Advanced Learning Theories:
How Students Learn
Introduction
Understanding how students learn is
critical
Many models and theories address how
students learn
Theories provide a stepping-stone for
educators to understand
Translate understanding into practical
strategies
Previous models are reinterpreted to
model online student/teacher interaction.
Behaviorist
Model
The behaviorist model is one of the earliest
learning models
Ivan Pavlov is regarded as the father of this
theory
Learning has occurred when a student’s
behavior demonstrates change
Behavior must be observed to demonstrate
progress
Behavior must be measured in a discrete
manner
Behaviorist
Model
Advocates a drill-response mechanism in
order to change behavior
Pavlov’s experiment with a bell, dog, and
food reward
Trial-and-error methodology
Students should try to perform a task until
they succeed
When they achieve a positive result,
learning is said to have occurred.
Behaviorist
Model
Feedback is critical to guide the learning
process
Feedback denotes the point at which
behavior is changed
Feedback directly stimulates change in a
student’s behavior
Behaviorist
Model
A measurable task like successfully logging
into a website
Concepts with a single approach and correct
answer
It may not be possible to effectively
measure a student’s behavior online
Too short to change behavior or monitor
any change
Constant repetition may frustrate and
inhibit students
Resources:
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Weblinks:
An Overview to the Behavioral
Perspective
Play the interactive game Pavlov's Dog
Articles:
Froyd, Jeff. (2001). Model for Inquiry and Reflection about
Learning and Teaching. International Conference on
Engineering Education, August 6-10, 2001
Chai, Lin. (2003). To Have or Have Not: An Examination
of Feedback, Learner Control, and Knowledge Type in
Online Learning. Proceedings of the 36th Hawaii
International Conference on System Services, 2003
Cognitive
Learning
Cognitive Learning gradually replaced
behaviorism
As motivation and interaction between
students and instructors was understood
One of its champions was Noam Chomsky
Learning is an unobservable process in the
human brain
Behaviorist model is an insufficient
representation
Cognitive
Learning
Feedback is still vital
Student receives the necessary behavior
correction
Student experiences satisfaction from
feedback
Reception of information through both
visual and auditory channels
Identifies short-term and long-term
memory as crucial aspects of learning
Cognitive
Learning
Learning takes place when a learner
processes information
Online, cognitive learning holds an obvious
place
Able to provide materials in dual-and
multi-modal fashion
Test both short-term and long-term
retention of information
Resources:
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Articles:
Pintrich, Paul R. (1999). The Role of Motivation In
Promoting and Sustaining Self-regulated Learning.
International Journal of Education Research. Vol. 31, 1999,
pp. 459-470.
Strauss, S. (2000). Theories of Cognitive Development and
their Implications for Curriculum Development and
Teaching. In B. Moon, M. Ben-Peretz, and S. Brown (Eds.),
Routledge International Companion to Education (pp. 3350). London: Routledge.
Social
Interaction
Social interaction theory dismisses
behaviorism and cognitive learning
Albert Bandura is credited with the genesis
of this model in the 1970s
Learning is not just an interaction
between instructor and student
Learning can occur within the environment
around the student
Students may learn from various social
interactions
Social
Interaction
The spread of behaviors through indirect
channels may be social contagion
Violence on TV may affect some students via
social contagion
Students learn the behaviors modeled by
instructors
Students learn from other students
Ensure that no unwanted behaviors are
being modeled
Resources:
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Web:
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura)
Articles:
Conte, Rosaria. (2000). Intelligent Social Learning. In
AISB’00 Symposium on Starting from Society: The
Application of Social Analogies to Computational Systems,
Birmingham, AL, 2000, pp. 1-11.
Constructivist
Educational
Model
Students learn “from” the world
Students should drive the learning process
Collaborative activities are critical
segments of constructivist learning
Shared experiences can reinforce concepts
Students personalize their learning
Constructivist
Educational
Model
Online and blended learning are natural
expressions of the constructivist model
Students share with each other in the
classroom environment
Students take learning with them to the
next course
Constructivism is the most complete
overview of learning process
The following models may be referred to as
strategies
Resources:
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Web:
CSCL Theories
Articles:
Edelson, D., Pea, R., and Gomez, L. (1996). Constructivism
in the Collaboratory. In B. G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist
Learning Environments: Case Studies in Instructional
Design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications. Pp. 151-164.
Oliver, Ron, Omari, Arshad, and Herrington, Jan. (1997).
Exploring Student Interactions in Collaborative World
Wide Web Learning Environments. In Proceedings of EDMEDIA/EDTELECOM 1997, Calgary, Canada, June 14-19,
1997, Volume II, pp. 812-817.
Integrative
Model
Students learn through different channels
and situations
Advocates the use of a variety of
educational methodologies and tools
Students must practice critical thinking
and active learning skills
Strategic implementation of
constructivism
Instructors are encouraged to engage
students’ minds, bodies, and souls
Integrative
Model
Course material should be “integrated”
Within an History course, writing skills are
promoted
Online environment is an excellent venue
for utilizing integrative strategies
Integrative materials across courses
requires buy-in from the school
Resources:
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Weblinks:
Integrative Education
Articles:
Braunger, Jane, and Hart-Landsberg, Sylvia. (1994).
Crossing Boundaries: Explorations in Integrative
Curriculum. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional
Educational Laboratory for the Office of Educational
Research and Improvement.
Direct
Instruction
Model
Direct instruction is the traditional view of
higher education
A professor “professes” the subject matter
to students
Includes lecturing, one-to-one teaching,
Q&A and didactic teaching
In every course, direct instruction must
occur
The lecture material must be clear and
direct
Resources:
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Web:
Instructional Strategies Online
Articles:
Veenman, Simon, Denessen, Eddie, van den Oord, Ingrid,
and Naafs, Ferdy. (2003). The Influence of a Course on
Direct and Activating Instruction upon Student Teachers’
Classroom Practice. The Journal of Experimental
Education, 71(3), pp. 197-225.
Lecture/
Discussion
Model
Straddles the line between direct
instruction and collaborative work
Involves the quiet, shy and nonparticipating students
Ideas from lectures may be clarified,
further explored, and broadened
Students can challenge the instructor,
concepts, and each other
Discussions must be focused within a safe
and respectful atmosphere
Resources:
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Articles:
Pimental, Maria da Graca, Ishiguro, Yoshihide, Kerimbaev,
Bolot, Abowd, Gregory D., and Guzdial, Mark. (2001).
Supporting Educational Activities through Dynamic Web
Interfaces. Interacting with Computers. 13(3), pp. 353374.
Davis, Robert L., and Ragsdell, Kenneth M. (2000). Design
of an Effective, Web-Based, Global Learning Environment
Using the Keller Plan. International Conference on
Engineering
Concept
Attainment
Model
Concept attainment tests students’
understanding of concepts
An individual assignment
It can bridge the gap between individual
and collaborative activities
Concept
Attainment
Model
Students are presented with an
identification concept
“Investments with a ROI of greater than 3%”
“Bond with guaranteed 4.1% rate of
return”
“Savings account with 1.5% rate of return”
Students quantify or classify them
according to the preset structure
Concept
Attainment
Model
Concept Attainment is ideally suited to
online delivery
Assignment can be researched online and
easily adapts to groups or individuals
Provide a clear overview of the concept
Clarify any incorrect classifications
students may have made
Resources:
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Web:
In-service Activities and Teaching Techniques
to Promote Gender Equity
Additional PowerPoint:
Concept Attainment
Problem-Based
Learning
Model
Developed as a way to help medical
students learn biological processes
Students are presented with problems they
must solve by researching content
Learning occurs when students are
presented with real-world cases
Students solve the problems or determine
how best to proceed
Problem-based
Learning
Model
Problem-based learning is also referred to
as inductive learning
Inquiring learning, discovery learning, and
just-in-time learning
Easily implemented in online
environments
Temptation to co-opt or plagiarize
solutions to questions
IDs and instructors should craft individual,
thought-provoking questions
Resources:
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Articles:
Mahling, D.E., Sorrows, B.B., and Skogseid, I. (1995). A
Collaborative Environment for Semi-structured Medical
Problem Based Learning. Proceedings of CSCL'95.
Prince, Michael J., and Felder, Richard M. (2006).
Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions,
Comparisons, and Research Bases. Journal of Engineering
Education, 95(2), pp. 123-138.
Fox, Geoffrey C., Furmanski, Wojtek, Nilan, Michael S.,
and Small, Ruth V. (1994). Assessing Virtual Reality for
Education. Proposal to the National Science Foundation,
January 1, 1994.
STAD
STAD (Student Teams-Achievement
Divisions)
Addresses the need for collaborative
assignments for critical thinking
Instructor presents a concept
Students are grouped into teams of 3-4
members
The teams work together, then each
student is tested individually
STAD
Teams may complete a project, study a
concept or solve a problem
Student teams provide for socialization,
social learning and sense of community
Difficult for students to collaborate over
diverse time zones
Collusion or “riding on the coattails”
Difficult to assess the contribution of each
student
Resources:
Explore More
Additional PowerPoint:
STAD
Articles:
Slavin, Robert E. (1977). Student Teams and Achievement
Divisions: Effects on Academic Performance, Mutual
Attraction, and Attitudes. Report No. 233 for the National
Institution of Education. Johns Hopkins University, Center
for Social Organization of Schools.
Adapting
Instruction To
Improve
Effectiveness
Instructors are hampered by the end-ofcourse student questionnaires
Courses are designed by instructional
designers and curriculum managers
Students are able to learn from the spoken
as well as written word
Some instructors may record voice
announcements and explanations
Use a concept attainment question in the
discussion board
Adapting
Instruction To
Improve
Effectiveness
Listen to the students
Learn if classroom materials could benefit
from an improvement
Use student comments throughout the
course
Discover areas where students may need
extra resources
Adapting
Instruction To
Improve
Effectiveness
Convey your students’ concerns to your
Department Chair
Address concerns with IDs or Curriculum
Managers as appropriate
Final Thoughts
Faculty members must lead the way
Devise more coherent programs of general
education
Devise more useful, authentic
assessments of student learning
Institutional reward systems must provide
more incentives
More recognition for faculty contributions
that increase student success
Resources:
Explore More
Web:
Improving Service Quality in Distance
Education
Articles:
(2005). Accountability for Better Results - A National
Imperative for Higher Education. State Higher Education
Executive Officers with support from the Ford Foundation.
Retrieved 5 Dec. 2007 from: Accountability for Better
Business