent of tetanus, belongs?
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Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
32.
Biofilms form dental plaque and result in tooth decay. They can damage industrial and medical
equipment and contaminate products. What are biofilms? How do individual cells cooperate to
form dental plaque?
Concept 27.4 Molecular systematics is illuminating prokaryotic phylogeny
33.
The work of Carl Woese changed our approach to the taxonomy of prokaryotes. How did it do
this?
34.
As you read in the Overview to this chapter, many archaea live on the edge and so are termed
extremophiles. Where would you find these types of archaea?
extreme halophiles
extreme thermophiles
The thermophiles are interesting because their DNA and enzymes are stable at high temperatures.
DNA polymerases from thermophiles are important in polymerase chain reaction (Chapter 20).
35.
Pee-yoo! Methanogens are found in many habitats. What are some of these habitats? What do
they all have in common?
36.
Compare the three domains of life in this chart by filling in either present or absent. One row is
done for you.
A COMPARISON OF THE THREE DOMAINS OF LIFE
Characteristic
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
absent
absent
present
Nuclear envelope
Membrane-enclosed organelles
Introns
Histone proteins associated w/ DNA
Circular chromosome
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
Concept 27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere
37.
Define each of these terms, and give a specific example of the role that prokaryotes play in the
terms marked with an asterisk (*):
decomposers*
symbiosis
host
symbiont
mutualism*
commensalism*
parasitism*
parasite
pathogens*
Concept 27.6 Prokaryotes have both harmful and beneficial effects on humans
38.
What are antibiotics? Why are they becoming less effective?
39.
There are many bacterial diseases. Make a list of six bad ones here, and give as much
information about each disease as you can find in your text.
40.
Explain how a normally harmless symbiont of our gut, E. coli, can be the agent of serious food
poisoning. (Tell the story of 0157:H7.)
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
41.
Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea
Not all bacterial activity is negative. Humans employ bacteria for many diverse activities. Cite
three human applications of prokaryotes here.
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1.
2.
3.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
4.
-8-
Chapter 28: Protists
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 28: Protists
Overview
The kingdom you learned as Protista is no longer recognized as an official taxon. Work in Protista
systematics has revealed that the kingdom is paraphyletic and in need of extensive reworking. The
kingdom formally known as Protista has been divided into many separate kingdoms. Biologists now
use the term Protista in a general, nontechnical way to refer to eukaryotes that are neither plants nor
animals nor fungi. As we move through this chapter, we will concentrate on the evolutionary events of
significance and the specific protists that are important.
Concept 28.1 Most eukaryotes are single-celled organisms
1.
Protists vary in structure and function more than any other group of organisms. However, here
are some common traits:
a. All have membrane-bounded organelles, and so are
b. Most are single-celled, or
.
.
c. They get their food in several ways. Some contain chloroplasts and do photosynthesis, and so
are considered
2.
. Others ingest food particles and so are
.
Endosymbiosis is a key component of eukaryotic evolution. Many protists are also the result of
secondary endosymbiosis. Using Figure 28.2 from the text, label the figure below to show the
key steps in several secondary endosybiotic events.
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Chapter 28: Protists
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
3.
Define secondary endosymbiosis.
Concept 28.3 Chromalveolates may have originated by secondary endosymbiosis
4.
Malaria is a leading cause of infectious disease. Over 300 million people in the tropics are
infected each year, and the death rate is 2 million people per year. The parasites that cause
malaria are in the genus Plasmodium. Plasmodium uses both mosquitoes and humans in its
complex life cycle, shown below. Explain the eight steps in the Plasmodium life cycle.
5.
Answer these
Paramecium.
questions
about
the
ciliate
 How does the Paramecium obtain food?
 How do food vacuoles and lysosomes help with
nutrition?
 The Paramecium is hypertonic to its surroundings, so how does this organism maintain water
balance?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 28: Protists
Concept 28.3 Protists play key roles in ecological relationships
6.
Describe one mutualistic symbiotic relationship and one parasitic relationship involving protists.
Mutualistic example:
Parasitic example:
7.
What is a key ecological role of protists in many aquatic food webs?
8.
This is a large chapter with a great deal of information about many different protists. To give you
an idea of some of them, here is a short list gleaned from your text. You may recognize many of
these protists:
a. Giardia intestinalis (causes “hiker’s diarrhea”; always treat your water!)
b.
Trichomonas vaginalis (sexually transmitted infection)
c.
Trypanosoma sp.(sleeping sickness and Chagas’ disease)
d.
Euglena (remember seeing the tiny flagellated green cell with a red eyespot in Bio. I?)
e.
Dinoflagellates (blooms cause “red tides”; many are bioluminescent)
f.
Plasmodium (causative agent of malaria)
g.
Ciliates (Paramecium and Stentor are examples; micro- and macronuclei)
h.
Amoeba (move by pseudopodia)
i.
Diatoms (unicellular with two-part, glass-like wall made of silica)
j.
Golden algae
k.
Brown algae (kelp)
l.
Oomycetes (water molds and their relatives; includes causative agent of potato blight)
m.
Red algae (multicellular; some found at great depths; sushi wraps)
n.
Green algae (Clamydomonas, Ulva, Volvox; this group is the closest relative of land plants)
o.
Slime molds
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 28: Protists
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1.
2.
3.
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
Name
Period
Chapter 29 Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
Concept 29.1 Land plants evolved from green algae
1.
Plants colonized land about 500 million years ago. Which group of algae is believed to be the
ancestors of land plants?
2.
Perhaps you answered green algae to question 1, which would be correct, or charophytes,
which are a lineage of green algae and a more precise answer that is also correct. Whatever
your response was, modify your answer above to include the other term. Read this section and
you will review a number of traits of plants that they share with various groups of algae. We
are most interested in those adaptations that are unique to plants and enabled life on land. One
trait that is shared with the charophytes is sporopollenin. What is it, and why is it important?
3.
Study Figure 29.5, which shows the four key traits that appear in nearly all land plants but not
in the charophytes. You are about to encounter a large new vocabulary. We will use it through
the next few chapters, so it is essential to master. Let’s begin by just defining the terms.
alternation of generation
sporophyte gametophyte
fertilization
zygote
spore
sporangia
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Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
archegonia
antheridia
apical meristem
We will apply these terms in the next concept.
Now let’s organize the plant groups. Complete the concept map that follows to show how
plants are classified.
4.
The Plant Kingdom
is divided into
Nonvascular Plants
(Bryophytes)
includes three types of
plants commonly called
Vascular Plants
are divided into
two large groups, which reproduce by
or
which includes plants that produce
seeds in cones
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and flowering
plants called
-2-
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
Concept 29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes
5.
As you recorded in question 3, an important feature of plants is alternation of generations. It is
time now to learn how this process works, and a study of the moss life cycle is a good place to
begin. Label the following features: male gametophyte, antheridia, female gametophyte,
archegonia, egg, zygote,
and sporophyte. Indicate
the haploid and diploid
part of the life cycle.
6.
What is made in the antheridium?
7.
What is made by the gametophyte generation?
8.
What is made by the sporophyte generation?
9.
Where does meiosis occur?
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in the archegonium?
-3-
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
10.
Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
In animals, the gametes are formed by meiosis. However, in plants, what cells are formed by
meiosis?
11.
How are spores dispersed?
12.
How does the sperm reach the
egg?
13.
On this picture of a moss, label the sporophytes and gametophytes. Which generation is
haploid? Which is diploid?
14.
How do mosses absorb water? How is it distributed?
15.
Which moss generation is dominant? It is larger, longer-living, independent, and
photosynthetic. It is the generation that you will always see.
Concept 29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall
16.
Like the Bryophyta, ferns are most common in damp environments. What feature of their
reproduction requires them to live in a moist habitat?
17.
What are the two types of vascular tissue? What does each transport?
18.
Ferns are vascular plants. Why can vascular plants grow to be very tall, but nonvascular plants
are all tiny?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
19.
Lignified vascular tissue allows vascular tissues to grow very tall. How does this give vascular
plants a competitive edge?
20.
What are functions of roots?
21.
Go back to page 604 in your text to answer this: What are mycorrhizae? Without true roots,
how do bryophytes absorb nutrients from the soil?
22.
What is the function of leaves?
23.
To summarize, only plants with vascular tissue can have true roots, stems, and leaves. Ferns
and their relatives are seedless vascular plants. You will see examples of club mosses,
horsetails, and more in Figure 29.15. Have you ever seen any of the plants pictured here?
24.
Let’s conclude this chapter with a look at the life cycle of a fern. Use this to solidify your
understanding of alternation of generations. Label the following elements: sporangium,
meiosis, spore, gametophyte, antheridium, archegonium, sperm, egg, fertilization, zygote.
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Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
25.
Which generation is dominant in ferns? Is it haploid or diploid?
26.
Throughout this chapter, we have looked at problems of a terrestrial life faced by plants. Use
the following chart to summarize the solutions that are seen to some of these problems.
PROBLEM
1. Obtain water
SOLUTIONS
2. Transport water
3. Transport products of photosynthesis
4. Prevent desiccation of embryo
5. Prevent desiccation of plant body
6. Support against gravity
7. Protect embryo
8. Transport sperm
9. Increase surface area for photosynthesis
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
5.
6.
7.
8.
-6-
Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
In this second chapter on the evolution of plants, it is important to know enough terminology to
understand the major evolutionary trends. As you work through this chapter, keep working to see the
big picture and try not to get lost by too many new terms. Be patient.
Concept 30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptations for life on land
1.
List five characteristics common to all seed plants.
2.
In seed plants, the evolutionary trend of gametophyte reduction continues. List four advantages
the plant gains by the miniaturization of the gametophyte.
3.
Heterospory indicates that the plant produces two kinds of spores: megaspores and
microspores. Explain what each type of spore forms as it develops.
megaspore
microspore
4.
Inside each
, a female
from a megaspore and produces one or more
5.
A microspore develops into a
develops
.
that consists of a male
enclosed within the pollen wall.
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
6.
What is the purpose of pollination?
7.
What are two advantages of pollen over free-swimming sperm?
8.
What are three advantages of seeds over spores?
9.
Using Figure 30.3 as a guide, label all parts of this figure. Then, below each of the three
drawings, explain what is occurring.
Concept 30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones
10.
Figure 30.5 shows the four phyla of gymnosperms. The phylum Coniferophyta will most likely
be the one with which you are most familiar. What are five examples of the Coniferophyta?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
11.
Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
Understanding the life cycle of the pine should bring together the essential characteristics of
gymnosperms. Following Figure 30.6, label and give eight brief explanations of the important
features of the pine life cycle.
Study Hint: Continue to look for the big picture. Microspores will eventually produce pollen that will
contain sperm nuclei. Megaspores will eventually produce archegonia that will contain eggs. The
sperm and egg will unite to form a diploid embryo. The basics are the same as with any sexually
reproducing organism.
Concept 30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits
12.
Concerning seeds, what is the difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms?
13.
What is the specialized function of the flower?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
14.
Label the ten structures on the flower diagram. Briefly give the function of each labeled part.
15.
A fruit consists of a mature
16.
List the two functions of fruits.
17.
What is the difference between cross-pollination and self-pollination? What is the evolutionary
advantage of cross-pollination?
18.
What two events occur during double fertilization?
19.
In the space below, draw the essential features of the life cycle of an angiosperm. Use Figure
30.10 as a guide, but simplify the labeling to reflect only the most important terms. After
sketching and labeling, use your own phrasing to explain the process in seven concise steps.
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.
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Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
20.
After double fertilization, the ovule matures into the
into the sporophyte
the
21.
. The zygote develops
. The embryo is nourished by a tissue called
.
The two largest groups of angiosperms are monocots and eudicots. Flowering plants can often
be placed in one of these two categories by easy-to-observe characteristics. Label the following
portion of Figure 30.13 showing key differences between the two groups.
Concept 30.4 Human welfare depends greatly on seed plants
22.
Explain the importance of seed plants to humans in the following areas:
food
wood
medicines
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Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
23.
Why should threats to plant diversity be taken seriously?
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1.
2.
3.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
4.
5.
6.
-6-
Chapter 31: Fungi
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 31: Fungi
Concept 31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption
1.
Both animals and fungi are multicellular heterotrophs, but they differ in how they obtain their
nutrients. Explain how fungi bring in nutrients.
2.
Both plants and fungi have cell walls. What material is found in the cell wall of fungi?
3.
The body of a fungus consists of hyphae, which make up the mycelium. What are these?
4.
In the last chapter, we looked at the importance of mycorrhizae to plant nutrition. Explain the action
of mycorrhizae.
Concept 31.2 Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles
5.
A new fungal organism grows from what structure?
6.
Spores are the reproductive cells of fungi; they can be formed sexually or asexually. When two
haploid mating strains are near each other, how do they signal or communicate?
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Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 31: Fungi
Concept 31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages
This concept discusses many different fungi and has some wonderful photographs and figures. Although
you might not be asked much about fungi on an AP Biology exam, let’s look at a few of them.
Zygomycetes
7.
Here is a figure showing the life cycle of a fungus you have all seen—Rhizopus stolonifer, or
common bread mold. Label it to explain a typical fungus life cycle.
8.
Don’t miss the story of Pilobus! Where do you find it, and how does it send its spores and next
generation on to an appropriate new home?
Ascomycetes
9.
What is the name of the structure where the sexual spores are produced?
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Chapter 31: Fungi
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
10.
What is the common name of this group?
11.
Give at least three examples of ascomycetes.
12.
Did your class do the Sordaria meiosis lab, AP Lab 3?
Sordaria is an ascomycete.
You may also remember Neurospora, which Beadle and Tatum used in their research.
Basidiomycetes
13.
What is the name of the strucure where the sexual spores are produced?
14.
What is the common name of this group?
15.
Give at least three examples of basidiomycetes.
16.
What are ”fairy rings”? Have you ever seen one? Explain how they grow.
Concept 31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare
17.
Fungi are heterotrophs and have three modes of nutrition. Explain each mode of nutrition, and
describe a fungus that exhibits it.
Explanation of Mode of Nutrition
Decomposer
Fungus Example
Parasitism
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Chapter 31: Fungi
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Mutualism
18.
Tell the life stories of three of your favorite pathogenic fungi.
19.
Describe three ways in which humans benefit from activities of fungi.
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
5.
6.
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Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity
Concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from
embryonic layers
1.
Like the fungi, animals are multicellular heterotrophs. How do they feed?
2.
What two types of specialized cells do only animals have?
3.
Most animals reproduce
the life cycle.
4.
Animal development requires its own vocabulary to describe the stages that are seen in all
developing embryos. To help learn them, label each stage shown in this figure.
5.
Your sketch labels should include the following terms. Define each one:
, and the
stage dominates
zygote
blastula
gastrula
blastopore
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
6.
Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity
Explain these terms:
cleavage
gastrulation
metamorphosis
7.
All eukaryotes have sets of regulatory genes containing common sets of DNA sequences called
homeoboxes. What are the unique homeobox genes of animals called?
Concept 32.3 Animals can be characterized by “body plans”
8.
Which animal group lacks symmetry?
9.
Two types of symmetry are seen in all other animal groups. Name and describe them in words or
with a sketch.
10.
What is the symmetry of a jellyfish?
11.
Animals that have bilateral symmetry have a front and rear. Draw a sketch of a cat, and label these
regions: anterior, posterior, dorsal, and ventral.
12.
Does your cat have whiskers, eyes, and ears? With bilateral symmetry, major sensory structures
and the “brain” are concentrated in the head region. What is this area called?
13.
Many animals with radial symmetry are sessile. What does this mean?
14.
How is radial symmetry an advantage to sessile or planktonic animals?
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
of a worm?
of a dog?
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Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
15.
The process of gastrulation results in concentric layers in the embryo and the development of a
body tube called the archenteron, which becomes the gut. Return to the figure in question 4, and
label the archenteron and the three tissue layers: endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm. If this
diagram is not printed in color, use pencils to color the ectoderm blue, the mesoderm red, and the
endoderm yellow. These colors are used by convention for each tissue type.
16.
Which animal groups have only two tissue layers and are said to be diploblastic?
17.
For a triploblastic animal, give at least two organs or organ systems that arise from each tissue
layer (also called germ layer).
Germ Layer
endoderm
Organ or Organ System
mesoderm
ectoderm
18.
Now we are going to move into a discussion that many students find confusing. Pay close
attention! What is a coelom?
19.
The definition you have written should say the body cavity is surrounded by mesoderm on both
sides. What do we call the animal groups that have a body cavity with mesoderm on only one
side?
20.
And what are the animal groups called that have no body cavity?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity
21.
Here’s the point our students find confusing: the gut or digestive tube is not a coelom! All the
animals sketched below have a digestive tube, but only one has a true coelom. Using the colors
described in question 15, color the germ layers, and label these representative animals coelomate,
pseudocoelomate, and acoelomate. Indicate the body cavity and gut in the pictures. Also give the
common names of the animals shown.
22.
What are three functions of the body cavity?
Protostome and Deuterostome Development
This concept is one our students often find difficult, but it is important to help you understand the major
features that are used to organize the animal groups. Stick with it until you know what is meant by being a
protostome or deuterostome. Let’s begin with explaining the meaning of these words based on their roots:
stom– = mouth
proto– = first
deutero– = second
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity
With a protostome, the blastopore (which is the opening into the archenteron) becomes the mouth (first
mouth), and a second opening in the body tube will form the anus.
With a deuterostome, the blastopore will be the anus, and a second opening becomes the mouth (second
mouth).
23.
Label protostome, deuterostome, mouth, anus, and digestive tube on the figure above.
24.
What forms the mouth in a deuterostome?
25.
Now let’s layer on another set of words based on the early mitotic divisions of the embryo called
cleavages. Study the figure below. If the cells are lined up over each other in the eight-cell
embryo, the cleavages are said to be radial. If the top layer is rotated relative to the lower layer,
the cleavages are said to be spiral. Label the cleavages below.
26.
If each cell in the early embryo has the capacity to develop into a complete embryo, what is this
type of cleavage called?
27.
What type of cleavage is it if the developmental fate of each embryonic cell is rigidly
“determined” very early?
28.
You will notice that most animals have spiral and
cleavage or radial and
cleavage.
29.
Label the figure below with protostome and deuterostome, spiral and determinate cleavage, and
radial and indeterminate cleavage.
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
30.
Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity
Many times you have heard that taxonomy is in flux. Your text shows two different phylogenetic
trees based on analysis of different criteria. Use the phylogenetic trees to answer these questions.
Animals in which phylum or phyla . . .
a. lack symmetry and true tissues?
b. show radial symmetry and are diploblastic?
c. have three tissue layers, but lack a body cavity?
d. show bilateral symmetry and have a pseudocoelom?
e. have a true coelom and are protostomes?
f. have a true coelom and are deuterostomes?
g. are your closest relatives?
If you can group the animal phyla based on the characteristics above, you are ready for the most
common type of animal questions you will see on the AP Biology exam!
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
1.
2.
(you may omit #3) 4.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Chapter 33: Invertebrates
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
Chapters 31, 32, and 33 should be considered as a single unit, and you should try to put all of them
together in a single conceptual framework. Due to the scope of our course, you are likely to see more
general questions on individual phyla. For each of the phyla that we highlight in the questions that
follow, try to know the characters that are unique to that group, and focus on the evolution of various
systems. So they have time to teach the more difficult molecular concepts, many teachers choose to
have students learn this unit on their own. Our goal here is to focus your time and energy on what we
have seen to be commonly asked information. At the end of this Reading Guide chapter, you will find
a chart that may help you to organize this knowledge.
Concept 33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack true tissues
1.
You may have learned in an earlier course that sponges are in the phylum Porifera. This group
is now known to be polyphyletic, and all sponges belong to either phylum Calcarea or phylum
Silicea. They are the simplest animals and lack true tissues.
Label the following: pores, spongocoel, epidermis, amoebocytes, choanocyte, flagellum,
spicules, epidermis, and mesohyl.
On this sketch of a typical sponge, explain how water flows through the body of a sponge, and
describe how it obtains food.
2.
What is the feeding method of a sponge?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
3.
Go back to the labels you applied to the figure above, and explain or define each term:
osculum, spongocoel, epidermis, pore, mesohyl, amoebocyte, choanocyte, spicules.
4.
Most sponges are hermaphrodites. What does this mean?
5.
Go to the chart at the end of this Reading Guide. Consider that the sponges have only two cell
layers, and both are in contact with the surrounding medium. They have no specialized tissues,
and therefore no organs. This will help you explain how a sponge obtains oxygen or gets rid of
wastes. Fill in the chart for sponges.
Concept 33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans
6.
Sketch the polyp form of a cnidarian and add these labels: gastrovascular cavity, mouth/anus,
epidermis, gastrodermis, tentacle, mesoglea, and gastrovascular cavity.
7.
Cnidarians are diploblastic and have radial symmetry. Use your sketch above to explain what
this means.
8.
If you flip the polyp form, squish it a bit, and give it a floatation device,
you will have the body form of a jellyfish. What is this body form
called?
9.
What are nematocysts, and how do they help a cnidarian obtain its food?
10.
Read the rest of this concept carefully to complete the chart at the end. What is the nervous
system of a cnidarian? Do they have a brain?
11.
What is the “skeleton” of a cnidarian? Check the glossary to explain how this type of skeleton
works.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Chapter 33: Invertebrates
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Concept 33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of
animal body forms
You may breathe a sigh of relief to know that we are going to condense this section and look at only
three phyla: Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, and Annelida.
12.
Platyhelminthes means “flatworm,” which describes the shape of these worms. This is the first
phylum we are studying that is triploblastic. This group is acoelomate, a term you learned in
the last chapter. It is the only acoelomate group we will study, so be sure to know this. As you
read this paragraph, complete the line on the chart for Platyhelminthes at the end of this
Reading Guide. Remember that if there is no specialized system for gas exchange, for example,
then it occurs by diffusion, and this is what you should write in the chart.
13.
Excretion is not just a polite word for defecation; instead, it refers to the elimination of
nitrogenous waste. Your primary nitrogenous waste is urine, produced by the kidneys. What
specialized organ do flatworms have to manage water balance and nitrogenous wastes?
Include this information on the chart at the end of this Reading Guide.
14.
Focus on the three classes of Platyhelminthes listed below to complete this chart.
Class
Turbellaria
Example(s)
Features to Note
Trematoda
Cestoda
15.
Planaria are the only free-living (not parasitic) examples from the chart above. Notice the
presence of eyespots and ganglia in the Planaria. Label them. This is the first group we see
with bilateral symmetry and sense organs concentrated at the anterior end. What is the term for
this move toward having a “head” where sense organs and brain are concentrated? (See Chapter
32 if you have forgotten.)
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
16.
Label the mouth in the Planaria. Where do wastes leave? The digestive system seen here is
sometimes called two-way. Why?
17.
Parasitic worms often have complex life cycles involving multiple hosts. Sketch the life cycle
of a blood fluke.
18.
Look at the evil head of a tapeworm! How do they
attach to the gut of the host? This is another worm
with a complex life cycle. How might you get a
tapeworm?
19.
Tapeworms have no digestive system. Why not?
20.
Here are some important features of animals in the phylum Mollusca. Explain each one.
muscular foot
visceral mass
mantle
radula
21.
You are familiar with many molluscs. Give the key features of each class, and provide an
example.
Class
Key Features
Example
Polyplacophora
Gastropoda
Bivalvia
Cephalopoda
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
22.
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
The last phylum in this concept is Annelida. This group is sometimes called the segmented
worms because of its visible rings. There are three classes. Give the information for each class
in the chart that follows.
Class
Oligochaeta
Key Features
Examples
Polychaeta
Hirudinea
23.
Many students dissect an earthworm in introductory biology, and all of us have seen living
earthworms (much more interesting). Study the figure of an earthworm, and be familiar with
these features:
clitellum
ventral nerve cord
crop/gizzard
metanephridia
chaetae
24.
Both molluscs and annelids have a true coelom. Refer to Chapter 32, and define coelom again.
Concept 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group
25.
What do the root words that name this group mean?
ecdyso–
–zoan
26.
Phylum Nematoda includes the worms we often call roundworms. Their bodies are cylindrical,
unlike those of the flatworms, and lack segmentation. What makes up the body covering of a
nematode?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
27.
Caenorhabditis elegans is a model research organism and is widely studied. It is an example of
a free-living nematode. Some interesting parasitic nematodes include the human parasites
pinworms, hookworms, and Trichinella. How does this last parasite work? Note that its life
cycle involves more than one host.
28.
What does the phylum name Arthropoda mean?
29.
The ecdysozoans are a huge group, but members have some common features. What is the
body covering? What molecule is it made of?
30.
The only way an arthropod can grow is to shed its chitinous exoskeleton. What is this shedding
process called?
31.
Describe the circulatory system of arthropods. Note that most molluscs have a similar type of
circulatory system.
32.
Let’s focus on some specific groups. How many legs do arachnids have?
33.
What are three examples of arachnids?
34.
Millipedes and centipedes are placed in the subphylum Myriapoda, which means “many legs.”
Complete the following chart.
Class
Example
Millipedes
Legs per Segment
Diet
Centipedes
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
35.
For the class Insecta, how many legs do all members have?
36.
What are the three body regions of insects?
37.
Insects show two types of metamorphosis. Explain each type.
incomplete metamorphosis
complete metamorphosis
38.
Crustaceans are primarily aquatic and have many pairs of appendages. How many appendages
does a lobster have?
39.
What specialized respiratory structures do many crustaceans have?
40.
Complete this chart to summarize the different groups of arthropods.
Group
Arachnids
# of Appendages
Respiratory Organs
Examples
Insects
Crustaceans
Concept 33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes
41.
What does the phylum name, Echinodermata, mean?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
42.
Besides a spiny skin, echinoderms have a water vascular system with tube feet. Label the
features of the water vascular system on the following sketch, and explain how the system
works.
43.
As adults, many echinoderms appear to have radial symmetry, but their larval stage is
bilateral. This is an important feature to note. As you read this section, what other interesting
facts do you find about members of this group?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
44.
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
Let’s go back and look at phylogeny. Use the chart copied below from Chapter 32 to explain
the key feature that separates each of the following groups:
“Porifera” from all other groups
Cnidaria from all other groups
Protostomes from deuterostomes (Which are the only two deuterostome groups?)
Platyhelminthes from other protostomes
Annelids and arthropods from nematodes
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Chapter 33: Invertebrates
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
5.
6.
- 10 -
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
A COMPARISON OF IMPORTANT FEATURES OF SELECTED ANIMAL PHYLA
PHYLUM
Examples
Unique
Features
Circulatory
Respiratory
Nervous
Excretory
Digestive
Calcarea/
Silicea
Cnidaria
Platyhelminthes
Nematoda
Mollusca
Annelida
Arthropoda
Echinodermata
Chordata
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Chapter 34: Vertebrates
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Name
Period
Chapter 34: Vertebrates
Concept 34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord
1.
We are vertebrates. What phylum do we belong to?
2.
What other phylum might be considered our close relatives? Why?
3.
Here is a figure showing the four key chordate characteristics. Label and explain each one.
4.
One of the important characteristics is a notochord. What is a notochord?
5.
For us, as vertebrates, what remains of the notochord?
6.
Chordates are the first group to show a dorsal nerve cord. Which embryonic layer forms the
nerve cord?
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Chapter 34: Vertebrates
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
7.
Pharyngeal gill slits develop into what structures in the fishes?
8.
In tetrapods, what do the gill slits become?
9.
Vertebrates are not the only chordates. The lancet displays a number of chordate characteristics,
and the ancestral chordate may have resembled a lancet. Describe a lancet.
Concept 34.2 Vertebrates are craniates that have a backbone
10.
What is the oldest lineage of vertebrates?
They are jawless parasitic fish with a skeleton made of
. Look at the mouth! Lampreys
have invaded the Great Lakes and damaged the fishing industry
there.
Concept 34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws
11.
Gnatho– means “jaw,” and –stome means “mouth.” This group includes the sharks, fishes,
amphibians, and reptiles. From what structure is it believed that jaws evolved?
12.
What animals are in the clade Chondrichthyes?
13.
What does the name Chondrichthyes mean? What material makes up their skeleton?
14.
Why do sharks have to swim continuously?
15.
The “fishes” with a bone skeleton are aquatic Osteichthyes. How do they breathe?
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Chapter 34: Vertebrates
AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
16.
What is the function of a swim bladder?
Concept 34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs
17.
What does tetrapod mean?
18.
What animals are in the class Amphibia?
19.
What does the class name Amphibia mean?
20.
Frogs have a life cycle with an aquatic larval stage, the tadpole. How do tadpoles breathe?
21.
How do adult frogs breathe? (two ways)
22.
Fertilization in amphibians is
very high.
23.
What factors tie amphibians to a life near water?
. The eggs lack a shell, and mortality is
Concept 34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg
24.
What is an amniotic egg? How has it enabled animals to occupy a wider range of terrestrial
habitats than amphibians can?
25.
What groups have an amniote egg?
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 34: Vertebrates
26.
Label the four extraembryonic membranes seen in an amniotic egg, and explain the role of each
one.
27.
What animals are in the reptile clade?
28.
Read the second paragraph about reptiles carefully, and then make a list of five characteristics of
reptiles.
Reptile Characteristics
29. What is the body covering of a reptile? How does this enable it to live a more terrestrial life?
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw
Chapter 34: Vertebrates
30.
What is internal fertilization? How does this enable reptiles to reproduce on land?
31.
Fishes, amphibians, and reptiles are ectothermic. What does this mean?
32.
Birds are in the reptile clade. Which extinct group included their closest relatives?
33.
Here is a short list of some reptiles. For each group on the list, give some important features that
make them unique.
snakes
lizards
turtles
alligators and crocodiles
birds
34.
What are four avian adaptations for flight?
Adaptations for Flight
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AP Biology Reading Guide
Chapter 34: Vertebrates
Concept 34.6 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk
35. Make a list of at least five traits of mammals, including the two in the concept
heading. Put an asterisk (*) next to the traits unique to mammals.
36. There are three groups of mammals. Contrast the groups based on how they bear
young, and give an example.
Mammalian Group
Monotremes
Reproduction
Example
Marsupials
Eutherians
37. As a human, you are in the class Mammalia and the order Primates. What features are
unique to
primates only?
Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:
Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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