University of Groningen
Today's talented youth field hockey players, the stars of tomorrow?
Gemser, Marije
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Chapter IV
Multidimensional performance
characteristics and performance
level in talented youth field hockey
players: A longitudinal study
Elferink-Gemser, M.T., Visscher, C., Lemmink,
K.A.P.M., and Mulder, Th.
Journal of Sports Sciences (pending minor revisions)
Acknowledgements:
This study has been supported by a grant of the Dutch
National Olympic Committee NOC*NSF. The authors
thank all players, trainers, and staff of the field hockey
clubs HC ’s Hertogenbosch and HC Rotterdam for their
cooperation.
Abstract
To reveal performance characteristics, which may have power for predicting future elite
field hockey players, we made a comparison between 30 elite and 35 sub-elite youth
players in terms of anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological
characteristics measured on three occasions, each separated by a time interval of one year.
Mean age of the players on the first measurement was 14.2 years (sd = 1.1). Repeated
measures analyses of covariance with factors of performance level and measurement, and
with age as a covariate, showed that the elite players scored better than the sub-elite players
on technical and tactical variables. Female elite youth players also scored better on interval
endurance capacity, motivation and confidence. Future elite players seem to excel in
tactical skills by the age of 14 already. They also stand out in specific technical skills and
develop these together with the interval endurance capacity better than sub-elite youth
players in the two subsequent years. It will be interesting to follow these players until they
reach elite status in adulthood to verify these conclusions.
50
Chapter
4.1
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Introduction
Field hockey is an important sport in the Netherlands. The high level of Dutch field hockey
players is recognised world-wide. To reach elite level, players have to start their intensive and
time-consuming training at an early age (Alabin et al., 1980; Hahn, 1990). According to
Ericsson et al. (1993) and Ericsson (1996), expert performance is the end result of an
individual’s prolonged efforts to improve performance, and since engagement in deliberate
practice is not inherently motivating, commitment from the performers is required.
Notwithstanding the efforts of many players, only a few will become successful in the end.
What is it that characterises the ones who succeed? This question forms the background for
the present paper in which it is attempted to deliver some preliminary answers to this
intriguing question.
A number of studies have focused on performance-related characteristics of elite field
hockey players. Unique requirements of the game include dribbling the ball and moving
quickly in a semi-crouched posture (Reilly and Seaton, 1990). Analysis of the physiological
cost and energy expenditure of playing hockey has placed it in the category of heavy exercise
(Ghosh et al., 1991; Reilly and Borrie, 1992; Boyle et al., 1994; Lothian and Farrally, 1994;
Aziz et al., 2000). Two decades ago, Hargraeves (1984) already showed high VO2max values
for British Olympians, and Withers et al. (1977) did the same for Australian nationals. The
intermittent running, accelerating and decelerating increases the overall effort needed in field
hockey (Patel et al., 2002).
Researchers who focus on talent development in sports often acknowledge that a worldclass performance is the result of several factors (Deshaies et al., 1979; Régnier, 1993;
Pienaar et al., 1998; Reilly et al., 2000). According to Williams and Reilly (2000), research
should adopt a multidisciplinary approach to identify talent. Burwitz et al. (1994) also
recommend interdisciplinary performance-related sports science research. Thereby, Atkinson
and Nevill (2001) have argued that more research should involve sports-specific dependent
variables. We applied a multidisciplinary design in a recent study on talented Dutch field
hockey players. It was shown that a combination of technical, tactical and psychological
characteristics distinguished best between elite and sub-elite youth players (Elferink-Gemser
et al., 2004).
In most previous research, a cross-sectional rather than longitudinal approach has been
applied. However, to improve understanding of the factors that contribute to expert
performance, players should be monitored over a prolonged period of time (Williams and
Reilly, 2000). The goal of the present study is to reveal performance characteristics, which
may have power for predicting future elite field hockey players. Within the pool of talented
players, a comparison has been made between elite and sub-elite youth players in terms of
51
anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological characteristics measured
on three occasions, each separated by a time interval of one year. Questions to be answered
are: On which performance characteristics do elite youth players score better than their subelite counterparts? How do elite and sub-elite youth players develop their performance
characteristics over a period of two years, and is there a difference between elite and sub-elite
youth players concerning this development?
4.2
Methods
Participants
One hundred and twenty-six talented field hockey players in the 12-16 age-bracket (mean age
= 13.9, sd = 1.3) participated in a cross-sectional study on the relation between
multidimensional performance characteristics and performance level (Elferink-Gemser et al.,
2004). All participants were part of a talent development program of a field hockey club of
national prestige, and were playing at the highest level for their age category. Within this
group, a distinction was made between 38 elite and 88 sub-elite youth players. In contrast to
sub-elite players, elite players train and play in a youth selection team of the Dutch Field
Hockey Association (KNHB).
From the initial 126 field hockey players, 85 were tested again one year later (t2), and
after two years (t3) 65 players were tested for the third time. Table 4.1 presents the number of
participants at t1, t2 and t3 divided by performance level and gender. Thirty players left the
study because they were no longer part of the talent development program. They continued
playing field hockey but fell back to club performance level. Reasons for players who were
still playing on a national level for leaving the study were not being able to attend the
measurements because of illness or injuries or because of lacking time or transportation.
Table 4.1.
Number of participants at t1, t2 and t3 classified by performance level, gender and number
of players that left the study.
Female players
Male players
Elite
Sub-elite
Elite
Sub-elite
Players that left the study
Elite
Sub-elite
Club level
Measurement
t1
n = 126
17
46
21
42
t2
n = 85
17
25
20
23
1
18
22
t3
n = 65
15
18
15
17
7
5
8
52
Chapter
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
The proportion of female and male participants on the three measurements was about the
same. Two female and three male players of the total group (n = 65) were elite players at t1
but sub-elite at t3. One female player was sub-elite at t1 but elite at t3. The other players
remained either elite or sub-elite from t1 through t3. Table 4.2 displays the general
characteristics of the participants concerning age, field hockey experience, training hours and
match play frequency.
Table 4.2.
Mean (sd) scores of general characteristics at t3 concerning age, field hockey experience,
training hours and matches per week for talented youth field hockey players classified by
gender and performance level.
Female youth players
Age
Male youth players
Elite
players
n = 15
Sub-elite
players
n = 18
Elite
players
n = 15
Sub-elite
players
n = 17
15.71 (1.01)
16.40 (1.28)
16.01 (1.00)
16.48 (1.08)
8.43 (2.19)
9.06 (1.69)
8.87 (1.51)
8.80 (2.31)
5.13 (1.65)
4.28 (1.70)
5.18 (0.57)
4.70 (0.31)
8.37 (3.91)
5.64 (2.31)
8.15 (3.64)
7.94 (3.85)
1.07 (0.26)
1.00 (0.00)
1.17 (0.36)
1.00 (0.00)
(years)
Field hockey experience
(years)
Field hockey training
(hours per week)
Total training
(hours per week)
Matches per week
53
Procedure
All players were informed about the procedure of the study before giving their informed
consent to participate. The clubs and trainers gave their permission for this study. The
procedures were in accordance with the standards of the local medical ethics committee of the
University of Groningen. The players completed the tests at the end of the competitive 20002001 field hockey season (t1), at the end of the 2001-2002 season (t2) and at the end of the
2002-2003 season (t3). Ambient temperature, humidity and wind conditions were documented.
Measurements for each player took place according to five categories of performance
characteristics: anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological. Field tests
were executed on synthetic field hockey playing surfaces (water-based pitches). The
employed test procedures are described in detail elsewhere (Elferink-Gemser et al., 2004).
Anthropometric characteristics
Anthropometric measurements were length (m), body mass (kg) and percentage of body fat.
The latter was estimated by means of leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance (BIA) analysis
(Valhalla BIA, Valhalla, Inc., San Diego, CA). This method proved to be reliable for
measuring body fat percentage, and results correlated highly with body fat percentage as
measured with underwater weighing and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (Nunez et al.,
1997).
Physiological characteristics
All players performed three field tests to determine four physiological characteristics. These
characteristics included peak shuttle sprint performance, repeated shuttle sprint performance,
slalom sprint performance and interval endurance capacity. In all tests, players had to carry
their hockey stick. Peak shuttle sprint and repeated shuttle sprint performance were measured
by means of the Shuttle Sprint and Dribble Test (ShuttleSDT), in which players had to run
three 30-m sprints with 180-degree turning points. Each 30-meter sprint consists of 5 m toand-fro, directly followed by 10 m to-and-fro. Peak shuttle sprint performance is indicated by
the time covered in the fastest of three 30-m sprints, whereas repeated shuttle sprint
performance is the total time covered by all three 30-m sprints. Reliability proved to be
satisfactory in young field hockey players (Lemmink et al., 2004a).
Slalom sprint performance was measured using the Slalom Sprint and Dribble Test
(SlalomSDT), in which players have to sprint 30 m in a zigzag fashion with twelve 120degree turns around cones placed 2 m apart from each other. Reliability for this test was
supported (Lemmink et al., 2004a). Interval endurance capacity was measured with the
Interval Shuttle Run Test (ISRT) (Lemmink et al., 2000; Lemmink and Visscher, 2003). The
54
Chapter
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
ISRT is a field test that contains intervals at a work-rest ratio of 2:1, turning points at 20 m
and an increasing running velocity. The number of fully completed 20-m runs is recorded as
the test score. In previous research, this test has proven to be reliable and sensitive for
differences in performance level (Lemmink, et al., 2000; Lemmink et al., 2004b; Lemmink et
al., 2004c).
Technical characteristics
All players performed two field tests to determine three technical characteristics. These
characteristics included peak shuttle dribble performance, dribble performance in a repeated
shuttle run and performance in a slalom dribble. Peak shuttle dribble performance as well as
dribble performance in a repeated shuttle run were measured using the ShuttleSDT;
performance in a slalom dribble was measured using the SlalomSDT. Players now had to keep
control over the ball while performing the tests. Reliability of the dribbling part of both the
ShuttleSDT and the SlalomSDT has been supported in young field hockey players (Lemmink
et al., 2004a).
Tactical characteristics
The trainers evaluated the tactical characteristics of their players. For this purpose, each of the
12 trainers filled out the ‘Tactics in Sports’ questionnaire in order to give their opinion about
three tactical characteristics of each player: general tactics, tactics for possession of the ball
and tactics for non-possession of the ball. The trainers were instructed to compare each player
with the top players in the same age category. In a previous study this questionnaire has
proven to be reliable and sensitive for differences in performance level (Elferink-Gemser et
al., 2001; 2004).
Psychological characteristics
All players filled in a sports-specific questionnaire: the Dutch Youth Version of the
Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS) (Mahoney et al., 1987; Elferink-Gemser et
al., 2004). The PSIS was developed for directly assessing an athlete’s psychological skills
relevant to athletic training and exceptional performance. It assesses the level of motivation,
confidence, anxiety control, mental preparation, team emphasis and concentration. This
questionnaire has proven to be reliable in previous research (Bakker, 1995; Companjen and
Bakker, 2003).
55
Data analysis
All data were analysed for male and female players separately using SPSS 10. According to
the five categories of performance characteristics (anthropometric, physiological, technical,
tactical and psychological), mean scores and standard deviations were calculated on
measurements 1, 2 and 3 for the four different subgroups based on performance level (elite
and sub-elite youth players) and gender.
Repeated measures analyses of covariance were used to examine group differences based
on performance level together with differences in performance characteristics over time. Age
was considered as covariate. The statistical techniques provide comparisons of the subgroups
over time, taking into account the possible influence of age.
In the between-subjects analysis, a performance-level effect shows differences in average
scores on measurements 1, 2 and 3 between elite and sub-elite players. In the within-subjects
analysis, a measurement effect shows differences between scores on the three measurements.
An interaction effect between performance level and measurement reveals differences
between elite and sub-elite players that change as a function of time. An alpha of 0.05 was
adopted for all tests of significance.
4.3
Results
Table 4.3 presents mean scores and standard deviations of the multidimensional performance
characteristics for talented youth female field hockey players on the three measurements
classified by performance level. Table 4.4 provides the same information for talented youth
male field hockey players.
56
1.61 (0.08)
49.96 (7.75)
18.77 (6.11)
9.00 (0.30)
27.56 (0.93)
15.21 (0.85)
55.27 (12.08)
10.36 (0.58)
32.86 (1.75)
19.69 (1.78)
4.17 (1.10)
4.19 (0.80)
3.87 (0.65)
4.65 (0.31)
3.68 (0.63)
3.89 (0.48)
2.18 (0.53)
3.54 (0.41)
3.59 (0.41)
Physiological characteristics
Peak shuttle sprint performance 30m (s)
Repeated shuttle sprint perf. 3x30m (s)
Slalom sprint performance 30m (s)
Interval endurance capacity (runs of 20m)
Technical characteristics
Peak shuttle dribble performance 30m (s)
Dribble perf. in rep. shuttle run 3x30m (s)
Performance in a slalom dribble 30m (s)
Tactical characteristics
General tactics (1-6)
Tactics (possession of the ball) (1-6)
Tactics (non-possession of the ball) (1-6)
Psychological characteristics
Motivation (1-5)
Confidence (1-5)
Anxiety Control (1-5)
Mental Preparation (1-5)
Team Emphasis (1-5)
Concentration (1-5)
t1
4.57 (0.37)
3.27 (0.24)
3.94 (0.48)
2.24 (0.74)
3.52 (0.44)
3.65 (0.53)
3.97 (0.93)
3.97 (0.72)
3.59 (0.52)
10.00 (0.46)
31.47 (1.58)
19.02 (2.00)
8.64 (0.33)
26.70 (0.88)
14.93 (0.56)
61.20 (14.98)
1.64 (0.07)
53.73 (7.18)
19.60 (5.66)
Female elite players
n = 15
t2
4.41 (0.48)
3.68 (0.48)
3.81 (0.67)
2.34 (0.68)
3.53 (0.55)
3.52 (0.53)
4.07 (0.59)
4.18 (0.60)
3.91 (0.37)
9.72 (0.46)
30.88 (2.26)
17.61 (1.18)
8.63 (0.26)
26.64 (0.81)
14.75 (0.71)
75.33 (17.16)
1.66 (0.05)
57.14 (6.42)
20.93 (5.94)
t3
4.08 (0.55)
3.37 (0.55)
3.92 (0.51)
1.91 (0.58)
3.54 (0.65)
3.64 (0.59)
3.14 (0.90)
3.63 (0.66)
3.75 (0.71)
10.56 (0.66)
33.90 (2.64)
20.08 (2.72)
9.08 (0.45)
28.08 (1.51)
15.36 (1.20)
49.33 (17.32)
1.67 (0.05)
56.33 (7.09)
22.89 (7.11)
t1
4.32 (0.60)
3.17 (0.41)
3.89 (0.39)
2.19 (0.64)
3.52 (0.38)
3.64 (0.60)
3.27 (1.03)
3.44 (0.86)
3.55 (0.66)
10.23 (0.81)
32.56 (3.47)
18.84 (1.55)
8.78 (0.40)
27.16 (1.36)
15.00 (0.97)
48.67 (12.51)
1.68 (0.05)
58.76 (7.33)
24.16 (5.85)
Female sub-elite players
n = 18
t2
4.10 (0.56)
3.21 (0.56)
3.90 (0.38)
2.00 (0.66)
3.44 (0.35)
3.52 (0.47)
3.67 (0.91)
3.69 (0.75)
3.73 (0.64)
9.99 (0.87)
31.66 (2.87)
18.72 (2.07)
8.72 (0.44)
26.87 (1.35)
15.03 (0.96)
53.89 (16.46)
1.69 (0.04)
60.91 (6.65)
21.84 (6.15)
t3
Mean scores (sd) of anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological characteristics for talented youth female field
hockey players on measurements 1, 2 and 3 classified by performance level.
Anthropometric characteristics
Length (m)
Body mass (kg)
% Body Fat
Table 4.3.
1.66 (0.06)
52.57 (8.15)
9.20 (2.23)
8.63 (0.40)
26.61 (1.20)
14.56 (0.70)
68.80 (27.76)
10.02 (0.68)
30.97 (1.89)
17.82 (1.28)
4.33 (0.90)
4.64 (0.83)
4.44 (0.72)
4.52 (0.24)
3.94 (0.70)
4.08 (0.44)
2.34 (0.68)
3.46 (0.43)
3.41 (0.64)
Physiological characteristics
Peak shuttle sprint performance 30m (s)
Repeated shuttle sprint perf. 3x30m (s)
Slalom sprint performance 30m (s)
Interval endurance capacity (runs of 20m)
Technical characteristics
Peak shuttle dribble performance 30m (s)
Dribble perf. in rep. shuttle run 3x30m (s)
Performance in a slalom dribble 30m (s)
Tactical characteristics
General tactics (1-6)
Tactics (possession of the ball) (1-6)
Tactics (non-possession of the ball) (1-6)
Psychological characteristics
Motivation (1-5)
Confidence (1-5)
Anxiety Control (1-5)
Mental Preparation (1-5)
Team Emphasis (1-5)
Concentration (1-5)
t1
4.28 (0.50)
3.51 (0.43)
3.88 (0.91)
2.56 (1.24)
3.48 (0.56)
3.42 (0.85)
4.27 (0.70)
4.13 (0.62)
4.09 (0.68)
9.38 (0.41)
29.40 (1.55)
17.82 (1.13)
8.61 (0.41)
26.21 (1.12)
14.81 (0.91)
79.07 (18.94)
1.72 (0.06)
58.11 (7.71)
7.55 (2.09)
Male elite players
n = 15
t2
4.20 (0.47)
3.70 (0.79)
3.34 (1.07)
3.07 (1.28)
3.42 (0.38)
3.15 (1.01)
4.17 (0.79)
4.09 (0.65)
4.08 (0.50)
9.06 (0.40)
28.45 (1.18)
17.26 (0.94)
8.18 (0.29)
25.13 (0.90)
14.14 (0.54)
101.07 (19.14)
1.76 (0.08)
64.42 (8.03)
7.83 (1.56)
t3
4.30 (0.46)
3.93 (0.61)
4.01 (0.51)
2.13 (0.60)
3.55 (0.43)
3.88 (0.70)
3.65 (0.79)
3.71 (0.61)
3.90 (0.48)
9.91 (0.66)
30.99 (2.41)
18.95 (2.33)
8.58 (0.35)
26.68 (1.44)
14.90 (0.71)
70.82 (22.19)
1.69 (0.08)
54.39 (10.80)
9.51 (4.64)
t1
4.20 (0.61)
3.35 (0.35)
3.88 (0.57)
2.46 (0.58)
3.52 (0.50)
3.65 (0.56)
2.94 (0.83)
3.16 (0.75)
3.26 (0.60)
9.49 (0.77)
29.96 (2.55)
18.55 (1.83)
8.61 (0.41)
26.71 (1.55)
14.76 (0.60)
82.29 (28.85)
1.74 (0.08)
59.28 (9.95)
8.78 (5.30)
Male sub-elite players
n = 17
t2
3.88 (0.64)
3.71 (0.72)
3.95 (0.55)
2.45 (0.42)
3.54 (0.46)
3.73 (0.48)
3.21 (0.59)
3.22 (0.82)
3.31 (0.70)
9.36 (0.64)
29.12 (2.51)
18.36 (1.70)
8.18 (0.36)
25.12 (1.22)
14.39 (1.00)
82.94 (26.07)
1.77 (0.07)
63.93 (9.28)
8.65 (4.50)
t3
Mean scores (sd) of anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological characteristics for talented youth male field
hockey players on measurements 1, 2 and 3 classified by performance level.
Anthropometric characteristics
Length (m)
Body mass (kg)
% Body Fat
Table 4.4.
Chapter
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Talented youth female field hockey players
We found a significant main effect on performance level. Elite players performed better than
sub-elite players on physiological, technical, tactical and psychological characteristics. Elite
players performed more runs on the interval shuttle run test [F (1,30) = 12.538, p < 0.01]. They
were also faster in the peak shuttle dribble [F (1,30) = 3.146, p < 0.05], repeated shuttle dribble
[F (1,30) = 4.536, p < 0.05] and slalom dribble [F (1,30) = 4.064, p < 0.05], with higher scores on
general tactics [F (1,30) = 8.133, p < 0.01] and tactics for possession of the ball [F (1,30) = 4.719,
p < 0.05]. Finally, elite players were more motivated [F (1,30) = 6.840, p < 0.01] and had more
confidence [F (1,30) = 4.509, p < 0.05] than sub-elite players.
Concerning the development of the performance characteristics in two years, a significant
main effect on measurement was found on anthropometric, physiological, technical and
tactical characteristics. From measurements 1 through 3, players were taller [F (1,29) = 13.481,
p < 0.01) and heavier [F
performance [F
(1,29)
(1,29)
= 7.864, p < 0.01]. They improved on repeated shuttle sprint
= 4.248, p < 0.05] and interval endurance capacity [F
0.01], becoming faster in the peak shuttle dribble [F
(1,29)
(1,29)
= 6.546, p <
= 5.626, p < 0.01] and attaining
higher scores on general tactics [F (1,29) = 7.941, p < 0.01].
We found an interaction effect between performance level and measurement on interval
endurance capacity [F
(1,29)
= 2.600, p < 0.05]. In contrast to sub-elite players, elite players
showed an increase in the number of runs on the interval shuttle run test, especially from the
second to the third measurement (Figure 4.1A). We also found an interaction effect on slalom
dribble performance [F
(1,29)
= 3.178, p < 0.05]. Elite players improved more than sub-elite
players (Figure 4.1D). Finally, we found an interaction effect for confidence [F (1,29) = 3.065, p
< 0.05]. Scores for confidence on the second measurement were lower than on the first
measurement for both elite and sub-elite players. In contrast to the sub-elite players, whose
scores remained relatively stable from t2 to t3, the confidence scores of the elite players on t3
were back to the level of measurement 1. No other interaction effects were found, indicating
that the development from t1 through t3 in test scores is similar for elite and sub-elite players.
59
Interval endurance capacity
Female elite
Female sub-elite
Male elite
Male sub-elite
Number of runs
100
90
11
A
Peak shuttle dribble performance
B
10.5
Time (s)
110
80
70
60
10
9.5
50
40
t1
t2
9
t3
Dribble performance in a repeated shuttle run
t2
t3
Performance in a slalom dribble
C
34
t1
20
D
Time (s)
Time (s)
33
32
31
30
19
18
29
28
t1
t2
Measurement
t3
17
t1
t2
Measurement
t3
Figure 4.1. Performances of the talented youth field hockey players on the three measurements.
Talented youth male field hockey players
As with female players, we found a significant main effect on performance level in male
players. Elite players were faster than sub-elite players in the peak shuttle dribble [F
(1,29)
=
2.914, p < 0.05], repeated shuttle dribble [F (1,29) = 2.988, p < 0.05] and slalom dribble [F (1,29)
= 8.306, p < 0.01] (Figures 4.1B, 4.1C, 4.1D). Compared to sub-elite players, elite players
scored better on general tactics [F (1,29) = 38.883, p < 0.01], tactics for possession of the ball [F
(1,29)
= 23.640, p < 0.01] and tactics for non-possession of the ball [F (1,29) = 25.888, p < 0.01].
Sub-elite players scored better than elite players on concentration [F (1,28) = 6.264, p < 0.01].
A significant main effect on measurement has been found for anthropometric,
physiological, technical and psychological characteristics. From measurements 1 through 3,
players were taller [F (1,28) = 5.802, p < 0.01], heavier [F (1,28) = 3.752, p < 0.05] and had less
body fat [F (1,28) = 3.400, p < 0.05]. They improved on peak shuttle sprint performance [F (1,28)
= 3.623, p < 0.05], repeated shuttle sprint performance [F
sprint [F
(1,28)
= 2.875, p < 0.05], interval endurance capacity [F
slalom dribble [F
(1,28)
= 9.693, p < 0.01], slalom
(1,28)
= 5.915, p < 0.01] and
= 2.635, p < 0.05]. Scores on anxiety control decreased from
measurements 1 through 3 [F (1,27) = 3.678, p < 0.05].
60
(1,28)
Chapter
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
We found an interaction effect between performance level and measurement for interval
endurance capacity [F (1,28) = 3.699, p < 0.05]. Both elite and sub-elite players improved with
about 12 runs from t1 to t2. From t2 to t3, sub-elite players did not improve in contrast to elite
players, who ran on average over 20 more runs (Figure 4.1A). We also found an interaction
effect for anxiety control [F
(1,27)
= 6.647, p < 0.01]. From t1 through t3, elite players scored
lower in contrast to sub-elite players, whose scores remained relatively stable.
4.4
Discussion
This study deals with talented youth field hockey players in the Netherlands. At the end of the
2000-2001 competitive season we measured 126 players in the 12-16 age-bracket, all part of a
talent development program of a field hockey club of national prestige. Most of today’s top
performers played in a youth selection team when they were younger. We divided the players
into elite and sub-elite youth categories on the basis of membership in an extra selection team
of the Dutch Field Hockey Association (KNHB) in the 2000-2001, 2001-2002 and/or 20022003 seasons. During this study, there was only one player that shifted from sub-elite to elite.
Therefore, it appears that to develop a successful field hockey career, a youth player has to be
part of an extra selection team of the KNHB around the age of 14 already. This, however, is
no guarantee for success, since there are more shifts from elite to sub-elite (n = 5) and from
sub-elite to club level (n = 30), making it clear that in a period of two years more than 25% of
the players could not meet the expectations. It is obviously very hard to predict who will
ultimately reach elite status in adulthood, especially in a team sport. Unlike individual sports,
in which there is a unidimensional performance criterion like time, distance or height, a
performance in team sports depends on the combination of numerous mini-performances of
the player and his team-mates (Régnier et al., 1993). Due to a lack of objective performance
measurements, players therefore have to convince the scout, trainer or coach of their talent.
Over the years, many researchers have attempted to get a grip on the rather vague concept
of talent in studies that concentrated on music (Sloboda et al., 1994a,b; Krampe and Ericsson,
1996; Howe et al., 1998) and sports (Starkes and Deakin, 1984; Starkes, 1987; Helsen and
Pauwels, 1993; Starkes et al., 1994; Helsen and Starkes, 1999). However, the suggestion that
talent provides a basis for predicting excellence is not supported by the current evidence
(Helsen et al., 2000). To justify early identification and selection of talented young athletes, it
seems crucial to gain more insight into the characteristics of ‘tomorrow’s stars’. One way to
do so is by adopting a multidisciplinary, longitudinal approach in which talented youth
players are followed over time until some of them reach elite status in adulthood.
61
In our study, 65 players who have been considered as talented for at least three
consecutive years were followed and measured on three occasions. Both female and male elite
youth players scored better than the sub-elite players on technical and tactical variables. In the
female group, elite players also scored better on interval endurance capacity, motivation and
confidence than sub-elite players, whereas the sub-elite male players had higher scores on
concentration than the elite male players. Hence, the results clearly show that relevant
variables to distinguish between elite and sub-elite players do not stem from a single domain
of performance characteristics. This is in line with a study of Nieuwenhuis et al. (2002) in
which successful and less successful female field hockey players were compared. They
concluded that the successful 14-15 year-old player passes the ball more accurately over a
distance, is faster in covering a short distance, has a broader humerus and femur, and
experiences the competitive situation more positively.
Our results show that maintaining speed while dribbling a hockey ball is important at the
elite level. These findings are consistent with other studies. Reilly and Bretherton (1986)
reported better dribbling control in elite versus county field hockey players, and Keogh et al.
(2003) mentioned better scores for regional representative players in contrast to club-level
players while dribbling a hockey ball through an agility course. Top-level coaches also
confirmed the importance of technique in field hockey (Van Rossum and Gagné, 1994).
It follows that tactical skills – performing the right action at the right moment – seems
crucial for a successful career in field hockey. Our results are in line with other studies
showing that skilled players outscore less skilled ones on tactical elements (Williams et al.,
1993; Williams and Davids, 1995; Enns and Richards, 1997). However, we are aware that the
tactical skill variables in our study do not specify exactly the underlying processes that enable
players to perform the right action at the right moment. In the absence of a practical, reliable
and valid instrument to measure tactical skills, we used the opinion of the trainer to gain
insight into each player’s general tactics, tactics for possession of the ball and tactics for nonpossession of the ball. Because we were unable to measure tactical skills directly with the
player, results may have been confounded. Trainers work with the players throughout the
season during training and match play, and know which players belong to an extra selection
team of the KNHB. They might therefore be inclined to grade those players higher than the
sub-elite players. However, the trainers in this study were highly qualified and considered as
experts in the field, and their opinion was considered as valuable.
Except for the interval endurance capacity in female players, we found no differences in
anthropometric or physiological characteristics between both performance groups. In contrast,
according to Keogh et al. (2003), measures of body fat percentage and short-duration
sprinting speed are useful for distinguishing between field hockey players of different ability.
62
Chapter
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
However, in their study they compared regional representative players with local club-level
players, and not players who were playing at the national level as was the case in our study.
Evidently, differences between players at the elite level are less related to physical and
physiological characteristics (Elferink-Gemser et al., 2004). Also Franks et al. (1999) could
not discriminate either between young soccer players at the highest level on the basis of their
physical and physiological profiles.
In the female group, elite youth players scored higher on motivation and confidence than
the sub-elite players; we did not find such results in the male group, where on average all
players had high scores on motivation and confidence. It seems that in talent identification and
development, psychological characteristics are more important for female than for male youth
players. When comparing the scores on confidence of the male and female youth players, it
appears that the elite female players had scores similar to those of the male players, whereas
the sub-elite female players had lower scores. Other studies show that male players have on
average higher confidence scores than females (Cox and Liu, 1993; Sewell and Edmondson,
1996), but it seems that this gender difference on confidence cannot be applied at the elite
level.
We found interaction effects showing a different development over time for both
performance groups. Compared to sub-elite youth players, elite youth players improved more
on interval endurance capacity and slalom dribble performance. The improvement of the
interval endurance capacity is consistent with the TOYA study of Baxter-Jones et al. (1993;
1995). They studied the development of aerobic power in young soccer, swimming,
gymnastics and tennis athletes in the 8-16 age-bracket. Results showed that VO2max
increased significantly with pubertal status in males. In our study, male youth players
increased their number of runs on the Interval Shuttle Run Test from the first through the third
measurement. Although we did not take any maturity measures, we do not expect significant
differences between elite and sub-elite players concerning maturation based on a similar
development of their length, body mass and body fat percentage. Nevertheless, one cannot
rule out that the most mature children were performing best at this age. Baxter-Jones et al. did
not show a significant increase in VO2max in the latter stages of puberty in females. In our
study, female sub-elite players increased their score on the ISRT (4 runs) only slightly,
whereas the female elite players were able to increase their ISRT score with 20 runs on
average from the first through the third measurement.
To sum up, elite youth players seem to either score better than sub-elite youth players on
performance characteristics by the age of 14 and subsequently remain better in the following
two years, or they have similar scores to the sub-elite youth players on the first measurement
but develop these characteristics better in the next two years (ages 14-16). Since at the first
63
measurement both elite and sub-elite youth players were active in field hockey for an average
of over 6 years, these findings are not likely to be caused by a difference in active field
hockey experience. However, elite players did seem to train more frequently than sub-elite
players at the age of 14, even at 16. This concerns both specific field hockey training and
general training. These findings are in line with the study of Ericsson et al. (1993), who
proposed a model of expertise based on deliberate practice. They argued that practice is the
only determinant of expertise. However, another explanation could be that the elite youth
players have inherited a more favourable genetic profile for success in field hockey.
According to Howe (1998), a talent originates in genetically-transmitted structures and hence
is at least partly innate. Probably both nature and nurture are essential. In a study of Starkes et
al. (1996), coaches of elite figure skaters acknowledged the role played by talent, but stated
that even the most talented athletes must practice hard to succeed. Until the middle of the 20th
century, it was possible to become an international athlete without belonging to a nation’s
group of most-talented individuals (Bouchard et al., 1997). Today, the level of competition
has increased to the point that only those athletes who combine their talent with intensive
training are potentially able to reach elite status.
In conclusion, in field hockey future elite players seem to excel in tactical skills by the
age of 14 already. They also stand out in specific technical skills and develop these together
with their interval endurance capacity favourably in the subsequent two years, and show high
levels of motivation and confidence. To verify these conclusions, it will be interesting to
follow these players until they reach elite status in adulthood.
64
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II
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VIII
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